HIMALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Affiliated to

Tribhuvan University

Chyasal, Lalitpur

A REPORT ON SURVEY CAMP-2080

(GURANS)

SUBMITTED BY:

AASTHA KHATRI (HCE077BCE006)

AMRIT SUBEDI (HCE077BCE014)

AYUSHMAN CHAUDHARY (HCE077BCE024)

BASANTA KUMAR SHAH (HCE077BCE026)

MILAN NEUPANE (HCE077BCE048)

GROUP – A3

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

LALITPUR, NEPAL

MANGSIR, 2080

I
 COPYRIGHT

Copyright @ 2023 survey group A3. This is to guarantee that the project's writers receive
copyright protection for their work and that the authors alone are the owners of the
copyright. If you use this project or cite it without first getting permission from the
authors, there can be legal repercussions.

If someone is interested in using or duplicating this project, they can do so directly

get in touch with the writers or the Himalaya College of Engineering's Civil Department.

Head of Department

Department of Civil Engineering

Himalaya College of Engineering

Lalitpur, Nepal.

I
 APPROVAL SHEET

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to the Institute of

Engineering for acceptance, a field report entitled “Survey Camp 2080” submitted by

Mr. Amrit Subedi, Mr. Ayushman Chaudhary, Mr. Milan Neupane, Ms. Astha khatri, Mr.
Basanta Kumar Sha to partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor
of Engineering.

---------------------

Er. Ujjwal Marasini

Supervisor

Department of Civil Engineering

PREFACE

Based on our expertise and experience from 11-days survey camp run by the

I
HIMALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, this survey report, titled "A Report on
Survey Camp-2080 BS," was written. The name of this survey camp was "GURAS". The
camp was held from the 5th to the 15th of Mangsir, 2080 BS, with the aim of partially
fulfilling the requirements for a Bachelor's Degree in Civil Engineering, in accordance
with the syllabus that the Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, specified for
students of third year-1st part. We now have first-hand experience working as engineers in
the real world. We thank to the survey camp, which has allowed us to use all of the
theoretical and practical survey information that were taught in second year. It has
tremendously improved our skills and prepared us for functioning as a team.

The survey camp promoted team work, proper handling of instruments and responsibility
of field and office work simultaneously. Also, it strengthened our capabilities in major
and minor traversing, RL transformation, detailing, and preparation of topographic map,
setting out of curve, road and bridge site survey. Moreover, it developed our confidence
on the subject.

With Regards,

Group A3

Survey Camp 2080

Himalaya College of Engineering

I
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A traverse survey of NEA Training Center Kharipati, Bhaktapur closed compound was
prepared. The horizontal controls were established by traversing. The vertical controls
were established by transferring the benchmark by fly leveling after which the reduced
level of each traverse stations was computed. A detailed survey of road alignment was
done. The site was selected as whole compound of NEA Training Centre. In order to
prepare topographic map and both Cross section and L section of river, a detail survey
was conducted. The length of Bridge axis was found out by Triangulation. The vertical
controls were established by differential leveling and reciprocal leveling across the bridge
axis. Major and minor traverse were also made and distance measurement, angle
calculation was done and Gales table was calculated. Similarly, topographic map was
made after detailing. Our final computerized map was generated with the use of
Computer Aided Design (CAD), which combined all of the work completed within the
camp with the observed value.

5
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, we extend our heartfelt thanks to Er. MD Abrar Aalam sir and all our teachers

for their invaluable guidance, constant support, and insightful suggestions throughout the

entire duration of the survey camp. Their expertise and encouragement were instrumental

in shaping this report.

We would also like to acknowledge the efforts of our fellow team members, whose

collaboration, dedication, and hard work were essential in collecting data, conducting

analyses, and compiling the information presented in this report. Their commitment and

enthusiasm greatly enriched this project.

We would also like to give thanks to all the non-teaching staff of Survey Instruction

Committee for making our work at Nepal Electricity Authority Training Centre

(NEATC), Kharipati a success. We are also grateful to Nepal Electricity Authority

Training Center (NEATC), Kharipati for arranging and maintaining a safe and

comfortable environment to conduct our works smoothly.

Furthermore, we extend our appreciation to HIMALAYA COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING for providing us with the necessary resources, facilities, and

permissions, enabling us to carry out the survey camp effectively.

Lastly, we are grateful to all the participants and individuals who generously contributed

their time, knowledge, and cooperation during the survey activities. Their willingness to

assist us was pivotal in gathering accurate information and enriching the quality of this

report.

We would like to show our heartfelt gratitude to our respected teachers, technicians,
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 S.N. NAME DESIGNATION

1. Er. MD Abrar Aalam Team leader

2. Er. Suvarna Singh Raut Camp Coordinator

3. Er. Ujjwal Marasini Academic Coordinator

4. Er. Shisir Dahal Instrument Coordinator

5. Er. Pradeep Shrestha Instructor

6. Er. Simanta Dhungel Instructor

7. Er. Saroj Adhikari Instructor

8. Er. Tulsi Ram Pokhrel Instructor

9. Er. Moti Ram Giri Instructor (Part Time)

10. Er. Subash Gupta Instructor (Part Time)

11. Er. Babita Gautam Instructor (Part Time)

12. Er. Kshitiz Dhakal Instructor (Part Time)

13. Mr. Rohit Rayamajhi Technician

14. Mr. Khadak Pd. Bhattarai Technician

15. Mr. Chiranjibi Devkota Administrative/Logistic

Staff

16. Mr. Rishiram Gautam Helper

17. Mr. Chitra Chaudhary Driver

helper and driver.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Copyright…..........................................................................................................................
Approval page….................................................................................................................
Preface…...........................................................................................................................
Executive summary...........................................................................................................
Acknowledgement…..........................................................................................................
Table of content…............................................................................................................
List of Symbols…............................................................................................................
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations…............................................................................
Salient Features………………………………………………………………….X
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION…..........................................................................
1.1 INTRODUCTION…...............................................................................................
1.2 OBJECTIVES….....................................................................................................
1.3 METHODOLOGY…..............................................................................................
1.4 WORKING SCHEDULE…....................................................................................
CHAPTER TWO: TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY….........................................................
2.1 INTRODUCTION…...............................................................................................
2.2 OBJECTIVES…………………………………………........................
2.3 IMPORTANCE………………………………………………………..
2.4 METHODOLOGY…............................................................................................
CHAPTER THREE: BRIDGE SITE SURVEY ….....................................................
3.1 INTRODUCTION….............................................................................................
3.2 OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………
3.3 NORMS………………………………………………………………..
3.4 INSTRUMENTS USED……………………………………………….
3.5 METHODOLOGY…............................................................................................
CHAPTER FOUR: ROAD SURVEY............................................................................
4.1 INTRODUCTION …............................................................................................
4.2 OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………
4.3 NORMS………………………………………………………………...
8
4.4 INSTRUMENTS USED……………………………………………..
4.5 METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………..

9
LIST OF SYMBOLS

X
 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

RL Reduced level

BB Back Bearing

BC Beginning of Curve

BM Bench Mark

EC End of Curve

FB Fore Bearing

HA Horizontal Angle

HCR Horizontal Circle Reading

HI Height of Instrument

IP Intersection Point

Km Kilometer

TBM Temporary Bench Mark

TL Tangent Length

VCR Vertical Circle Reading

WCB Whole Circle Reading

DM Major Station
Dm Minor station
DB Bridge station
IP Intersection Point (Road)

XI
SALIENT FEATURES
This report was based on all the stated objectives. As we know, the survey camp was held
at Kharipati, Bhaktapur. This report includes not only detail of our job but also includes
the geographical, topographical knowledge of NEA training center Kharipati.

This report mainly concerned with the work that we had performed in our eleven days
survey camp. The field observation, field work, calculation, methodologies, achievement
etc. all are included in this report.

Another part of this report was drawing. The detailed drawing of given area was drawn on
the drawing sheet on the assigned scale. The detailed drawing contains permanent
structures like building, electric poles, boundary wall, road etc. Cross sections and L-
section of the road alignment at the interval of 20 m and 10 m interval was presented in
this report. Topographical map of bridge site was also included.

The other silent features of the project area were as shown below:
Name of the Project: GURANS -2080
Description of the Project:
-Location: Kharipati, Bhaktapur
-Province: Bagmati
-District: Bhaktapur
Site:
Nepal Electricity Authority for detail surveying and road and nearby the NEA area for
bridge site surveying.
Geographical Features:
-Terrain: Hilly
-Climate: Mild Temperature
-Vegetation: Good
Descriptions of Works:
Traversing:
No of Major traverse Stations: 15
No. of Minor Traverse stations: total 6 (4 minor station and 2 major stations)
Perimeter: 1115.570m
Maximum length of leg: 98.479m, Minimum length of leg: 50.320m
Scale:
Topographic map: 1:500

XII
Precision: Major traverse: 1:5000
Minor Traverse: 1:3000
Detailing:
Area: NEA training center Kharipati, Bhaktapur
Road Alignment:
No. of IP: 11
Chainage of Road: 566.504m
L Section: 20 m Interval
Cross Section: Each 10 m Left and Right the alignment and BC, MC, EC.
Maximum radius: 25m
Minimum radius: 20m
Maximum deflection angle: 113°17'20"
Minimum deflection angle: 6°19'0"
Scale:
-Topographic Map 1:1000
-L Section
Horizontal scale =1:1000
Vertical scale =1:100
-Cross Section
Horizontal scale =1:100
Vertical scale =1:100
Bridge site Survey:
Bridge span:
Cross section: 150 m upstream and 50 m Downstream on 15 m interval
No of Triangles formed: 3
Bridge Axis length: 44.727m
-Scale:
Topographic map: 1:500
-L Section -Cross Section
Horizontal scale =1:500 Horizontal scale=1:100
Vertical scale =1:50 Vertical scale=1:100

XIII
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background

Surveying is the bedrock of engineering endeavors, providing crucial data for the initial
stages of project development. Engineers heavily rely on precise measurements of land,
boundaries, elevations, and terrain characteristics obtained through surveying to create
detailed designs and plans.

Surveying is also defined as the science and art of making all essential measurements to
determine the relative position of points or physical and cultural details above, on, or
beneath the surface of the Earth, and to illustrate them in a usable form, or to establish the
position of points or details by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance,
direction and elevation. It also includes the art of establishing points by pre-determined
angular and linear measurements.

The accuracy of surveying data directly influences the quality and safety of engineering
projects. Even minor errors in measurements can lead to significant discrepancies in
construction, impacting structural integrity and functionality. Quality control measures,
including redundant surveys and data validation, are crucial to maintaining precision
throughout the project lifecycle.

There are some principles of surveying as:

I. Working from whole to part.

II. Location of a point by measurement from two control points.

III. Independent Check.

IV. Consistency of work

V. Accuracy required.

VI. Safe guarding of work and instrument.

1
1.2. OBJECTIVES

Survey camps in engineering serve multiple objectives that are essential for the holistic
development of engineering students. These camps typically involve fieldwork, practical
applications, and hands-on experiences related to surveying and mapping.

Some of the primary objectives of a survey camp are:

1. Preparation of a topographic map of the given area.

2. Selection of a suitable Road alignment.

3. Selection of a suitable Bridge site.

4. Resection by Total station.

5. Familiarization with the surveying problems those are likely to arise during
the field works.

6. To develop confidence in actual field surveying.

7. To become familiar with different instruments, their functions and use in
surveying.
8. To become familiar with the spirit and importance of teamwork, as
surveying cannot be carried out by a single person.
9. To complete the task or the project within the given time limit
10. To collect the required field data in a systematic way.
11. To compute and manipulate the observed data in the required accuracy and
present it in theoretical, tabular and diagrammatical forms that it is easily
understood by other engineering professionals.
12. To tackle mistakes and incomplete data from the field during office work.

2
1.3 Limitations

 Hydrology and Geology of the soil were not considered.

 During road alignment, our purpose was only to set horizontal curves and take
data of profile and cross section.

1.4 Work Schedule

Day 1 2080-08-05 Two peg test(50m), Fly levelling (580.5m)

Day 2 2080-08-06 Bridge Site Surveying, Reciprocal Levelling, Fly levelling

Day 3 2080-08-07 Detailing of Bridge Site

Day 4 2080-08-08 Curve setting (Road Alignment), Profile and Cross Section

Day 5 2080-08-09 Reconnaissance, Station Referencing

Day 6 2080-08-10 Horizontal Angle observation and Distance Measurement of

major traverse

Day 7 2080-08-11 Minor traverse (Reconnaissance, marking of stations),

Horizontal angle and distance measurement and detailing

Day 8 2080-08-12 Detailing from major stations

Day 9 2080-08-13 Detailing from minor stations, resection and orientation, fly
levelling from TBM to major stations

Day 10 2080-08-14 Fly levelling from major station to minor stations

1.5 Salient Features

3
The primary goal of the survey camp prepared for us was to put theoretical knowledge
into practice in the field. In this survey camp, we need to create a topographic map of the
provided area, as well as a road and bridge site survey that meets all technical standards.

This report is based on all of the specified goals. The survey camp, as we all know, was
held in Kharipati, Bhaktapur. This report covers not only the details of our job, but also
Kharipati's geographical and topographical details, as well as descriptions of both places.

Description of work:
1. Traversing
 Number of major traverse stations: 15
 Number of minor traverse stations: 6
 Total perimeter:1115.568m
 Length of shortest leg: 50.320m
 Length of longest leg:98.479m
 Scale of Topographic Map: 1:500
 Contour interval: 0.5m
2. Bridge site survey
 Bridge span:44.727m
 Scale of Topographic Map: 1:500
 Contour interval: 1m
 Longitudinal Section scale: Horizontal – 1:500, Vetical – 1:50
 Cross Section scale:
3. Road Alignment
 Length of Road:566.604m
 Number of intersection points:11
 Cross section:
Project Area

1. Location and Accessibility

The major camp site was the Nepal Electricity Authority Training Center
(NEATC). It is located in Kharipati, Bhaktapur district, about 15 kilometers
east of Kathmandu. Kharipati is easily reached by car. Kharipati is roughly an
hour's drive from Kathmandu. The following are the specifics about the area:

Country : Nepal

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 Zone : Bagmati

District : Bhaktapur

Municipality : Changunarayan

Ward no. : 7

Fig: Location Map

1. Topography and Geology

According to the development division of Nepal, Kharipati lies in the Central

Development Region. The Latitude and Longitude of Nepal is as follows:

Latitude : 26°22’N to 30°27’N

Departure : 80°04’E to 88°12’E

Kharipati's site area is very level with uneven topography. The area has
undulating terrain, steep to mild slopes, and a variety of details such as office

5
buildings, hostel buildings, conference hall, canteen, and staff quarters,
among others. The project area is made up of clayey soil and dirt that has
been combined with gravel and sand in some locations. The northern portion
of the training center is covered by cultivable land, the central portion by a
permanent structure, and the southern portion by undulating ground surface.

2. Rainfall, Climate and Vegetation

It has a subtropical climate, with temperatures in the summer of around 28°C and winter
lows of around 10°C. The rainfall pattern reveals that it rains more in the summer and less
in the winter. The annual rainfall is approximately 200mm.

The weather is pleasant between the autumn seasons. The air is cold in the morning, with
a high humidity level. The majority of the project area was covered with bushes and
undulating ground, with only a few permanent structures in the south. The majority of the
land was grassland. The landscape was rendered green by the presence of large plants,
trees, and bushes.

6
 CHAPTER TWO: TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Topographical surveying in engineering is a specialized field that involves the precise

measurement, mapping, and representation of the physical features and terrain
characteristics of a specific area or site. This type of surveying is crucial in engineering
projects as it provides detailed information about the land's surface, which is essential for
planning, designing, and implementing various construction and infrastructure
development endeavors.

2.2. OBJECTIVES:
The main objective of the topographic survey undertaken here is to prepare
the topographic map of the given area at Nepal Electricity Authority Training
Center, Kharipati, with horizontal as well as vertical controls within pre-
determined accuracy. Apart from this, some of the other objectives are
summed-up as follows:

 To use and become familiar with different kinds of surveying instruments.

 To select and use appropriate methods to undertake the topographic survey.

 To fix Major traverse to cover the maximum area to be surveyed.

 To fix Minor traverse for comfort and control in detailing.

2.2. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA:

The topographical survey was performed in the NEA training center Kharipati,
Bhaktapur. The major traverse runs through the NEA, which covered the whole area of

7
the compound. The minor traverse was run within the major traverse through the plot of
the given map, which covers several supporting buildings of the NEA. The Bridge survey
was conducted at Sallaghari of Nagarkot. Similarly, for road survey the curve was made
through the area of NEA.

2.3. NORMS (Technical specifications):

All the students at the camp had to work under some norms provided by survey

instruction committee. The norms are listed as follows:

 The given work had to be completed within 10 days keeping 2 days each for road

site and bridge site.

 The proper handling and care of the instrument was the responsibility of the entire

group.

 The major and minor traverse had to be fixed in such a way that these points were

to be followed:

 At least two consecutive stations should be inter-visible from a station.

 Two-way measurement for one traverse leg should be done. The discrepancy
should be greater than 1:5000.

 Two sets of horizontal angles should be taken in major traverse & only one
set in minor traverse. The difference between the mean angles of two set
reading should be within the least count of the theodolite.

 The leg ratio of the traverse stations should not be less than 2:1 for major
traverse and not less than 3:1 for minor traverse, where ratio stands for the
shortest side: longest side.

 All the available checks should be applied to the traverse and adjusted using

appropriate method.

8
 After the completion of the fieldwork, the plotting of the traverse along with
details and the contour lines has to be done thus preparing the topographical map
of the worked area.

 Plotting should be done by independent co-ordinate.

 Fly leveling should be done to transfer RL from the PBM. The permissible error
in the leveling should not be greater than ±24√k mm, where k is the distance in
km.

 All three-hair readings should be taken in this case.

 For major traverse Precision for tape measurement should be greater than 1:2000

and for measurement using total station should be greater than 1:5000

 For minor traverse precision for length should be greater than 1:1000 and in case
of total station measurement.

 Relative precision ratio or total error of closure should be higher than 1:5000 for

major traverse and 1:3000 for minor traverse respectively.

 Angular misclosure for base angle in bridge site survey should be ±30” √N and

±1’√N for other triangles.

 Average length computed from base triangles should be greater than or equal to

1:2000 .

 For road alignment the gradient of the road should not exceed 12%.

 While setting the curve the radius of the curve should not be less than 15 m and
also should be a multiple of 5 or 10.

 Draw longitudinal section of the road center line (horizontal scale 1:1000, vertical

scale 1:100).

 Draw the working profile formation level assuming balancing of cut and fill in

between economical haul distance.

 Draw cross section (horizontal scale =vertical scale 1:100) of existing ground

9
 surface and show the formation level and width (5m) assuming the side slope 2:1

in filling and 1.5:1 in cutting (H:V).

1.4. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

The several equipment is used in the survey camp. The equipment used during the
preparation of topographic map are as follow:

1. Theodolite.

2. Total station

3. Leveling Staffs

4. Ranging Rods

5. Measuring Tapes 30m & 50m

6. Leveling Instruments

7. Plumb Bob

8. Nails, Pegs

9. Compass

10. Marker Pen

11. Umbrella

12. Hammer

10
2.5. METHODOLOGY

2.5.1. RECEE (Reconnaissance) and selection of station:

The first step of any survey is reconnaissance. It means walking around the

survey area and roughly planning the number of stations and the position of the traverse

legs. Recce is primarily done to get an overall idea of the site. This helps to make the

necessary observations regarding the total area, type of land, topography, vegetation,

climate, geology and inter-visibility. The adjacent stations should be clearly inter

visible and the whole area should include the least number of stations as possible. These

things should be taken into consideration before fixing the traverse stations.

2.5.2. Marking of stations and referencing:

After checking the requirements for a good station, the points can be fixed for major and
minor stations by driving wooden pegs on the ground and it can be marked by a marker or
enamel for hard structure. Marking of station pegs should be done as given in e.g. 7M2
for Major Traverse and 7m8 for Minor Traverse. Prefix number 7 is camp group number,
letter M or m denotes the Major or minor traverse and the suffix number 2 or 8 denote the
traverse station number. The same notation should be used in plotting.

The measurements of each station from minimum of 3 permanent reference points near it
should be taken. (Referencing in Y-shape is ideally desirable)

Separate sketch for referencing with respect to north must be done in provided
referencing sheet.

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2.5.3. TRAVERSING:

Traversing is a type of surveying in which a number of connected survey lines

form the framework. It is also a method of control surveying. The survey consists of

the measurement of angles between successive lines or bearings of each line.

The directions and the lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of

an angle measuring device like theodolite and a tape. If the co-ordinates of the 13

first station and the bearing of the first line is known, the co-ordinates of all

successive points can be computed as follows:

XB = XA + L*cosθ

YB = YA + L*sinθ

where,

L=Length of traverse leg

θ=Bearing of the traverse leg.

2.5.3(a) TYPES OF TRAVERSE:

i). CLOSED TRAVERSE:

A traverse which either emanates or originates from a station and closes on the

12
same stations or runs between two stations whose co-ordinates are known in terms of a

common system of co-ordinates is known as closed traverse. In closed traverse,

accuracy of linear as well as angular measurements may be ascertained.

ii). OPEN TRAVERSE:

A traverse which neither returns to its starting station nor ends on another known

station is known as Open traverse. In open traverse, accuracy is low because of accuracy
of linear as well as angular measurement may not be checked by any reference
coordinate.

2.5.3(b). MAJOR TRAVERSE:

A major traverse in surveying refers to a primary survey line or network of connected
survey lines used as a framework for conducting detailed surveys or for establishing
control points within a larger area. It forms the main framework or backbone of the
survey, providing the basis for subsequent surveys, measurements, and mapping within a
specific region or project site. Work on major traverse must be

precise. So two sets of reading should be taken for major traverse. For convenience,

the readings are taken by setting the theodolite at 0°0°0° for one set and 90°0°0° for

the second set.

Find bearing of each traverse leg which starts from the major traverse leg and spans to
other end joining the other major traverse leg.

Angular Error (e) = Calculated Bearing of end traverse (major) leg- Standard (corrected)
Bearing of same leg
13
Permissible Error= C √ (N) Where, C= 1'Correction to each leg =𝑒𝑁∗𝑛

N= Number of bearings affected= (1 to N) {1 for starting leg, 2 for 2nd leg and so on}

Closing Error

In a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the latitudes and

departures must be zero if linear as well as angular
measurements of the traverse along with their
computations are correct. If not, the distance between the
starting station & point or position of the

same station obtained by the calculation is known as

closing error. The value of closing error is obtained by the
following formula.

Error = √Σ(Δ𝑳)𝟐+ Σ(Δ𝑫)𝟐

The relative error of closure = 1/(P/e)

Where P = Perimeter of the traverse

Balancing the traverse

The process of adjusting the consecutive co-ordinates by applying the correction to the
latitudes & departures of each of the traverse legs such that their algebraic sum is equal to
zero is called balancing the traverse or balancing the consecutive co-ordinates. A closed
traverse can be balanced by any one of the following methods.

1. Bowditch’s method

2. Transit rule

3. Graphical method

4. Axis method

1. Bowditch’s Method

14
The method is based on the assumption that errors in the linear measurement are
proportional to √L and the errors in the angular measurements are inversely proportional
to √L where ‘L’ is the length of a line. The method is applicable when both the linear as
well as angular measurements are of equal precision.

The Bowditch rule is:

Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side

= Total error in latitude (or departure) * Length of that side

Perimeter of traverse

CLat = ΣLat *(L/ΣL)

CD = ΣD *(D/ΣL)

Where, CLat = Correction to latitude of any side

CD = Correction to departure of any side

ΣLat = Total error in latitude

ΣD = Total error in departure

ΣL = Total perimeter of traverse

L = Length of any side

2. Transit Method

The method is most applicable when angular measurements are of more precision than
linear measurement. According to this rule, the total error in latitude and in departure is
distributed in proportion to the latitude and departure of the sides. The angles are less
affected by the corrections applied by this method than by the Bowditch method.

The Transit rule is:

Correction in Latitude (or Departure) of any side

= Total error in Latitude (or Departure) * Latitude (or Departure) of that line / Arithmetic
sum of latitudes or departure

CL = ΣL *(L/ΣLT) CD = ΣD *(D/ΣDT)

Where, CL= Correction to latitude of any side

15
CD = Correction to departure of any side

L = Latitude of any line D = Departure of any line

ΣLT = Arithmetic sum of latitudes

ΣDT = Arithmetic sum of departures

2.5.3(c). MINOR TRAVERSE:

A minor traverse in surveying refers to a secondary or subsidiary series of survey lines

that branch off from a major traverse or serve as a smaller, more detailed framework
within a specific area of interest. Unlike major traverses that establish primary control
points and longer survey lines, minor traverses are typically shorter and serve to provide
additional detail or connectivity within a smaller section of the surveyed area. The leg
ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg should be

maintained within 1:3.

The discrepancy in length between the forward measurements of all the traverse leg was
within 1:1000. Two sets of theodolite readings were taken for measuring the horizontal
traverse angles. The relative closing error for minor traverse was less than 1:3000.
Permissible Angular Error for the closed traverse = 1′√N

Where, N = no. of traverse leg

For the closed traverse,

Sum of interior angles = (2n – 4)*90°

Closing error = (2n – 4)*90° - Σ Observed sum of internal angles

If the angular error is within the permissible value of 1′√N, then the error in the sum of
internal angles is not equally distributed to all the angles as in the case of major traverse.
Here, the major angle cannot be corrected or given correction. Correction is provided for
the angles included by minor traverse legs.

A. Reconnaissance

The whole area at the survey camp was divided into three plots of NEATC,
16
Kharipati. As in the case of major traverse, reconnaissance was carried out
before the selection of the minor control points or traverse stations. Minor
stations were fixed such that there were (2 – 6) stations in a loop. One or
two loops were formed as per the requirement and ease in detailing. The
stations were fixed in such a way that maximum number of details could
be controlled from a single minor station.

B. Marking and fixing of control points

After the completion of reconnaissance, 1 minor loop was formed.

Altogether 2 minor control points were fixed at suitable places considering
all the required criteria

C. Measurement of traverse legs

As in the case of the major traverse, two-way measurements of all the

traverse legs were carried out. The accuracy required for two-way
measurement in the case of minor traverse is 1:1000. The leg ratio should
be within 1:3.

D. Measurement of interior angles

Only one set of horizontal angle observation is sufficient for the minor
traverse. As in the case of major traverse, the difference of the observed
angle in each observation should not exceed 1′. In the same way, 0º0'0"
was set at the preceding station and the telescope was turned in the clock-
wise direction for the required horizontal angle.

Permissible Angular Error for the closed traverse = C √ N

Where, C= 1’

N= no. of traverse

For the closed traverse,

Sum of interior angles = (2n – 4) ×90°

Closing error = (2n – 4) ×90° - ∑ Observed sum of internal angles

If the angular error is within the permissible value of 1′√N, then the error
17
 in the sum of internal angles is not equally distributed to all the angles as in
the case of major traverse. Here, the major angle cannot be corrected or
given correction. Correction is provided for the angles included by minor
traverse legs.

E. Computation of bearing of the traverse legs

As in the case of the major traverse, the bearing of the entire minor
traverse legs are obtained from the bearing of the preceding leg (which has
already been calculated in the major traverse) and the measured horizontal
traverse angle. Prior to computation of bearing, correction for angular
misclosure is applied as stated earlier.

F. Computation of coordinates of minor control points

Using the co-ordinates of the major traverse which are already defined or
computed, the co-ordinates of the minor control points are calculated. The
co-ordinates of the minor traverse stations are calculated using the bearings
and the average length of the minor traverse legs using their latitudes and
departures.

G. Plotting of minor traverse stations

As in the case of plotting of the major traverse, minor traverse is plotted in

the grid sheet. The grid should be checked diagonally in order to avoid the
plotting error. The minor traverse is plotted in the scale of 1:500.

Computation of bearing of the traverse legs

The bearing of the entire minor traverse legs is obtained from the bearing of the preceding
leg (which has already been calculated in the major traverse) and the measured horizontal
traverse angle. Prior to computation of bearing, correction for angular misclosure,
computed in Gale's Table is applied as stated earlier.

Closing error:

The formula to calculate closing error in case of minor traverse is different from major
18
traverse.

Error = √(Σlat-Δ𝑳)𝟐+ (Σdep-Δ𝑫)𝟐

2.5.4 DETAILING:

Detailing means locating and plotting relief in a topographic map. Detailing can

be done by either plane table surveying or tachometric surveying. Plane table needs less

office work than tachometric survey. In order to prepare the topographic map of the given
area in 1:500 or 1:1000 or any other scale, the minor and major traverse stations are the
horizontal and vertical controls. With the help of total station detailing and tachometry the
details should be collected. The minimum number of detail data was more than 750 such
that it covered the given detail area.

Tacheometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical

distances of points are obtained by optical means. Though it has less accuracy, about
1/300 to 1/500, it is faster and convenient than the measurements by tape or chain. It is
very suitable for steep or broken ground, deep ravines and stretches of water or swamp
where taping is impossible.

Following points and steps are carried out for detailing of the area:

• Instrument was set at each control point with accurate temporary adjustment- centering
and leveling.

• The vertical distance from the center of the trunnion axis to the peg at the ground was
measured as the height of the instrument.

• The instrument was orientated with reference to a fixed station which is already well
defined.

• Target was held vertically as far as possible with proper leveling of the bubble for the
case detail survey and in the case of RL transfer from BM to major and minor traverse
stations the staff was held vertically as possible.

Contouring

A contour is an imaginary line, which passes through the points of equal eleva- tion.
It is a line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level surface. Every fifth
contour lines must be made darken. While drawing the contour lines, the

19
characteristics of the contours should be approached.

The characteristics are as follows:

1. Two contours of different elevations do not cross each other except in

the case of an overhanging cliff.

2. Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except

in the case of a vertical cliff.

3. Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart, represent
a gentle slope.

In this method, the area to be contoured is divided into a series of squares, the corners of
which define the points to be observed.

2.5.5. LEVELLING:

Leveling is a surveying technique used to determine the difference in elevation between

two points by using a level instrument. When used in a traverse, which is a series of
connected survey lines, fly leveling helps establish the elevation differences along the
traverse lines. It's a method to ascertain height variations between different survey points.

Advantages of Fly Leveling in Traverse:

 Provides accurate information about changes in elevation along the surveyed path.

 Useful for creating elevation profiles and contour maps for the surveyed area.

 Helps in determining suitable grades for road construction, drainage planning, or

20
 any project requiring precise elevation data.

2.5.5(a). TYPES OF LEVELLING:

(A) Direct leveling (Spirit levelling)

It is the branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to a

horizontal line. Line perpendicular to the direction of gravity may be used to determine

the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A level provides

horizontal line of sight i.e. a line tangential to a level surface at the point where the
instrument stands. The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance
between two level lines. With a level set up at any place, the difference between the staff
readings taken on these points. By a succession of instrument stations and related
readings, the difference in elevation between widely separated points is thus obtained.

Following are some special methods of direct leveling:

(a). Differential levelling:

It is the method of direct levelling the object of which is solely to determine the
difference of elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the points
with respect of each other. This type of levelling is also known as fly levelling.

21
(b). Profile leveling:

It is the method of direct levelling the object of which is to determine the elevations of
points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the surface
along that line.

(c). Cross-sectioning:

Cross-sectioning or cross levelling is the process of taking levels on each side of main
line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the surface
of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both.

(d). Reciprocal leveling:

It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation between two points is
accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not possible to set
up the level between the two points.

(B). Indirect leveling:

Indirect method or Trigonometric levelling is the process of levelling in which the

elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distance

measured in the field, just as the length of any side in any triangle can be computed from
proper trigonometric relations.

Adjustment of level

A. Temporary adjustment of level

Temporary adjustments of Level: The temporary adjustments for a level consist of the
following:
a) Setting up the level: The operation of setting up includes fixing the
instrument on the stand and leveling the instrument approximately.
b) Leveling up: Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and with
reference to the plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical
axis truly vertical. It is done by adjusting the screws.
c) Removal of parallax: Parallax is a condition when the image formed by the
objective is not in the plane of the cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated by
focusing the eye-piece for distinct vision of the cross hairs and by focusing
the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross hairs.
22
 B. Permanent adjustments of Level:

Permanent adjustment of the level is the adjustment of level that is done when the
corresponding relationship between the parts of the instrument is disturbed. To check for
the permanent adjustments of level two-peg test method should be performed. Two staffs
were placed at A and B of known length. First the instrument was setup on the line near B
and both staff readings (Top, Middle, and Bottom) were taken. Then, the instrument was
setup at the middle C on the line and again both staff readings on A and B was taken.
Then computation was done in order to check whether the adjustment was within the
required accuracy or not. No permanent adjustment was required since the error was
within the permissible value.

Fig: Two peg test arrangement

 Booking and reducing of levels

There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the observed
staff reading. They are as follow:

 Height of the Instrument method (HI)

In this method, firstly the height of instrument is calculated by back sighting to a known
station i.e., adding back sight (BS) to RL of BM or previous known station for each
setting of instrument. The RL of the next station is then calculated by subtracting the
foresight (FS) to the HI. If any intermediate sights (IS) are taken then their RL is also
calculated by subtracting IS from HI. HI is calculated for every new set up of instrument.
23
2.5.5 Orientation

Intersection and resection are usually used in surveying to find coordinates of known
points with respect to some known points. Both intersection and resection involve of
measurement of bearing/azimuths of two or more lines and with help of various
geometries and formula coordinate of unknown point is determined. Inter- section
involves fixing the position of an unmapped feature/point with respect to two or more
known points. Hence intersection involves the measurement of read- ings from
known points and determination of unknown far (unreachable) point, whereas
Resection is the reverse of intersection. Here the position of observer is unknown and
known points are observed from there.

1. Intersection requires the measurement of angles by setting up the theodolite

at known points and angular readings are taken by sighting towards unknown
points.

2. Resection requires the measurement of angles by setting up the theodolite

at the unknown point and sighting to known points.

Analytical intersection

For intersection minimum two known points are required and all the unknown points are
visible from both points. Two known points may or may not be inter- visible.

In figure alongside, stations A and B are known points and P is the unknown one.
Hence instrument is set up at A and B and angle A, angle B and leg AB are measured
very precisely. As sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180ͦ, so third angle can be
found. Then using sine law all sides can be determined.

24
Fig. Intersection

sinA sinB sinC

= =
a b c

Where, a=PB, b=AP, c= AB

Then bearing of lines AP and BP is found out from known bearing of AB and angles
A and B and consecutive coordinates of AP and BP is determined. Then coordinate
of P is found out from both legs and final coordinate is taken as the average of the
two.

Analytical Resection

This method is very useful method and is used to provide additional control points, to
know the observers position, etc. In this method theodolite is setup over an unknown
point and observation is done towards known point. Hence no. of set up of theodolite
is equal to no. of unknown points.

Fig. Resection

Angles A, B and C are calculated from their known coordinates and α ,β and

γ are measured by theodolite. Then Tienstra formulae is used. Following

calculations are then made:

1
k 1=
cotA −cotα
1
k 2=
cotB−cotβ

25
 1
k 3=
cotC−cotγ
Also,
k 1 E A + K 2 E B+ K 3 E C
Ep=
K 1+ K 2+ K 3
k 1 N A+ K 2 N B+ K 3 NC
Np=
K1+ K2+ K3
Above formulas of intersection and resection were used in field to calculate
the independent co-ordinates of CP2 .

Arithmetic check
The difference between the sum of back sights and the sum of fore sights should be equal
to the difference between the sum of rise and the sum of fall and should be equal to the
difference between the RL of last and the first points.

Thus, ΣB.S. - ΣF.S. = ΣRise - ΣFall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

This provides a complete check on the intermediate sights also. The arithmetic check
would only fail in the unlikely, but possible, case of two more errors occurring in such a
manner as to balance each other.

Transfer of RL to Major and Minor Control Points:

After the necessary correction is done for RL of TBM, fly leveling (3-wires) should be
carried out to transfer the Reduced Level of TBM to all control points of major and minor
traverses using auto level. Procedure is similar to above method.

Correction for closing error in Fly Levelling

The closing error should be adjusted according to Bowditch’s rule of error distribution.

26
Error= Given RL of B.M –RL of same point at the end of fly levelling

Correction in first leg = 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 ∗ 𝑙1/L

Correction in second leg = 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 * (l1+l2)/2

Correction in (n-1)th leg = 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 ∗ ( 𝑙1+𝑙2+⋯+𝑙𝑛−1)/L

Correction in nth leg =𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 ∗ (𝑙1+𝑙2+⋯+𝑙𝑛−1+𝑙𝑛)/L

Where, L = sum of the total loop distance.

l1, l2, l3… are distance of each segment in the loop.

2.5.6. COMPUTATION AND PLOTTING:

For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method

(latitude and departure method). In this method, two terms latitude and departure

are used for calculation. Latitude of a survey line may be defined as its coordinate lengths

measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction. The latitude (L) of a line is positive

when measured towards north, and termed Northing and it is negative when measured

towards south, and termed Southing. The departure (D) of a line is positive when

measured towards east, and termed Easting and it is negative when measured towards

west, and termed Westing.

The latitude and departures of each control station can be

calculated using the following relation:

Latitude=L* cosθ

Departure = L * sinθ

Where,

L= distance of the traverse legs.

After computing the co-ordinates of each of the control points, they are ready to plot. Full
size drawing sheets i.e. A1 size is divided into gridlines of 5cm*5cm. Both major and
minor traverse are plotted to 1:1000 or 1:500 or any other suitable scale.

27
2.6. COMMENTS AND CONCLUSION:

It was intended to survey the entire NEA Training Center, Kharipati, Bhaktapur. Each and
every group was required to finish the plot using the prescribed procedure. The plot's
topographic maps were created so that every feature of the entire region could be seen
readily and clearly confirmed by technical staff. Then, from the control stations such
established hard details and spot heights were taken. AutoCAD was used to create the
diagram, and MS Excel was used to establish the recorded data. All computations were
carried out within the permissible range though there were field obstacles as well as
instrumental errors. Following the computation of each control point's coordinates, the
data were plotted on full-size drawing sheets, or A1 sizes, with grid lines spaced 5 cm
apart both vertically and horizontally. Plots were made for both major and minor
traverses.

28
 CHAPTER THREE: BRIDGE SITE SURVEY

3.1. INTRODUCTION
A bridge site survey is a critical preliminary step in the construction or assessment of a
bridge. This survey involves a comprehensive assessment and data collection of the
proposed bridge location to gather essential information for the design, planning, and
construction phases.

3.2. OBJECTIVES
The main objective of the bridge site survey is to obtain the preliminary knowledge on
selection and planning of possible bridge site and axis for the future construction of the
bridge. The purpose of the bridge site survey is not only to prepare plan and layout of the
bridge site but also from the engineering point of view, the purpose is to collect the
preliminary data about the site such as normal water level, high flood level, geological
features of the ground, catchments areas for planning and designing of the bridge from
the details taken from the surveying.

The objectives of the bridge site survey can be summed as follows:

i. To determine its suitability for constructing a bridge, considering factors like

accessibility, terrain, and environmental conditions.

ii. To gather precise topographic data including elevations, contours, slopes, and
geological features to understand the site's characteristics and landscape.

iii. To analyze water flow patterns, river/stream characteristics, and flood risk
29
 assessments to ensure the bridge design considers waterway conditions and flood
resilience.

iv. To perform triangulation method for measuring the bridge axis and detailing
100m upstream and 50 m downstream.

v. To prepare topographic map of the bridge site and hence prepare longitudinal and
cross sections of the river at the required upstream and downstream of the river.

Brief Description of the Area

The bridge site survey was conducted in Nagarkot.

The site consists of the mild vegetation including the cultivated land and a few houses.
The gradient of the river was low and the banks consisted of big boulders.

Hydrology, Geology and Soil

The discharge of river is varying with season but not dry which indicates that the source
of water is not only rain water but also spring water. The site will be very suitable for the
bridge because huge amount of rock mass was found on either side of the river bank
which is very suitable to be used as the bridge foundation. Different types of rocks
especially boulders were found on the river bed and bank. Surrounding of the bridge site
is full with sandy soil and clay.

3.3. NORMS (Technical specifications):

i. Control point fixing as well as determining the length of the bridge axis had to be
accomplished by the method of triangulation. While forming the triangles, proper
care had to be taken such that the triangles were well conditioned i.e. none of
angles of triangles were greater than 120° or less than 30°.

30
 ii. The triangulation angles were to be measured by two sets of readings and the
difference between the mean angles of two sets was to be within 1’.

iii. RL was transferred from the BM to stations by the method of fly leveling and then
to the stations on another bank of the river by the method of reciprocal leveling.

iv. In order to plot the longitudinal section of the river, detailing had to be done 150m
upstream and 50m downstream. The plot for the longitudinal section along the
flow line had to be in a scale of 1:50 for vertical and 1:500 for horizontal.

v. For the cross-section profile, data was taken at 20m intervals both upstream and
downstream, and one at the bridge axis. Observations had to cover minimally 50m
across the bank of the river on the either side. The scale of the cross sections was
1:100 for both vertical and horizontal.

3.4. INSTRUMENTS USED

 Total Station

 Level Machine

 Staff

 Theodolite

 Pegs

 Measuring Tape

 Arrows

 Ranging Rods

 Compass

 Hammer

3.5. METHODOLOGY

3.5.1. Site selection:

31
 The following things were considered while selecting a bridge site:

i. The rocky outcrops were studied and as they were strong enough to support the
bridge and the dead as well as the live loads the site was concluded to be suitable.

ii. The slope of the riverbed was to be gentle at the proposed site because steep slope
means the greater magnitude of the water current, a lot of erosion and wear and
tear takes place on the bridge foundation. Hence to avoid that condition, location
of the bridge was chosen at the place where there was less current.

iii. The high flood level of the river was measured accurately and hence the height of
the river above the river was designed taking into consideration the occasional
flooding.

iv. The bridge was chosen at such a place that it is very convenient to approach.
Hence its use is predicted to be huge thus providing service to a large number of
the local people

3.6.2 Topographic Survey

Topographical Survey is supported by triangulation. Triangulation is the

process of forming number of connecting triangles so as to provide the control
points. Triangulation involves two processes, measurement of horizontal
distances of any two side of the triangle formed on the opposite side of the
frame between two control points by tape and the measurement of all the
interior angles with the help of angle measuring instrument i.e., Theodolite.
All the remaining lengths of the sides of the triangle are computed with the
help of any one measured length and all the measured angles of the triangles
formed. The axis length of the proposed bridge was computed as mentioned
earlier using sine law in the triangles.

3.6.3 Longitudinal Section

Longitudinal Section (Profile Levelling) is the process of determining the

elevations of the points at the short measured intervals along a fix line or
alignment such as the center line of the railway, highway, canal or sewer. The
fixed line may be a single straight line or it may be composed of a succession
of straight lines or of a series of straight lines connected by curves. By means

32
of such sections the engineer is able to study the relationship between the
existing ground surface and the levels of the proposed construction in the
direction of its length. The profile is usually plotted on specially prepared
profile paper, on which the vertical scale is much larger than the horizontal.

Profile leveling, like differential leveling, requires the establishment of

turning points on which both back and fore sights is taken. In addition, any
number of intermediate sights may be taken on the points along the line from
each set up of the instrument. It is generally best to set up the instrument to
one side of the profile line to avoid too short sights on the points near the
instrument. For each set up, intermediate sights should be taken after the fore
sight on the next turning point has been taken. The position of the
intermediate points on the profile is simultaneously located by chaining along
the profile and noting their distances from the point of commencement.

3.6.4 Cross Section

Cross-sections are run at right angles to the longitudinal profile and on the
either side of it for the purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface. They
provide the data for estimating quantities of earth work and for other
purposes. The cross-sections are numbered consecutively from the
commencement of the center line and are set out at right angles to the main
line of section with the chain and tape. Cross-sections may be taken at each
chain. The length of cross-section depends upon the nature of the work. The
longitudinal and cross-sections may be worked together or separately as
per the requirement. In the case of bridge site survey, cross-sections are taken
at 10m from the bridge axis then at every 25m interval. The spot heights were
taken where the change of the slope of the ground was abrupt. Cross-sections
must be taken at normal flood level, high flood level, and river banks etc.
Total Station was used for this purpose as a tachometer.

33
3.5.2. Triangulation
Triangulation is the process of forming number of connecting triangles so as to provide
the control points. Triangulation involves two processes, measurement of horizontal
distances of any two side of the triangle formed on the opposite side of the frame between
two control points by tape and the measurement of all the interior angles with the help of
angle measuring instrument i.e. Theodolite. All the remaining lengths of the sides of the
triangle are computed with the help of any one measured length and all the measured
angles of the triangles formed. The axis length of the proposed bridge was computed as
mentioned earlier using sine law in the triangles.

3.5.3. Reciprocal Leveling

When it is necessary to carry out leveling across a river, ravine or any obstacle requiring a
long sight between two points so situated that no place for level can be found from which
the lengths of foresight and back sight will be even approximately equal, special method,
i.e. reciprocal leveling must be used to obtain accuracy and to eliminate the error in
instrument adjustment, combined effect of earth’s curvature and the refraction of the
atmosphere and the variation in the average refraction.

Let A and B be the points and observations be made with a level. For the first set up of
instrument, three wire readings on both the staff held at the point A and B are observed
and the level difference between them is calculated.

The level difference is calculated as:

Staff reading on A = ha

Staff reading on B = hb – e

34
Similarly, for second set up of instrument

Staff reading on A = ha‫ ׳‬- e

Staff reading on B = hb ‫׳‬

Taking average of two true difference of elevation, we get

2H = [ha – (hb – e) + (ha‫ – ׳‬e) – hb‫]׳‬

= (ha – hb) + (ha‫ –׳‬hb ́ )

H = ½ [(ha – hb) + (ha‫ –׳‬hb΄)]

True difference of elevation is equal to mean of the two apparent differences in elevation.

3.5.4. Detailing

The detailing was carried out using Total station. The detail points were recorded at the
required part of the river route. The reading for soft or hard details was taken for the
proper longitudinal sectioning as well as in cross sectioning. Trigonometric leveling was
also performed in the case of determination of reduced level of inaccessible points. All
the detailed points were noted for the topographic view of the bridge site.

3.5.5. Computation and Plotting

In the case of triangulation, the horizontal and the vertical controls of triangulation
stations were determined and the horizontal as well as vertical controls of the other
stations were manipulated later. Calculation of the coordinates was performed with
respect to the defined coordinates near station near bridge axis. Similarly, computation
was done for all co-ordinates of details. The elevations were calculated and the usual
checks were applied. Then plotting was done in appropriate scale i.e. 1:200. Finally, using
35
the drafted topographic map Longitudinal and cross section were made for the different
interval of the river (both upstream and downstream) from the bridge axis. These sections
were drafted including the high flood level (HFL), Normal Flow Level (NFL) and the bed
elevation.

3.6. Comments and Conclusion

For the bridge site survey, certain norms and the specifications are minded and selected
the site. Triangulation was carried for the working from whole and two initial base lines
were measured twice (backward and forward reading).

The bridge axis was selected such that the distance between the upliftment is shortest.
The required drawings were prepared in the respective scales with the topographic
features as possible.

36
 CHAPTER FOUR: ROAD SITE SURVEY

4.1. INTRODUCTION:
A road site survey in engineering involves a systematic assessment and data collection
process aimed at gathering essential information about a proposed road construction or
improvement site. The survey is crucial for planning, designing, and executing road
infrastructure projects.

4.2. Objectives

Road alignment survey was done to accomplish the following objectives:

1. To determine the natural and physical properties of the soil to be used in the
embankment.

2. To facilitate the design of the slopes of the embankment and cuts.

3. To determine the construction techniques for handling the earthwork.

4. To classify the earthwork (ordinary soil, hard soil, soft rock, hard rock etc.) to
estimation of cost and planning for the blasting operation and other excavation
techniques.

5. To design the pavement thickness and specifications.

37
4.3. Norms (Technical Specifications)
Reconnaissance was carried out for alignment of the road corridor considering
permissible gradient, obligatory points, bridge site and the geometry of tentative
horizontal and vertical curves.

The topographic map of the scale of 1:1000 of the road corridor was prepared. Geometric
curves, road formation width, right of way, crossings and other details were shown in the
map. While performing the road alignment survey, following norms were

strictly followed:

Note: If the external deflection angle at the I.P. of the road is less than 3°, curves need not
to be fitted.

1. Simple horizontal curves had to be set out where the road changed its direction,
determining and pegging three points on the curve- the beginning of the curve, the middle
of curve and the end of the curve along the centerline of the road.

2. The radius of the curve had to be chosen such that it was convenient and safe, i.e. not
less than 12m.

3. The gradient of the road had to be maintained at 12%.

4. Cross sections had to be taken at the interval of 20m including the beginning, middle
and end of the curve, along the centerline of the road – observations being taken for at
least 10m on either side of the centerline. If undulations are present then sections at such
places is a must.

5. Plan of the road had to be prepared in a scale of 1:1000.

6. L-section of the road had to be prepared on a scale of 1:1000 horizontally and 1:100
vertically.

7. The cross-section of the road had to be prepared in a scale of 1:100(both horizontal and
vertical).

8. The amount of the cutting and filling required for the road construction had to be
determined from the L-section and the cross-sections. However, the volume of cutting
had to be roughly equal to the volume of filling.

38
4.4. Equipments Required:

The equipment’s used in the surveying during the preparation of the topographic map are
as follows:

1. Theodolite with stand

2. Staffs

3. Level machine

4. Compass

5. Ranging rods

6. Tapes

7. Pegs

8. Marker

9. Arrow

4.5. METHODOLOGY

4.5.1. RECONNAISSANCE
The reconnaissance survey was carried out starting from the main road to low

elevated region along the graveled road. Pegging was done at different places and the

possible I.P. s was also numbered and pegged. The condition of inter-visibility was

checked at each step.

4.5.2. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

The locations of the simple horizontal curves were determined carefully

considering factors like the stability of the area, enough space for the turning radius, etc.

The I.P.s was fixed so that the gradient of the road at any place was less than 7 - 12%.

After determining the I.P.s for the road, theodolite was stationed at each I.P. and the
39
deflection angles measured. The distance between one I.P. and another was measured by
two way taping. The horizontal curves were set out by angular methods using theodolite
at I.P. and tape. Horizontal alignment is done for fixing the road direction in horizontal
plane.

For this, the bearing of initial line connecting two initial Stations was measured using
compass. The interior angles were observed using Theodolite at each I.P. and

then deflection angles were calculated.

Deflection angle = (360° or 180°) - observed angle

Tangent Length, BC1IP = R * Tan (Δ/2)

Apex distance, IPMC1= R * (sec (Δ/2)-1)

Where,

IPBC= IPEC = Tangent length

BC = Beginning of curve

EC = End of curve

R = Radius of curve 38

MC = Midpoint of curve

IPMC = Apex distance

If “+ve”, the survey line deflects right (clockwise) with the prolongation of

preceding line and deflects left if “-ve” (anti-clockwise). The radius was assumed,

according to the deflection angle. Then the tangent length, EC, BC, apex distance along

with their chainage was found by using following formula:

Tangent length (TL) = R * Tan (Δ/2)

Length of curve (LC) = (π * R * Δ) / 180

Apex distance = R * (sec (Δ/2)-1)

Chainage of BC = Chainage of IP – TL

Chainage of MC = Chainage of BC + LC/2

Chainage of EC = Chainage of MC+ LC/2

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The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the tangent length

from the apex and the points were marked distinctly. The radius was chosen such that the
tangent does not overlap. The apex was fixed at the length of apex distance from IP along
the line bisecting the interior angle.

After performing the necessary calculations, the points T1 and T2 were fixed at a

distance equal to the tangent length from I.P. using a tape. Then the line bisecting

the internal angle at the I.P. was found out with the help of a theodolite. And on this line,
a peg was driven at point M at a distance equal to the apex distance (VM)

from the I.P. Then the necessary calculations were done, thus giving the required
numerical values of the different parameters.

4.5.3. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Vertical profile of the Road alignment is known by the vertical alignment. In the L

section of the Road alignment, vertical alignment was plotted with maximum gradient of
7%. According to Nepal Road Standard, Gradient of the Road cannot be taken more than
7%. In the vertical alignment, we set the vertical curve with| proper design. Vertical curve
may be either summit curve or valley curve While setting the vertical alignment, it should
keep in mind whether cutting and filling were balanced or not.

4.5.5. LONGITUDINAL SECTION

The L-section of the road is required to give the road engineer an idea about the

nature of the ground and the variation in the elevations of the different points along the

length of the road and also to determine the amount of cutting and filling required to the

road site for maintaining a gentle slope. In order to obtain the data for L-section, staff

readings were taken at points at 15m intervals along the center line of the road with the

help of a level by the method of fly-levelling. And thus after performing the necessary

calculations, the level was transferred to all those points with respect to the R.L. of the

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given B.M. Then, finally the section of the road was plotted on a graph paper on a vertical
scale of 1:100 and a horizontal scale of 1:1000.

4.5.6. CROSS SECTION:-

Cross sections at different points are drawn perpendicular to the longitudinal

section of the road on either side of its centerline, 10cm on each side in order to

present the lateral outline of the ground. Also equally useful in determining the amount of
cut and fill required for the road construction.

Cross sections were taken at 15m intervals along the centerline of the road and also

at points where there was sharp change in the elevation. While doing so, the horizontal

distances of the different points from the centerline were measured with the help of a tape
and the vertical heights with a measuring staff. The R.L. was transferred to all the points
by performing the necessary calculations and finally, the cross sections at different
sections were plotted on a graph paper on a scale of 1:100 both vertical and horizontal.

Cross-section was run at right angles to the longitudinal profile on either side up to

10m distances and the change in the slope was directly measured using the staff.

4.5.7. STRUCTURES
The main structures provided for road constructions are retaining structures, cross

drain, side-drain, bio-engineering structures etc. retaining structures are provided

where the slope is critical. Gabion structure, dry masonry structures are the example.

The chamber of the road is made perfectly by putting 4% of stage for gravel road

so as to avoid any collection of water on it. The maximum gradient of the road is about
7% and the minimum gradient of road is about 1% so as to facilitate the flow

of drainage to specified direction. However the maximum of 12% was taken wherever not
possible. Longitudinal drain is provided on the sides if the road. Retaining walls are
provided on required places. Construction of hill roads involves many special structures.
These may include wide range of structures which are used to retain soil mass, to increase
stability of road embankment slopes as well as natural hills slopes, to accommodate road
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bed in steep slope, to penetrate deep through mountain pass and so on. Integration of
bioengineering measures with engineering structures is yet another sector requiring
special attention. The following types of structures are used normally on the hill road:

 Retaining structures

 Drainage structures

 Slope protection structures

4.5.8. CALCULATIONS AND PLOTTING

After the work of taking the data was completed, all the necessary calculations

were done and tabulated in systematic order. The calculations were done in order to

compute the Chainage of the different distinct points of the road using the following

relations:

Chainage of beginning of curve,

BC1 = Chainage of I.P. - Tangent Length

Chainage of mid-point of curve,

MC1 = Chainage of BC1 – (1/2) * Curve Length

Chainage of end curve,

EC2 = Chainage of BC1 - Curve Length

Chainage of an I.P. = Chainage of previous I.P. + I.P. to I.P. distance 42

The R.L. of the different points was also computed using formula:

R.L. of a point = R.L. of station + Height of Instrument + H * Tanθ – Middle

reading

Where,

θ = Vertical Angle

Hence, with the required calculated data regarding the road site in hand, the plan

was plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontal and 1:100 vertical and the cross section at

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different points also on a graph paper on a scale of 1:100 (both vertical and horizontal)

4.6. Comments and Conclusion

During the road alignment survey, different circumstances were faced; our group was
successful in completing the fieldwork at time. In the field we had spent quite some time
in discussing the route of the road and in designing the curves to good road. We favored
the road short, economic, safe and convenient. So the whole team was quite conscious
and tried our best to get error free data and calculations.

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