DIFFERENT COMMUNICATION CHANNELS,

SUCH AS AWGN CHANNELS, FADING

CHANNELS, AND MULTIPATH CHANNELS,
AND THEIR EFFECTS ON SIGNAL
TRANSMISSION
AWGN (Additive White Gaussian Noise) Channel:
Characteristics:
❑ The AWGN channel is a theoretical model that represents
the effects of noise in a communication system.
❑ It assumes that the noise added to the signal is Gaussian
(normally distributed) and has a constant power spectral
density.
❑ The noise is “additive” because it combines with the
transmitted signal.
Effects on Signal Transmission:
In an AWGN channel:
❑ The received signal experiences random
fluctuations due to noise.
❑ The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) determines the
quality of communication.
❑ As SNR increases, the bit error rate (BER)
decreases, resulting in better performance.
❑ AWGN channels are commonly used for
theoretical analysis and performance evaluation
Advantages:
❑ Simple to model and analyze.
❑ Useful for understanding fundamental limits of communication
systems.
Disadvantages:
❑ Does not account for real-world impairments like fading or
interference.
Fading Channels:
o Characteristics:
❑ Fading occurs due to multipath propagation, where
signals take multiple paths from transmitter to receiver.
❑ The received signal is a superposition of delayed and
attenuated versions of the transmitted signal.
Fading channels can be categorized into
Rayleigh Fading:
❑ Random amplitude variations with no line-of-sight
component.
❑ Common in urban environments.
❑ Often modeled as a Rayleigh-distributed random process.
Rician Fading:
❑ Includes a dominant line-of-sight component in addition to
scattered paths.
❑ Common in open spaces with clear line-of-sight.
❑ Modeled using Rician distribution
Effects on Signal Transmission:
In fading channels:
❑ Signal strength fluctuates rapidly due to
constructive and destructive interference.
❑ BER varies significantly over time.
❑ Diversity techniques (e.g., diversity
combining, space diversity) mitigate fading
effects.
Advantages:
❑ Realistic representation of wireless
communication.
❑ Captures multipath effects.
Disadvantages:
❑ Complex to model and analyze.
❑ Requires adaptive modulation and coding
schemes
Multipath Channels:
Characteristics:
❑ Multipath channels result from signal reflections, diffractions,
and scattering.
❑ Multiple copies of the transmitted signal arrive at the receiver
with different delays.
❑ Each path has a different attenuation and phase shift.
Effects on Signal Transmission:
In multipath channels:
❑ Intersymbol interference (ISI) occurs due to
overlapping delayed versions of the signal.
❑ Equalization techniques (e.g., linear equalizers,
decision feedback equalizers) combat ISI.
❑ Diversity techniques (e.g., time diversity, frequency
diversity) improve reliability
Advantages:
❑ Enables robust communication in challenging
environments.
❑ Used in wireless and indoor communication.
Disadvantages:
❑ Requires sophisticated equalization and diversity
techniques.
Discuss key concepts in communication
engineering, such as BW, noise, channel capacity,
and SNR, & their impact on system performance
Bandwidth (BW):
Definition: Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies available for signal
transmission in a communication channel.
Impact on System Performance:
❑ A wider bandwidth allows higher data rates.
❑ Limited bandwidth restricts the maximum achievable data rate.
❑ Bandwidth determines the channel’s capacity to carry information.
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum
bit rate:
where:
•Bandwidth is the channel bandwidth.
•L is the number of signal levels used to represent
data.
Noise:
Definition: Noise refers to unwanted random variations or disturbances in a signal.
Impact on System Performance:
▪ Noise degrades signal quality.
▪ Higher noise levels increase the bit error rate (BER).
▪ Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) quantifies noise relative to the signal power.
▪ In a noisy channel, the Shannon capacity formula determines the theoretical
highest data rate:
Channel Capacity:
o Definition: Channel capacity represents the maximum achievable data rate for a
given channel.
Impact on System Performance:
❑ Capacity depends on bandwidth and SNR.
❑ Increasing bandwidth or improving SNR enhances capacity.
❑ Fading channels (e.g., wireless) have varying capacity due to multipath
effects.
Shannon’s Theorem provides the formula for calculating channel capacity in
noisy communication channels
where:
C represents the channel capacity.
B is the bandwidth of the channel.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):
❑ SNR is a fundamental measure used in science and engineering to compare
the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise.
❑ It quantifies how much stronger the signal is compared to the noise.
❑ SNR is often expressed in decibels (dB), which is a logarithmic scale that
makes it easier to compare large or small values.
❑ The formula for SNR in decibels is:
Impact on System Performance:
SNR affects various systems, including:
❑ Communication Systems: High SNR ensures clear signal reception, while low
SNR leads to signal corruption.
❑ Audio Systems: Good SNR results in high-quality audio, while poor SNR
introduces audible noise.
❑ Radar Systems: High SNR improves target detection accuracy.
❑ Imaging Systems: Clear images require sufficient SNR.
❑ Data Acquisition Systems: Reliable data depends on SNR.
Shannon–Hartley Theorem:
❑ SNR determines the maximum data rate that can be
transmitted reliably over a given channel.
❑ The theorem states:

Where
•Capacity is the maximum data rate.
•Bandwidth is the channel bandwidth.
Improving SNR:
Methods to enhance SNR include:
❑ Increasing signal strength.
❑ Reducing noise levels (e.g., better shielding, filtering).
❑ Using error correction techniques.
❑ Employing diversity schemes (e.g., spatial diversity, frequency
diversity).
Bit Error Rate (BER):
❑ As SNR decreases, BER increases, affecting system reliability.
Demonstrate different analog and
digital, linear and non-linear
modulation and demodulation
techniques
 Modulation
Modulation is the process of superimposing a low-frequency
signal (also known as the message signal) onto a high-frequency
carrier signal. The goal is to encode data or speech information
into the carrier wave.
Analog Modulation Techniques:
Amplitude Modulation (AM):
❑ In AM, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal (message signal).
❑ The modulated waveform consists of the carrier signal with sidebands (upper and lower)
containing the modulating information.
❑ AM is commonly used in AM radio broadcasting.
Advantages:
❑ Simple implementation.
❑ Efficient use of bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
❑ Prone to noise interference.
❑ Limited data rate.
Frequency Modulation (FM):
❑ In FM, the frequency of the carrier signal changes based on the modulating signal.
❑ FM is less susceptible to noise than AM.
❑ Widely used in FM radio broadcasting and some wireless communication systems.
Advantages:
❑ Better noise immunity.
❑ Higher fidelity for audio signals.
Disadvantages:
❑ Requires wider bandwidth.
❑ Complex demodulation.
Phase Modulation (PM):
❑ PM modulates the phase of the carrier signal.
❑ Often used in digital communication systems.
Advantages:
❑ Similar noise performance to FM.
❑ Efficient use of bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
❑ Complex demodulation
Digital Modulation Techniques:
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
❑ Each symbol in the digital message signal corresponds to a unique amplitude level of
the carrier wave.
❑ Binary ASK has two discrete amplitude levels (logic 0 and logic 1).
Applications: Used in simple digital communication systems.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
❑ The carrier frequency shifts between two or more discrete values based on the digital
input.
❑ Binary FSK has two carrier frequencies corresponding to logic 0 and logic 1.
Applications: Used in wireless communication (e.g., cordless phones).
Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
❑ The phase of the carrier wave changes to represent digital symbols.
❑ Binary PSK (BPSK) has two phase states (0° and 180°).
❑ Quadrature PSK (QPSK) uses four phase states (0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°).
Applications: Common in digital communication (e.g., Wi-Fi, satellite
communication).
 Demodulation:
Demodulation (or channel decoding) is the process of extracting the original
information-carrying signal from a modulated carrier wave. Demodulators (or
demodulator circuits) perform this task. Here are some common demodulation
techniques:
Envelope Detection (for AM demodulation):
❑ In AM, envelope detection is straightforward. It rectifies the modulated
signal and extracts the envelope (which corresponds to the message signal).
❑ The output is a replica of the original message signal.
Frequency Discriminator (for FM demodulation):
❑ FM demodulation involves using a frequency discriminator (such as a
phase-locked loop or Foster-Seeley discriminator).
❑ The discriminator converts frequency variations back into the original
message signal.
Phase Detector (for PM demodulation):
❑ PM demodulation relies on a phase detector (such as a phase-locked loop).
❑ The phase detector compares the phase of the modulated signal with a
reference signal to recover the message signal.
Remember that a modem (short for modulator-demodulator) is an essential
device that performs both modulation and demodulation, allowing
communication between digital devices over analog channels
Compare multiple access techniques, such
as FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, and OFDMA.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
Definition:
❑ FDMA divides the available frequency spectrum into multiple non-overlapping
frequency bands.
❑ Each user or station is allocated a specific frequency band for communication.
Characteristics:
❑ Bandwidth Allocation: Each user has a dedicated frequency band.
❑ Guard Bands: Guard bands separate adjacent frequency bands to prevent
interference.
❑ Synchronization: No strict synchronization requirements.
❑ Data Transfer Mode: Continuous signal transmission.
❑ Flexibility: Little flexibility in adapting to changing traffic demands.
Advantages:
❑ Simple implementation.
❑ Efficient use of bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
❑ Prone to noise interference.
❑ Limited data rate.

Example: Traditional analog radio broadcasting uses FDMA.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):
Definition:
▪ TDMA divides the available time into discrete time slots.
▪ Each user is assigned specific time slots for transmitting data.
Characteristics:
▪ Time Slot Allocation: Each user has exclusive time slots.
▪ Synchronization: Requires synchronization between users.
▪ Data Transfer Mode: Signal transmission occurs in bursts during allocated time slots.
▪ Flexibility: Moderate flexibility in adapting to varying traffic.
o Advantages:
▪ Efficient use of time.
▪ Suitable for bursty traffic.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Complex synchronization requirements.
▪ Limited scalability.
o Example: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
cellular networks use TDMA.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
Definition:
❑ CDMA allows multiple users to transmit simultaneously over the
entire frequency spectrum.
❑ Each user is assigned a unique code sequence.
Characteristics:
❑ Code Assignment: Users share both bandwidth and time.
❑ Codewords: Each user has a unique codeword.
❑ Synchronization: No strict synchronization needed.
❑ Data Transfer Mode: Digital signal transmission.
❑ Flexibility: High flexibility and robustness.
Advantages:
▪ High capacity.
▪ Good resistance to interference.
Disadvantages:
▪ Requires complex encoding and decoding.
▪ Near-far problem (users at different distances from the base
station).
Example: CDMA is used in 3G and 4G cellular networks.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA):
Definition:
❑ OFDMA divides the available frequency spectrum into orthogonal subcarriers.
❑ Each user is assigned a subset of subcarriers for simultaneous transmission.
Characteristics:
❑ Subcarrier Allocation: Users share subcarriers.
❑ Orthogonality: Subcarriers are orthogonal (non-interfering).
❑ Synchronization: Requires synchronization for subcarrier alignment.
❑ Data Transfer Mode: Digital signal transmission.
❑ Flexibility: High flexibility and adaptability.
Advantages:
▪ Efficient use of spectrum.
▪ Suitable for high-speed data services.
Disadvantages:
▪ Complexity in managing subcarriers.
▪ Requires advanced resource allocation.
Example: OFDMA is used in Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) and 4G LTE networks.