Control Systems Engineering

Handout Part 1:

Control Fundamentals and System Modelling

1 Introduction to Fundamental Concepts and Definitions ............................................. 2

1.1 Control Structure and Aims ......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Control Aims: Tracking and/or Regulation .................................................................. 5
1.3 Performance Assessment ............................................................................................ 6
2 Basic Mathematical Techniques for Control ............................................................. 10
2.1 Complex Numbers ..................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Linear Systems........................................................................................................... 11
2.3 Laplace Transforms ................................................................................................... 11
3 Dynamic Modelling for Control Systems Design ....................................................... 14
3.1 Transfer Functions..................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Block Diagram Modelling .......................................................................................... 18
4 Modelling Examples ................................................................................................ 22
4.1 A Mass-Spring-Damper System ................................................................................. 22
4.2 A DC Motor ................................................................................................................ 24
4.3 Car Model (for Cruise Control) - this section is for you to look at in your time. ..... 29
4.4 Water Tank Model (For Level Control)...................................................................... 33
Appendix 1: Laplace Transform Table ............................................................................. 36

Summary:

This handout sits alongside the slides (it has the key info in and some spaces for you to
complete as we go). It introduces the control system (along with the Lecture 1 handout) and
sets the scene for why we design closed-loop controllers. It reminds you of some of the
basic math (section2) – we will not cover this in the lectures, just use it later. Then we’ll be
discussing how to build mathematical models of engineering systems, together with
examples. These are the foundation for analysis upon which control systems design is built.
Control Systems Part 1: Control Fundamentals & System Modelling

1 Introduction to Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

The focus of this section is to explain:

• The typical closed-loop control system and its benefits (over open-loop)
• The basic aims of the control engineer in designing a control system
• The basic (Time Domain) methods of assessment of performance

A list of commonly used control engineering terms is also included at the end of the section.

1.1 Control Structure and Aims

1.1.1 Open Loop Control

“Inverse” of the Disturbance, d

system
Uncertainty
Input δθ
signal
Command u Output
yin Controller System
y

Control Aim:
To make the system output “track” or follow the command as closely as possible

In open-loop control we have a feed-forward controller which is typically the inverse of the
plant. The problem is it does not cope well with disturbances or uncertainty:

Disturbances –

Unknown/unmeasured inputs from outside the system being controlled which affect its
operation .

E.g. wind affecting the cruise control system on a car

Uncertainties

- Unknown/unmeasured variations in parameters that describe the system being

controlled.

E.g. variations in the weight of a car affecting the cruise control system

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1.1.2 Closed-Loop Control

Disturbances
Uncertainty
Controller Input
signal δθ
Command Error u
+ Output
C(s) System y
yin
- Compensator

“Feedback”

Control Aims:
To make the system output “track” or follow the command as closely as possible

To ensure the closed-loop system is stable

In closed-loop control, the output (y) is fed-back to the controller which acts to minimise the
error (i.e. the difference) between the command and the output.

Exercise

Can we imagine the difference in an overall system response in open-loop and closed loop
scenarios, when a change is made to the system?

For a cruise control application, assume a 1 degree change in throttle position gives a
5km/hr change in speed. Also a 1% change in slope (disturbance) gives a -2mph change in
speed.

What is the effect of a 5% increase in gradient?

Open-Loop (without gradient)

Disturbance,
0%

Car
Controller -2
(km/hr) / %
+
1/5 8deg 5 +
40km/hr deg/(km/hr)
40km/hr
(km/hr)/deg

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Closed-Loop (with gradient, at new steady state)

Disturbance,
0%

Car
Controller -2
(km/hr) / %

1 7.8deg
40km/hr 7.8 5 39 km/hr
+
deg/(km/hr) (km/hr)/deg
-

In the closed-loop you will see that we start with an error of 1km/hr. But after the disturbance
it settles to only 1.25km/hr. Compare with the open-loop (10km/hr).

Note: We have not yet covered the block-diagram math for you to work out (easily) the
steady state of the closed-loop system. But hopefully you get the idea – you can see what
happens for various values of the error.

1.1.3 Basic Control Structure

The basic structure of a typical control system is as follows:

“Think” “Act” “Measure”

Actuators

Sensors

Controller System
Command Output

The system is the engineering system to be controlled. In general the aim is for the output
of the system to track (follow) the command of the system.

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1.2 Control Aims: Tracking and/or Regulation

1.2.1 Tracking

Here, the primary requirement is for the system to follow a continuously-varying command
input (although it will also have to react to disturbances). E.g. position control of a robot. In
that case we seek to make the output y follow command yin with a particular speed of
response and a particular steady state error, whilst not using too much control action, u.

1.2.2 Regulation

Now, the primary requirement is for the system to maintain its output in response to external
disturbances. Although there may also be occasional variations in the “setpoint”/command.
E.g. temperature control of a central heating system.

In practice many control systems are a combination of the regulation and the tracking
problem – this involves a trade-off in the design of the controller (between tracking and
regulation responses).

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1.3 Performance Assessment

The assessment of the performance of a control system has two elements: assessment of
the time domain response and assessment of the frequency responses (stability). Here we
will focus on quantifying the time domain assessments and will only comment in passing on
the frequency domain assessment (these will be covered later in Control Part 3).

1.3.1 Signals for Use in Testing

Typical test signals for system analysis in the time domain are impulse, step, ramp and
parabolic inputs. The most common is the step response. The impulse response and ramp
response are occasionally used and parabola is rarely used. Hence we focus on the step
response for quantifying performance.

The Laplace Transforms of these most commonly used inputs can be found in the table of
Laplace Transforms.

1.3.2 Step Response Characteristics

Consider the closed loop system:

A response to a ‘step-input’ can be seen in the graph below. The output ‘y’ is plotted
alongside the input command ‘yin’.

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There are two elements to this response:

• The Transient part where the output is changing from its start position to its new
state of equilibrium
• The Steady State where the new state of equilibrium has been reached.

Understanding key attributes within each of these conditions allows for careful design of
controllers. One of the key items that we can affect by our design decisions as control
engineers is the control gain within C(s). Adjusting this will change the way the system
responds to changing inputs and the control compensator is designed until a satisfactory
response is achieved in the transient and steady state parts of the response. A typical effect
of changing the control gain is shown below:

Question: what are the main differences in the time response between high and low
controller gains? Note your thoughts here. Think about the transient and steady state parts
of the response.

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1.3.3 Quantification of Time Domain Performance

Consider the step response below where c(t) is the time response of the system. This has
been annotated with terms that will be described below.

Key metrics in transiency:

Label Name Description Equation

The time taken to go from 10%
𝑻𝑻𝒓𝒓 Rise Time 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇𝑇0.9𝑐𝑐 − 𝑇𝑇0.1𝑐𝑐
to 90% of the final value ‘cfinal’
The amount the response
𝑂𝑂′𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 100
passes the intended output. 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑
n/a Overshoot ×
Expressed as a % over the
𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑
intended output
The time taken from the instance
of the step input occurring to the
𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 Settling Time n/a
time the response reaches (then
stays within) 2% of cfinal

Key Metrics in the Steady State:

Label Name Description Equation

The difference between the
Steady-State desired output cd and the actual 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑
n/a 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 100 ×
Error output cfinal. Often expressed as 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑
a percentage

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Stability in the time response

From a time response it is possible to assess the absolute stability as in it is possible to see
that either the response:

• converges to a new steady-state position (stable)

• oscillates and diverges away from a new steady state (unstable)
• oscillates for an extended period of time (marginally stable / marginal stability)

1.3.4 Summary of Commonly Used Terms/Definitions

• System/Plant – the system to be controlled
• Controller – the device to be designed which monitors and affects the behaviour of
the system
• Command – the reference or desired signal which the output should (track) follow
• Output – some measured physical property of the system to be controlled
• Input – the control action to be applied to the system in order to affect the Output
• Disturbance – unknown and/or unmeasured external effects which prevail upon the
system (and need to be rejected/cancelled by the controller)
• Uncertainty – unknown/unmeasured changes in physical parameters that describe
the system being controlled (incl. errors in the model of system/plant which is used to
design the controller)

Exercise

Draw a block diagram of a closed-loop system which has all these elements included and
labelled

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2 Basic Mathematical Techniques for Control

You have already studied linear (and non-linear) systems, complex numbers, differential
equations and Laplace Transforms in Maths (1st year). So these will not be dealt with in
detail here. However, we will discuss them briefly along with three other key areas of
mathematics which are important to control engineers.

2.1 Complex Numbers

Complex numbers are useful in many areas of Engineering. In control they are very
important: for Laplace Transforms and frequency domain analysis.

A complex number is a number that can be put in the form a+bj, where a and b are real
numbers and j is the imaginary unit (the square root of −1).

In this expression, a is called the real part and b the imaginary part of the complex number.
Complex numbers extend the one-dimensional number to a two-dimensional complex-plane
by using the horizontal axis for the real part and the vertical axis for the imaginary part.

In the figure below, the complex number a + bj can be identified with the point (a, b).
Alternatively a complex number can also be expressed in terms of polar co-ordinates.

Cartesian Co-ordinates:

x = a + bj Im a x
Polar Co-ordinates:
R
x = 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
ϕ b
= 𝑅𝑅 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜑𝜑) + 𝑗𝑗. 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜑𝜑)) Re

The polar co-ordinates become important

later in the module – particularly for frequency domain analysis where we have a Gain R and
a Phase Angle j.

Key attributes of complex numbers...

Gain (magnitude): R =

Angle (argument): j =

Given a fraction of two complex numbers A and B,

B B
The Gain (R) is given by: =
A A

B
And the Angle (𝜙𝜙) by: ∠  = ∠B − ∠A
 A

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2.2 Linear Systems

In line with most real-world engineering approaches to control systems engineering the
methods in this module rely on the assumption that the systems to be controlled can be
considered to be linear systems. This assumption is reasonable for very many engineering
systems. A linear system is a mathematical model of a system based on the use of a linear
operator and this means that the principles of superposition and scaling apply – both these
are quite useful to us.

2.3 Laplace Transforms

The Laplace transform is an integral transform used widely in maths, physics and
engineering. It is a linear operator.

The formal mathematical definitions, properties and theorems are quite involved (see your
math notes!). In this module we will focus on key aspects relevant for control systems
analysis & design – these are quite straightforward with a little practice. First a reminder of
some of the math….

The Laplace Transform is defined as (provided that the limit exists):

∞
F ( s ) = L{ f (t )} = ∫
0
f (t )e − st dt

This transform is also known as the one-sided Laplace Transform (LT). The Laplace
operator, s, is a complex number:

𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎𝜎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

where 𝜎𝜎 is the real part and 𝜔𝜔 is the imaginary part.

It also has an inverse:

f (t ) = L-1{F ( s )}

Normally it is not necessary to solve the LT integrals by hand – though it is possible!

The commonly useful transforms and their inverses are listed in LT tables available in control
text books. There are also a number of Theorems which are useful to control engineers.

The key transforms are listed overleaf:

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No. f(t) F(s)

1 δ (t ) unit impulse function 1

u (t ) unit step function 1

2
s

n!
3 tn
s n +1

1
4 e − at
s+a

ω
5 sin(ωt )
s +ω2
2

s
6 cos(ωt )
s +ω2
2

ω
7 e − at sin(ωt )
(s + a )2 + ω 2
(s + a )
8 e − at cos(ωt )
(s + a )2 + ω 2

Table 1-1 - Commonly used Laplace Transform Expressions

In the table above, all the functions f(t) are defined for t ≥ 0. For example, u(t) is unit step
function which has amplitude 0 for t < 0 and unity (1) for t ≥ 0.

The table above can be used for Laplace Transforms and for Inverse Laplace Transforms. In
other words, we can go from f(t) to F(s) and vice-versa.

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Some of the key theorems and properties associated with Laplace transforms can be found
below…

Table 1-2 Laplace Transform Theorems

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2.3.1 Benefits of using Laplace Transforms and the ‘s’ Operator

We can use the LT to re-express time domain expressions using the Laplace operator ‘s’.
This allows dynamic systems described by differential equations to be represented in a form
which can be manipulated and handled algebraically to generate transfer functions.

The use of the Laplace operator is also helpful in forming block diagram representations of
dynamic systems (we will see soon how useful this can be).

There are important theoretical techniques in the frequency domain which arise from
considering ‘s’ as a complex number. These and allow us to use our models to analyse
systems in the frequency and the time domains – and through doing so design control
systems.

Time Domain
Differential Solution in t
Equations (time response)

Algebraic
Solution in s
Equations
Frequency Domain

(Frequency response)

3 Dynamic Modelling for Control Systems Design

Dynamic models can be used to express and simulate (predict) the behaviour of real world
systems. Control Engineers use these mathematical representations to assess systems in
terms of time and frequency characteristics. This allows design decisions on systems
attributes and controller properties to be made. Dynamic models used in design are
principally simplified linear representations of the real world systems. They are rarely a
‘perfect match’ to a real system but will effectively capture key dynamic attributes that are
necessary for design.

There are two main approaches to this sort of modelling:

• The algebraic approach (often in the ‘s-domain’)

• The block diagram

Both methods can produce transfer functions relating outputs to inputs and both are
mathematically equivalent so they will give the same answer for a given system.

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3.1 Transfer Functions

The Transfer Function (TF) of a linear time invariant system is defined as the ratio of the
Laplace transform of the output, y(t), to the Laplace transform of the input, u(t). For example:

𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 1
𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) = = 2
𝑈𝑈(𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 + 4𝑠𝑠 + 2

Where ‘s’ is the Laplace Operator (as discussed earlier), and G(s) is used to represent the
ratio of Y(s) to U(s).

Key attributes/definitions for TFs:

• The order of a TF is the highest power of s in its denominator,

• A TF is said to be:
o Strictly Proper if the order of the numerator is less than that of the
denominator
o Proper if the order of the numerator is equal to that of the denominator
o Non-proper if the order of the numerator is greater than that of the
denominator The characteristic equation of a TF is obtained by setting the
denominator polynomial equal to zero
• The poles of a TF are the values of s for which the transfer function becomes infinite
(obtained by solving the characteristic equation for s). They are the roots of the
denominator (characteristic) polynomial.
• The zeros of a TF are the values of s for which the transfer function becomes zero
(i.e. the roots of the numerator polynomial).
• Together the zeros and poles determine the TF’s response
Continued...
• The Forced Response of the system describes the way it responds to changes in
the forcing input
• The Natural Response depends only on the system (and initial conditions)

3.1.1 Stability
The behaviour of the overall time response of the transfer function can be identified by
calculating the position of the poles on the complex s-plane (below). The poles and zeros of
a transfer function can be found by equating the polynomial expressions for the denominator
and numerator (respectively) to zero, and solving to find the values of ‘s’ for which this
occurs.

Typically we plot these values of s on the complex s-plane (as per below) with its imaginary
and real parts. Looking at the diagram (and the skull and cross-bone area)….

For a system to be stable, the real part of the pole should -ve, and the pole should therefore
sit on the left hand side of the s-plane.

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Question: Take a look at line 4 of Table 1-1 (a first order system with a single, non-complex
pole that occurs when s = -a). Considering the inverse Laplace transform of the transfer
function, can you see why ‘a’ must be a positive value for stability?

Considering the above analysis, it is possible to extend the definitions of stability:

• Stable - if the natural output response decays to zero as time tends to infinity. I.e. all
the poles have negative real parts.
• Marginally stable - if the natural response oscillates with constant bounds (peaks)
as time tends to infinity. Or if it increases indefinitely at a constant rate. I.e. one or
more of the poles has zero real part(s) and all others have negative real parts.
• Unstable - if the natural response grows without bounds as time approaches infinity.
I.e. one or more of the poles has positive real parts.

The following graphs show examples of stable and unstable systems for ‘first order’ systems
(that have a single pole) and second order systems (that have 2 poles).

Unstable

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3.1.2 Algebraic Modelling (to obtain a transfer function)

The process starts by forming the differential equations that describe the dynamic properties
of interest, the Laplace transform is taken of these, then the equation is re-arranged to
express the ratio of output over input.

For example, given the arbitrary second order system described by the differential equation:

𝑦𝑦̈ (𝑡𝑡) + 4𝑦𝑦̇ (𝑡𝑡) + 2𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)

The Laplace transform can be taken (assuming zero initial conditions)

𝑠𝑠 2 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) + 4𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) + 2𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑈𝑈(𝑠𝑠)

And the transfer function will be:

𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 1
= 2
𝑈𝑈(𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 + 4𝑠𝑠 + 2

Transfer functions are useful to relate single outputs to single inputs, but intermediary
information can be hard to obtain, and more complex systems can become algebraically
difficult to work with. Most of the systems that will be used in this module will be single-input-
single-output systems, but it is always worth having other approaches on hand if required.

A comment on Laplace Transforms for control engineering (especially for this module):

When taking Laplace transforms during this course, it is possible (and desirable) to assume zero
initial conditions – which means taking the Laplace transform is as simple as replacing d/dt
with ‘s’. So

dx/dt becomes x.s. and d2x/dt2 becomes x.s2 etc.

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3.2 Block Diagram Modelling

The block diagram approach is also straightforward for modelling many systems, and
represents control systems and equations by having blocks which relate input to output (with
gains and/or transfer functions within them) that are interconnected with one-another. This
approach uses lines and arrows to show the input-output relationships between component
parts. Having built/drawn the block diagram it can be solved/simplified by graphical
simplification which is often easier and more helpful than algebraic manipulation. This
section will give the key components used, introduce some block transformations and then
demonstrate the usefulness for the example system introduced above.

Block diagrams are often constructed by considering the differential system equations and
building the system up using component parts. The basic building blocks will first be
introduced, then an example system will be constructed.

3.2.1 Basic Building Blocks

Block Time Domain Laplace

G G
Gain: x(t) y(t) X(s) Y(s)

Differentiator d/dt s
x(t) y(t)
X(s) Y(s)

Integrator ∫ (.) dt
x(t) y(t)

These blocks can be connected in numerous different ways and combinations. For example,
this is a feedback network:

+
X(s) A(s) Y(s)
-
B(s)

Note that A(s) and B(s) are transfer functions, and a ‘sum block’ is used to combine signals.

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3.2.2 Fundamental Transformations

Although many of these exist (check out the textbooks for more), the following are among
the most useful (in my opinion):

Blocks in series:
U (s ) Y (s ) U (s ) Y (s )
B(s) A(s) B( s ) A( s )

Move a take-off block:

U (s ) Y (s )
U (s ) Y (s ) A(s )
A(s )
U (s ) 1
U (s ) A( s )

Simplify feedback loop:

U (s ) + Y (s )
U (s ) Y (s )
A(s ) A( s )
- 1 + A( s ) B( s )
B (s )

The last transformation is probably the most useful one to remember in this series as the first
is relatively straight forward, and the second isn’t too common.

3.2.3 Example of Building a Block Diagram

Consider the second order system from earlier (section 3.1.2):

𝑦𝑦̈ (𝑡𝑡) + 4𝑦𝑦̇ (𝑡𝑡) + 2𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)

The best way to start building a block diagram is to re-arrange the equation so that the most
differentiated output variable is the subject of the equation is on the left hand side.

𝑦𝑦̈ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) − 4𝑦𝑦̇ (𝑡𝑡) − 2𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)

Start drawing the diagram by considering 𝑦𝑦̈ (𝑡𝑡) and what the equation above represents. To
calculate 𝑦𝑦̈ (𝑡𝑡), we need the input 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) summed with 𝑦𝑦̇ (𝑡𝑡) (and some coefficient) and 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)
(again with a coefficient). How is 𝑦𝑦̇ (𝑡𝑡) and 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) created from the starting point 𝑦𝑦̈ (𝑡𝑡)using
blocks? How do we include a coefficient? Start drawing the required elements over the
page...

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Draw block diagram here:

𝑦𝑦̈ (𝑡𝑡)

Now the diagram can be converted to a transfer function using the ‘simplify feedback loop
transformation in Section 3.2.2. (hint: Start with the ‘inner loop’ then do the outer loop’)

Simplify the block diagram here:

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Answer... (no peeking!)

u y y y
1 1
+ +
- - s s

4
2

The answer should be:

u 1 y
s + 4s + 2
2

...which gives the same answer as the algebraic approach used in Section 3.1.2.

3.2.4 Why might we use block diagrams?

The block diagram gave the same answer as the algebraic approach so why use them?

An advantage to this approach is that a block diagram exposes more information than a
single transfer function. These diagrams are often used in conjunction with modelling
software (such as Simulink). When these simulations are executed in software, access to not
only input and output variables is possible (𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) and 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)) but to other internal variables,
such as 𝑦𝑦̇ (𝑡𝑡) and 𝑦𝑦̈ (𝑡𝑡) or even other items such as ‘error’ signals or ‘drive’ signals. In the
algebraic world, separate transfer functions would be required for each of these.

Furthermore, outside of the classroom, if you are asked to model a dynamic system as part
of your job doing it two different ways gives (some) confidence that you got the right answer.
- Always assuming you did get the same result from both approaches!!

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4 Modelling Examples
Use these to practise creating systems models. Don’t forget that there are plenty more
exercises to try in the recommended text books.

4.1 A Mass-Spring-Damper System

Consider the system:

x (m)
Damper constant
b=2(N/m/s)

Mass, u , Applied
M =10kg Force (N)

Spring constant
k=5(N/m)

Complete the following steps:

1. Draw the free-body diagram

2. Write down the equations of motion
3. Obtain a TF relating position X(s) to input force U(s) by
a. The algeabraic method (using Laplace Transforms)
b. The block diagram method

1. Free Body Diagram:

2. Equations of Motion

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3.a. Algebraic Method

3.b. Block Diagram Method

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Y (s) 1 Y (s) 1 0.1

Answer: = 2 or = = 2
U ( s ) ms + cs + k U ( s ) 10 s + 2 s + 5 s + 0.2 s + 0.5
2

4.2 A DC Motor
The direct current (DC) motor was one of the first machines developed to convert electrical
power into mechanical power. Its history can be traced back to Michael Faraday who
experimented with a number of rotating electromechanical machines in the first part of the
19th Century. The physical principle which produces a mechanical force from the
interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field is known as “Faraday's law of
induction”, which was discovered in 1831.

Today, DC Motors come in all shapes and sizes and are used in many applications: e.g.,
fans/blowers and pumps, machine tools, conveyor belts, household appliances, power tools,
disk drives, electric/hybrid vehicles, ship propulsion etc.

They can be modelled mathematically by equations of physics in the electrical and

mechanical domains.

The physics (simplified):

• Armature has coils spinning in a magnetic field (generated by permanent magnets).

• There is an induced voltage, the “back emf”, proportional to speed of rotation
(Faraday’s law of electro-magnetic induction).
• Current in armature coils acts with magnetic field (force on current-carrying
conductor) to give a force (torque) proportional to current.
• Torque causes rotational acceleration (Newtonian mechanics)

The motor is expressed by two equations, one describing the electrical part of the system,
and another for the mechanical.

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4.2.1 Electrical Equation

Is defined by the following diagram

Variables Parameters
V Voltage across (Volts) R Armature resistance (Ohms)
windings
I Armature Current (Amperes) L Armature inductance (Henries)
Ve Back Emf (Volts) Ke Back emf Constant V/rads-1
𝜃𝜃̇ Rotational velocity rad/s

The equation is formed using ‘Kirchoff’s Voltage Law’

𝑉𝑉 = 𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼 ̇ + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 θ̇

4.2.2 Mechanical Equation

Is formed from the following diagram

Variables Parameters
𝜃𝜃̈ Rotational rad/s2 J Armature inertia kgm2
acceleration
Te Induced torque from Nm Tl Motor Torque load Nm
motor (assumed zero)
Tf Torque due to Nm D Friction Coefficient Nm/rads-1
friction

The equation is formed considering the sum of torques (the rotational form of the Newton’s
second law):

𝐽𝐽𝜃𝜃̈ = 𝑇𝑇𝑒𝑒 − 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 − 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙

𝐽𝐽𝜃𝜃̈ = 𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 𝐼𝐼 − 𝐷𝐷𝜃𝜃̇

Complete the following steps:

1. Obtain a TF relating position X(s) to input force U(s) by

a. The algebraic method (using Laplace Transforms)
b. The block diagram method

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1.a. Algebraic Method

The first step is to take the laplace transforms of the equations of interest:

Electrical equation: 𝑉𝑉 = (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅)𝐼𝐼 + 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 (3)

Mechanical equation: 𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 = 𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 𝐼𝐼 − 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (4)

Solve for ‘I’ in eqn (3) and substitute into (4):

𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉−𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃

Should give….. 𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝑠𝑠 2 = − 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
(𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿+𝑅𝑅)

Re-arrange to find the transfer function relating position to applied voltage:

𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡
Should give….. =
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠(𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 2 +(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅+𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿)𝑠𝑠+𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 +𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷)

Furthermore, we can make use of the fact that 𝜃𝜃̇ (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠). This can give us a transfer
function relating output velocity to applied voltage quite easily by a quick substitution:

𝜃𝜃̇ (𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡

= 2
𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 + (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿)𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 + 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷)

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1.b. Block Diagram Method

Starting with the differential equations:

Electrical equation: 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼 ̇ + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃̇ (1)

Mechanical equation: 𝐽𝐽𝜃𝜃̈ = 𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 𝐼𝐼 − 𝐷𝐷𝜃𝜃̇ (2)

Suggested procedure:

1. Re-arrange (1) to make 𝐼𝐼 ̇ the subject

2. Re-arrange (2) to make 𝜃𝜃̈ the subject
3. Start with the expression for 𝐼𝐼 ̇ and consider representing this expression as a block
diagram with 𝜃𝜃̇ an extra ‘input’ from the right
4. Consider how to represent the equation for 𝜃𝜃̈ as a block diagram using 𝐼𝐼 as an input,
with 𝜃𝜃̇ looping back.
5. Show 𝜃𝜃 as the system output

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Answer:

D
R

theta_d_dot 1 theta_dot 1 theta

V 1 I 1/J
1/L Kt s s
s T

Ke

More on DC Motor Models

There are some common assumptions made to simplify our DC motor model.

θ( s ) Kt
=
V (s) LJs + ( RJ + LD ) s + K t K e + DR
2

Often the dynamics of the electrical circuit are much faster than those of the mechanical
system. This can lead to an assumption that L is very small and negligible. I.e. L=0. In this
situation we end up with a first order model of the motor. Also it is quite common to assume
that D is approximately zero.

If we make use of these two assumptions we obtain,

θ( s ) Kt
=
V (s) RJs + K t K e
1/ K e
=
( RJ / K t K e ) s + 1

This expression is in the common form of a generic 1st order TF.

K
Namely, G (s) = where K = 1 / K e and τ = RJ / K t K e
τs + 1
In this case, K is the steady-state gain of the system and is the time taken for the system to
go from 0 to 63% of the final value. The mathematical reasons behind this will be clear later
in the module. However, it is useful in the case where an experimental step response of the
system can be obtained because we can then directly measure K and τ .

Motor Exercise – build the model in Simulink, run a step response and check K and τ .
Use parameters:
-1
Back e.m.f. constant Ke = 0.024 V/rads
Torque constant KT = 0.024 Nm/A
Armature resistance R = 4Ω
-5 2
Movement of inertia J = 1.1 x 10 kgm

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4.3 Car Model (for Cruise Control) - this section is for you to look at in your time.
In order to model our car for the purposes of designing a cruise control system we need to
make some assumptions:

1. That the engine has a torque controller which can arrange for the car to transmit a
given (accelerating) force to the road.
2. That the drag due to road friction and air resistance can be assumed proportional to
velocity of the vehicle.
3. That we can ignore the (relatively fast) dynamics in the engine and drive-train.

With these assumptions in mind we can draw a free body diagram as follows:

Where:

• u is the force input (N)

• v is the vehicle velocity (ms-1)

And:

• vehicle mass, m = 1080kg

• friction (drag) co-efficient, b = 108(N/ms-1)

Applying Newton’s second law to the car free body diagram, we have:

𝑢𝑢 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣̇

Complete the following steps:

1. Obtain a TF relating position X(s) to input force U(s) by

a. The algebraic method (using Laplace Transforms)
b. The block diagram method

2. Substitute in numerical values into both the TF and block diagram

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1.a. Algebraic Approach

Assume zero initial conditions, take the Laplace transform and show that the output/input
transfer function is given by

V(s) 1
=
U(s) ms + b

1.b. Block Diagram

Draw the block diagram here:

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2. Numerical Solution

Now we can put in the numbers to obtain the actual numeric transfer function:

V(s) 1
=
U(s) 1080s + 108

As a TF as block diagram

Then, we could do some scaling to get the input and output in more normal units given the
size of a car → [input force in kN and output speed in km/hr]

Input and output scaling:

If we wish to do the conversion, it must be remembered that,

1kN = 1000N, 1km=1000m and that 1hr =3600s

A straightforward way to do this is using the block diagram. So we define a new input u’(kN)
and a new output v’(km/hr).

Multiply it all out and,

Or,

V' (s) 10
=
U' (s) 3s + 0.3

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Quick Exercise

Now compare with the standard first order system introduced in DC motor example (A4,
Ex2),

K
G (s) =
τs + 1

What is the steady state gain K for the motor car and what is the time constant τ?

K =………..

τ =………..

See how these compare to the response to a step input as produced by Matlab/Simulink
(below).

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4.4 Water Tank Model (For Level Control)

Aim:

Modelling of a single tank system + a proportional controller.

Description:

The exercise is concerned with the tank system shown in Figure 1. The requirement is to
calculate its transfer function. Then to add proportional level controller (with a gain of G) and
calculate the closed-loop transfer function (this would allow us to begin to characterise its
dynamic performance).

h
qout

Variable Parameters
s
q the control input (a m3s-1 c the (linearised) 0.1 m2s-1
flow of fluid) outlet coefficient
h the level of the m A Cross sectional 0.5 m2
liquid area of the tank
qout is the flow out of the 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = ℎ𝑐𝑐
tank

1. Using the principle of conservation of mass (and assuming water to be

incompressible), write down the differential equation for the height, h.
• {Hint: you might first write down the rate of change of volume}

2. Using the algebraic approach take the Laplace Transform assuming zero initial
conditions and write down the TF

3. Use the block diagram approach to model the tank level – then simplify to get the TF.

4. Draw a block diagram showing the system model with a proportional controller with
gain, G, applied to the system. Write down the closed-loop transfer function.

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Appendix 1: Laplace Transform Table

No. f(t) F(s)

1 δ (t ) unit impulse function 1

u (t ) unit step function 1

2
s

n!
3 tn
s n +1

1
4 e − at
s+a

ω
5 sin(ωt )
s +ω2
2

s
6 cos(ωt )
s +ω2
2

ω
7 e − at sin(ωt )
(s + a )2 + ω 2
(s + a )
8 e − at cos(ωt )
(s + a )2 + ω 2

Table 1 - Commonly used Laplace Transform Expressions

Note: the above table will be available in the exam.

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