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Blues for Mister Charlie

Though Roy Bryant and John William Milam were tried for
INTR
INTRODUCTION
ODUCTION Emmett Till’s murder, an exclusively white and male jury
acquitted them after a very brief deliberation. Baldwin also
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF JAMES BALDWIN dedicates Blues for Mister Charlie to Medgar Evars and the
James Arthur Baldwin was born in 1924 to Emma Berdis “dead children of Birmingham.” Medgar Evars (1925–1963)
Jones. As Baldwin’s mother would not reveal the identity of was a major civil rights activist assassinated outside his home at
Baldwin’s biological father, his birthname was James Arthur age 37 by a Ku Klux Klan member named Byron de la Beckwith
Jones; he changed his name to James Baldwin when his mother (1920–2001). The “dead children of Birmingham” refers to the
married his stepfather, a Baptist preacher named David 1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, a Ku Klux Klan
Baldwin, in 1927. Baldwin attended Fredrick Douglass Junior attack on a Black church in Birmingham, Alabama that killed
High School in Harlem before matriculating at De Witt Clinton four Black girls, Addie Mae Collins, Carol Denise McNair,
High School in the Bronx, a school whose student body was Carole Robertson, and Cynthia Wesley.
mostly white. As a teenager, Baldwin became a devout
Pentecostal and even preached himself, but he would later
RELATED LITERARY WORKS
suggest that he used religion to sublimate his homosexuality
and that Christianity is often a form of destructive self- Blues for Mister Charlie is James Baldwin’s second play. Like
repression. In 1948, disgusted by repeated experiences with Blues for Mister Charlie, his first play, The Amen Corner (1954),
American racism, Baldwin moved to France, where he would interrogates the role of Christianity in Black American life.
live off and on for the rest of his life. He published his first Blues for Mister Charlie, a play with social protest elements, may
novel, a semi-autobiographical coming-of-age story titled Go have been negatively inspired by two previous novels, Harriet
Tell It on the Mountain
Mountain, in 1953. In 1955, he published an essay Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) and Richard
collection, Notes of a Nativ
Nativee Son
Son, which included both Wright’s Nativ
Nativee Son (1940). In a 1949 essay titled “Everybody’s
autobiographical essays and essays on American race relations. Protest Novel”—republished in the essay collection Notes of a
In 1956, he published the novel GiovGiovanni’s
anni’s Room
Room, which was Nativ
Nativee Son (1955)—Baldwin criticized these novels, both of
highly controversial primarily for its frank depictions of male which were nominally intended to further the cause of social
homosexuality but also for being a novel by a Black writer justice for Black Americans, for what he argued was their one-
whose main characters were mostly white. In 1957, Baldwin dimensional, racist characterization of their Black characters.
returned to the United States, and in 1963 he went on a Thus, Baldwin may have taken special care to render all his
lecturing tour of the Southern U.S. supporting the African- play’s characters, including the villains, complex due to his
American Civil Rights movement. He continued writing novels, criticism of these famous prior works. Baldwin has been a
essays, short stories, plays, and poems until he died of stomach major influence on subsequent American writers. For example,
cancer in France in 1987. He is buried in New York City. Nobel Prize-winning Black American novelist Toni Morrison
(1931–2019), a close friend of Baldwin’s who is perhaps most
famous for her 1987 novel BelovBeloved
ed, wrote in his eulogy for the
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
New York Times that his prose inspired her. Moreover, critics
In James Baldwin’s introduction to Blues for Mister Charlie have repeatedly suggested that Baldwin’s essays were a major
(1964), he states that the play was loosely inspired by the 1955 inspiration for Ta-Nehisi Coates’s nonfiction work Between the
murder of Emmett Till. Emmett Till was a 14-year-old Black boy World and Me (2015).
from Chicago who was brutally murdered while visiting
relatives in Mississippi after allegedly whistling at a 24-year-old
white woman, Carolyn Bryant, who was married to the owner
KEY FACTS
of a local grocery store. Shortly after Emmett Till interacted • Full Title: Blues for Mister Charlie
with Carolyn Bryant, her husband Roy Bryant and his half- • When Written: Early 1960s
brother John William Milam abducted Emmett Till from his
• Where Written: United States
relatives’ home, violently beat him, shot him to death, and
dumped his body in a river. Once Emmett Till’s brutalized • When Published: 1964
corpse was recovered, his mother Mamie Till held an open- • Literary Period: 20th-Century African American Literature
casket funeral. Newspapers across the country ran • Genre: Drama
photographs of Emmett Till’s body, sparking massive outrage • Setting: The American South in the 1960s
and bolstering the African American Civil Rights movement.

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• Climax: After Lyle is acquitted of Richard’s murder, he York. Richard explains how he became lonely, disgusted with his
angrily admits to Parnell and Meridian that he shot Richard. white girlfriends, and eventually addicted to drugs while
• Antagonist: Lyle, anti-Black racism working as a musician in New York. Juanita flirtatiously but
genuinely offers Richard emotional support. They dance. Lyle
EXTRA CREDIT walks in, sees them, and—intentionally—bumps into Juanita on
his way out. Lyle and Richard have a terse exchange.
Broadway. Blues for Mister Charlie was first performed on April
23, 1964, in the ANTA Theatre on Broadway in New York City. When Richard gets home, he runs into his father Meridian.
Richard asks why Meridian never told Richard that Richard’s
Mister Charlie. “Mister Charlie” is an old-fashioned African- mother was murdered. Meridian says he didn’t want to ruin
American slang term for bossy and racist white men. Richard’s life with “suspicions.” Richard gives Meridian his gun
and asks Meridian to hold it for him—until Richard asks for it
back. Meridian agrees.
PL
PLO
OT SUMMARY In the present, Parnell enters the church. When Meridian
vocally doubts his own decision to counsel the Black
In a U.S. Southern town in the 1960s, a white storeowner, Lyle townspeople to protest only nonviolently, Parnell begs him to
Britten, shoots a young Black man, Richard Henry, and throws show “mercy” to the white residents, who find it difficult to give
his body face-down in the weeds. Later, in a Black church, up their privilege. Meridian asks what hope there is for justice if
Richard’s father—a minister, Meridian Henry—meets with white people are incapable of change. They discuss whether
Black students Lorenzo, Pete, and Juanita, who have been Lyle killed Richard. When Meridian requests that Parnell ask
protesting. When Meridian hopes aloud that the police will Lyle directly, Parnell claims he’s not sure he could betray Lyle
arrest Richard’s murderer, Lorenzo points out that Lyle has like that and leaves.
killed a Black person before—and the police did nothing.
On a Sunday morning, white townspeople have come to Lyle
Meridian says that white newspaperman Parnell James will
and Jo’s house to offer emotional support before Lyle’s arrest.
help them, but Lorenzo points out that Parnell is friends with
When Parnell enters, the white townspeople berate him for his
Lyle. Parnell enters and says that a warrant has been issued for
progressive ideas. After the townspeople leave, Parnell
Lyle’s arrest. When Juanita thanks Parnell, he asks her not to.
comments to Lyle that the townspeople seem to think highly of
He announces that he’s going to go warn Lyle—who is his friend.
Lyle. Lyle says it’s because he and the townspeople understand
Parnell visits Lyle, his wife Jo, and their baby son. He tells them hardship in a way that rich Parnell doesn’t. They banter about
that he defended Lyle to the police, but that the police will how Parnell went to school in Switzerland with African princes
arrest Lyle. Lyle suggests that Richard was an addict “ruined” by who dated white girls. Lyle says he’d never send his daughter to
having lived in the North. When Parnell says that Richard Switzerland, but he suggests that his son dating an African
coming home to recover from addiction doesn’t mean he princess would be fine. Jo is upset at the double standard.
deserved to die, Lyle says that he has nothing against Black When Lyle goes to take a bath, Jo asks Parnell whether Lyle has
people—but he can’t stand “mixing.” dated Black women. Parnell won’t tell her, so Jo asks whether
In a flashback, Richard’s grandmother Mother Henry asks why Parnell had dated Black women. Parnell tells her about his
he didn’t come home sooner. He says that he wanted Meridian short-lived relationship with a Black girl named Pearl when
to be proud of him at a time he wasn’t proud of Meridian, whom they were teens. Jo is horrified when Parnell admits that he’d
he wishes had murdered all the white men at the hotel where happily marry and have children with Pearl if he found her. Jo is
his mother died. When Mother Henry says Richard’s mother horrified: if Parnell could love a Black girl, that means maybe
fell, Richard insists that the white men at the hotel sexually Lyle loved Old Bill’s wife, Willa Mae—and murdered Old Bill
harassed her and that one of them pushed her down the steps. over her.
Richard shows Mother Henry a gun. She begs him to give her Lyle returns, and he and Parnell go for a drink. Parnell starts
the gun, but he refuses. She leaves. reminiscing about Willa Mae. Parnell asks whether Lyle fought
Juanita and Pete enter the Henrys’ house and encounter Old Bill over Willa Mae, but Lyle claims he didn’t. When Lyle
Richard, whom they invite out with them. They go to Papa D’s says he can still remember how “he” looked coming into the
juke joint and discuss how Papa D still trades with Lyle Britten, store, Parnell asks questions to clarify whether Lyle means Old
who murdered a Black man, Old Bill, when Old Bill tried to end Bill or Richard.
Lyle’s affair with Old Bill’s young wife—and then claimed it was In a flashback, Lyle is hammering in the back of his store while
self-defense. Richard decries the double standard by which Jo minds the counter. Richard and Lorenzo walk by. When
white men assault Black women without punishment, but Black Richard wants to go in and buy a soda, Lorenzo cautions him
men are lynched for even touching white women. Then he not to because it’s Lyle’s store. Richard goes in anyway and tries
shows the others photos of white girlfriends he had in New to buy two Cokes with a $20 bill. Lyle comes out from the back

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and says he doesn’t have change for the bill, so Richard insults presses Parnell to admit that the photos were of white women.
Lyle’s financial situation. A physical altercation ensues, and Parnell admits they were. When the State asks about Richard’s
Richard and Lorenzo leave after Richard mocks the concept of assault on Jo, Parnell says he’s never heard anything about it
a “master race” and makes a sexually disparaging comment until today. The State asks how Parnell, a friend of the Brittens,
about Jo. could have failed to hear about it, and Parnell hedges—without
Back in the present, while drinking with Parnell, Lyle wishes admitting that he thinks Jo lied.
aloud that every Black person would die face-down in the The jury declares Lyle not guilty. Afterward, Meridian asks Lyle
weeds just like Richard. Parnell tries to get Lyle to talk about whether he killed Richard. When Lyle snaps that the jury
Richard. When Lyle refuses, Parnell tries to leave for Richard’s verdict should be good enough for Meridian, Parnell cuts in
funeral, but Lyle begs Parnell to stay and drink with him. that it’s not. Lyle accuses Parnell of having doubted Jo’s word.
Meridian preaches at Richard’s funeral. After the homily, the Parnell says he didn’t doubt it—he is quite sure Lyle forced her
mourners line up to say goodbye to Richard. Parnell comes in to lie, and he feels like he’s sinned by not saying anything. Lyle
late. Juanita asks him why he looks so rough. He explains that accuses Parnell of forgetting he’s white. Meridian asks whether
Lyle kept him—and that Lyle will “never confess” to Richard’s Richard begged for his life, and Lyle says no—Richard was too
murder. He starts crying. Juanita expresses envy; she can’t cry proud.
in front of people who don’t understand the depth of her grief. In a flashback, Lyle and Richard are standing outside Papa D’s
Parnell realizes aloud that Juanita loved Richard. Juanita, in juke joint. Lyle insists that Richard apologizes to him. Richard
turn, wonders aloud how Parnell can fail to know so much. refuses and asks what either him or Lyle has been trying to
When Parnell asks why she’s being sharp with him, she tells him prove. Both men admit they want to go home. When Lyle insists
that no one needs him to be their hero—they just want him to they have to settle things between them first, Richard says both
be himself. Parnell asks whether he and Juanita could ever have he and Lyle are men. Lyle becomes enraged and shoots Richard.
had a chance at a romantic relationship. She says that there was In the present, Lyle yells that he had to kill Richard. Jo hustles
a chance at one point—but there isn’t now. him away. Then, Mother Henry announces to the remaining
Lyle’s trial takes place several months later. Jo testifies that people that they need to go march. Everyone leaves except
Richard attempted to forcibly kiss her and that, when Lyle ran Parnell and Juanita. Parnell asks whether he can march with
to help her, Richard and Lorenzo both jumped on Lyle before them. Juanita says they can “walk in the same direction”—but
running away. Papa D testifies that Richard and Lyle were both then tells him to come on.
in his juke joint the night of the murder. His testimony
transitions into a flashback. Richard is in Papa D’s juke joint,
telling Papa D that he wants to leave town with Juanita, when
CHARA
CHARACTERS
CTERS
Lyle walks in and asks whether Richard is “ready.” Richard pays
MAJOR CHARACTERS
Papa D and leaves. Back in the present, Papa D says he never
saw Richard alive again. After Papa D’s testimony, Lorenzo Richard Henry – Richard Henry, son to Meridian Henry and
testifies that Jo lied—Richard never touched her. When the grandson to Mother Henry, is a young Black man from an
defense attorney, called The State, asks whether Richard had a unnamed town in the U.S. South. In his youth, he is a friend or
gun or was motivated to assault Jo by his pornographic photos boyfriend to Juanita Harmon. When Richard is about 14, his
of white women, Lorenzo says that he never saw a gun or any mother dies in a fall at a white hotel. Richard, knowing that
pornographic photos. white men sexually harassed his mother, believes that one of
them pushed her. Afterwards, Richard goes to live in New York
Juanita is called to the stand. The State pursues a line of
City with his Aunt Edna, where he becomes a musician. Richard
questioning insinuating that Juanita is sexually promiscuous.
begins dating white women whom he dislikes, working long
Toward the end of her testimony, she asserts that she and
hours at music gigs, and eventually—to assuage his
Richard had made plans to leave town together—but before
loneliness—using heroin. After hitting rock bottom in his
they could, Richard was murdered. Mother Henry is called to
addiction, he comes back to his hometown to recover, where he
the stand, where she denies that she ever saw Richard with a
reignites his relationship with Juanita, now a college student
gun. Then Meridian takes the stand. He denies having seen
involved in protests for African American civil rights. Richard’s
Richard with a gun or having discussed pornographic photos
refusal to treat white people as if they are better than he is
with Richard. When the State hostilely suggests that Richard
inspires another young Black man, Lorenzo Shannon, but draws
was a “pimp” and a “rapist,” Meridian strongly denies both
the wrath of racist white store owner Lyle Britten. After a tense
claims.
conversation over change for a $20 leads to a physical
Parnell is called to the stand. When the State asks him about altercation between Richard and Lyle in Lyle’s store, Richard
Richard’s gun or pornographic photos, Parnell says he never contemplates leaving town with Juanita. Before he can leave,
saw a gun—and the photos weren’t pornographic. The State

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Lyle murders him—despite Richard’s exhausted questioning of storeowner Lyle Britten. At age 18, Parnell fell deeply in love
their masculine posturing and his willingness to admit they are with a 17-year-old Black girl named Pearl, but when Pearl’s
both men, Richard’s refusal to apologize to Lyle or call him “sir” mother caught them kissing, Pearl was sent away, and Parnell
makes Lyle homicidally furious. Afterward, Lyle is tried but never saw her again. Afterward, longing to escape the
acquitted for Richard’s murder. whiteness that made him guilty and ashamed, he became
Meridian Henry – Meridian Henry, father to Richard Henry sexually fixated on Black women and men. (Parnell may be
and son to Mother Henry, is a Black Christian minister in an bisexual, but it is never explicitly stated.) Parnell has romantic
unnamed town in the U.S. South. When his son is about 14, his feelings for Black college student Juanita Harmon, but he never
wife dies in a fall at a white hotel. Meridian suspects that a acts on them because he worries she would think he was trying
white man pushed her but doesn’t know for sure. In his grief to “exploit” her. After Parnell’s friend Lyle murders Meridian’s
and horror, he allows Richard to live with his Aunt Edna in New son Richard Henry, Parnell pressures the police to arrest
York City and throws himself into his ministry. During the Civil Lyle—yet he feels an uneasy loyalty to Lyle, to whom he may
Rights Movement, he organizes college students protesting for also be attracted. After Lyle’s wife Jo lies that Richard sexually
social justice, including Juanita Harmon, Lorenzo Shannon, and assaulted her, Parnell—giving testimony at Lyle’s trial—clearly
Pete Spivey. He grows close to Juanita and develops romantic disbelieves Jo but fails to come out and accuse her of lying, thus
feelings for her but never acts on them. After Richard comes betraying Meridian’s trust. Afterward, he castigates himself for
home to recover from his heroin addiction and reignites a love failing Meridian—and, in a sense, Lyle—by not telling the whole
affair with Juanita, Meridian encourages the match. After racist truth and asks Juanita whether he can march with the Black
white store owner Lyle Britten murders Richard, Meridian community in protest of Lyle’s acquittal. Though Juanita at first
becomes progressively disillusioned with his religion and his responds ironically, she then tells him to come with her—and he
nonviolent approach to protest, wondering whether follows her.
Christianity robs Black people of their dignity and whether he Juanita Harmon – Juanita Harmon is a pretty Black college
made a mistake in cautioning Black protestors not to get guns. student and civil-rights protestor living in an unnamed town in
At Lyle’s trial for Richard’s murder, Meridian speaks out the U.S. South. At one point, she planned to go North to study
strongly against the sensationalized and racist characterization law and come back to the South to practice, but the violence
of Richard by Lyle’s defense attorney (called The State), she faces as a protestor makes her consider leaving the South
thereby feeling that he may have finally earned the title of altogether. Many men—including minister Meridian Henry,
minister. white newspaperman Parnell James, and college student/
Lyle Britten – Lyle Britten, husband to Jo Britten and friend to protestor Pete Spivey—develop romantic feelings for Juanita,
Parnell James, is a poor white store owner who derives his but she only truly falls in love when her childhood friend
sense of self-worth from his whiteness. As a young man, he was Richard Henry returns to town after eight years in New York
“wild,” always drinking and chasing women. He became and tells her about his disillusionment with the North and his
infatuated with Willa Mae, the young Black woman taking care former heroin addiction. Juanita and Richard discuss leaving
of his ailing father, and raped her. Lyle claims that this led to a town together, but before they can, racist white store owner
consensual affair. When Willa Mae’s much older husband Lyle Britten murders Richard. After Richard’s death, Juanita
confronted Lyle in an attempt to stop the affair, Lyle murdered hopes desperately that she is pregnant with his child. At Lyle’s
him and claimed it was self-defense. Later, Lyle marries timid trial for Richard’s murder, the racist defense attorney (The
librarian Jo because, in his words, she’s the only “white virgin” State) tries to cast doubt on Juanita’s reliability by implying that
left in town. They have a baby son together. When self- she is sexually promiscuous. As the play ends, Juanita is
confident young Black man Richard Henry has a fight with Lyle planning to march in protest of Lyle’s acquittal.
at his store, Lyle feels utterly humiliated and enraged. He hunts Lorenzo Shannon – Lorenzo Shannon is a Black college student
Richard down and—with a gun—demands that he apologize and studying history who collaborates with Meridian Henry,
call him “sir.” When Richard refuses, Lyle murders him. Lyle Juanita Harmon, Pete Spivey, and others to protest for African-
pressures Jo to lie that Richard sexually assaulted her at his American civil rights. Shortly before the play begins, he has
trial, presumably to prejudice the white jury in his favor. After been violently attacked and thrown in jail for protesting.
his acquittal, when Parnell and Meridian Henry demand the Though the protestors organize in Meridian Henry’s church,
truth from Lyle, he defiantly admits that he murdered Richard Lorenzo thinks of Christianity as an oppressive white religion;
and feels no remorse. he is also openly skeptical of Meridian’s insistence on
Parnell James – Parnell James is an independently wealthy nonviolent protest, thinking that perhaps Black protestors
white man who runs a left-leaning newspaper in an unnamed should get guns for self-defense. When Richard Henry returns
town in the U.S. South. He is longtime friends both with Black home after eight years in New York City, Lorenzo admires
minister Meridian Henry and with virulently racist white Richard’s boldness and self-respect. Lorenzo witnesses

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Richard’s altercation with racist white store owner Lyle Britten. effectively attempts to put Richard’s character on trial to
After Lyle murders Richard, and Lyle’s wife Jo lies at Lyle’s prejudice the white jury in Lyle’s favor, pursuing overtly racist
murder trial that Richard sexually assaulted her during the lines of questioning to suggest Richard was a dangerous drug
altercation at the store, Lorenzo explicitly states that he was addict, a “pimp,” and a “rapist.”
present during the altercation—and Richard never touched Jo. Willa Mae – Willa Mae is a young, pretty Black woman who
Jo Britten – Jo Britten is a timid, racist white woman. A former took care of Lyle Britten’s ailing father. Lyle became sexually
librarian who feared she was becoming a spinster, she jumped infatuated with her and raped her. Subsequently, according to
at the chance to marry Lyle Britten when he proposed to her Lyle, they began a consensual affair. When Willa Mae’s older
despite having heard about his “wild” drinking and womanizing. husband confronted Lyle about the affair, Lyle murdered him
She has a baby son with Lyle and longs for Lyle to really see her and then claimed it was self-defense. Afterward, Willa Mae left
and love her, but she is insecure and jealous of his previous town.
sexual relationships—especially his rumored relationship with
Willa Mae, a young, pretty Black woman whose husband Lyle MINOR CHARACTERS
murdered. At Lyle’s trial for the murder of young Black man
Re
Revverend Phelps – Reverend Phelps is a racist white Christian
Richard Henry, it’s implied that Lyle forces Jo to lie and say that
minister in an unnamed town in the U.S. South. He uses his
Richard sexually assaulted her during an altercation between
religious authority to propound anti-Black and white-
Lyle and Richard at Lyle’s store.
supremacist ideas. He offers social support to Lyle and Jo
Pete Spiv
Spive
ey – Pete Spivey is a Black college student who Britten after Lyle is charged with murdering Richard Henry, a
collaborates with Meridian Henry, Juanita Harmon, Lorenzo young Black man.
Shannon, and others to protest for African American civil
Counsel for the Berea
Bereavved – The Counsel for the Bereaved is
rights. He has both witnessed and suffered terrible white
the prosecuting attorney when Lyle Britten is tried for the
violence against Black protestors; as a result, he sometimes
murder of Richard Henry.
cries or has nightmares after protests. He was jailed with
Lorenzo in the aftermath of one protest. He is in love with Old Bill – Old Bill was Willa Mae’s much-older husband. When
Juanita, wants to marry her, and promises to be faithful to her he attempted to confront Lyle, who was having an affair with
even when she tells him, after Richard Henry’s murder, that his wife, Lyle murdered Old Bill and never suffered
Richard is the first man she ever truly loved. consequences for it.
Mother Henry – Mrs. Wilhelmina Henry, called Mother Henry,
is mother to Meridian Henry and grandmother to Richard
Henry. Her parents were born in slavery; Mother Henry,
THEMES
hoping to learn more than them because she was born free, In LitCharts literature guides, each theme gets its own color-
eventually decided that the purpose of her life was to provide coded icon. These icons make it easy to track where the themes
for her family and teach her children religion. After Richard occur most prominently throughout the work. If you don't have
returns home after eight years in New York City to recover a color printer, you can still use the icons to track themes in
from a heroin addiction, he reveals to Mother Henry that he black and white.
has a gun for self-defense against white people. She
unsuccessfully tries to convince him to give it to her. After Lyle RACISM AND INDIVIDUALITY
Britten’s trial for Richard’s murder, Mother Henry swears
under oath that she never saw Richard with a gun—and swears Blues for Mister Charlie represents people with
again even after the racist white defense lawyer (The State) racist attitudes as unable to see other human
implicitly threatens her with a perjury charge. beings’ individuality: instead, it shows how racism
causes people to perceive others through stereotyped,
Joel Da
Davis/P
vis/Papa
apa D – Joel Davis, usually called Papa D, is a Black racialized fantasies of their own. Thus, people with racist
man who owns a juke joint in an unnamed town in the U.S. attitudes are on a fundamental level alienated both from other
South. Some younger, progressive Black students see Papa D as people and from the truth. This representation of racism and
a traitor because he does business with Lyle Britten, a individuality is clearest in the play’s depiction of Lyle Britten, a
virulently racist white store owner. Papa D helped Lyle cover up poor white store owner living in an unnamed U.S. Southern
his murder of Willa Mae’s husband as self-defense, but he town in the 1960s. Lyle sees everyone—white and
subsequently testifies against Lyle when Lyle is tried for Black—through racist fantasies of white supremacy and Black
Richard Henry’s murder. dangerousness. Anxious and insecure about his own
The State – The State is Lyle Britten’s defense attorney when masculinity, he rapes Willa Mae, the young wife of an older
Lyle is tried for the murder of Richard Henry. The State Black man, subsequently conducts a dubiously consensual

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affair with her, and brags that she told him he was better in bed man” can either lead to personal growth like Richard’s or moral
than any Black man. When the woman’s husband confronts degradation like Lyle’s.
him, Lyle murders the husband and claims it was self-defense
because the man was “crazy” and dangerous. Lyle sees Black CHRISTIANITY AND OPPRESSION
women as sexual targets, and Black men not as people who
Blues for Mister Charlie represents the Black
might care about their wives’ well-being, but as potentially
Christian church as a locus for nonviolent
violent and dangerous sexual competitors. Lyle eventually
resistance against racism, yet it also suggests that
murders another young Black man, Richard Henry, because
Christian teachings encourage Black Christians to endure
Richard refuses to apologize to him or call him “sir”—that is,
without retaliation more oppression than they should have
because Richard asserts his dignity as a human being rather
while bolstering racist attitudes among white people. Thus, the
than bowing to Lyle’s fantasies of white supremacy.
play portrays Christianity as a double-edged sword, both
Lyle’s racist attitudes prevent him from seeing the individuality helping and hurting the cause for racial justice. The play
not only of Black people but also of white people, albeit with suggests throughout that Black churches play an important
less murderous results: for example, he marries his wife Jo not role in anti-racist protesting: in the unnamed U.S. Southern
because he loves her but because he sees her as an acceptable town where the play’s action occurs, a Black Christian minister
racial type, a chaste “white virgin” whom he is sure will be named Meridian Henry organizes protests out of his church,
faithful to him. He does not know—and displays no curiosity and various pieces of dialogue imply that Christian prayer is
about—her inner life. Moreover, Lyle really only thinks of often integrated into the protests. Yet at the same time,
himself as a “white man”—barely a particular individual himself. Meridian openly wonders whether the Christian teachings of
In the play, then, racism leaves racist white people like Lyle nonviolence and “turn[ing] the other cheek” has led Black
stranded in a fantasy world and unable to connect with others Christians to patiently endure racist oppression when they
or themselves on a human level. ought to have been protecting themselves—with violence if
necessary. Meanwhile, the town’s Christian white minister,
MASCULINITY Reverend Phelps, uses his religious authority to preach racism,
In Blues for Mister Charlie, “being a man” has two claiming that Black people who protest for social equality have
different and conflicting meanings: it can mean “turned away from God.” In this way, the play gives a nuanced
acting in a way that respects one’s own and others’ perspective on the intersection of Christianity and equality, in
individual human dignity—or it can mean violently asserting which Christianity is neither a wholly positive nor a wholly
power over others. The former way, the play suggests, is negative force in the fight for racial justice.
redemptive, while the latter destroys lives. The play illustrates
these two versions of masculinity in the final conversation SEXUALITY AND LOVE
between Richard Henry, a young Black man who has returned Blues for Mister Charlie represents sexuality as a
to his U.S. Southern hometown after many years in New York flashpoint for violence in an anti-Black white
City, and Lyle Britten, a poor white store owner with virulently supremacist society, as in order to reinforce racial
racist attitudes. In flashbacks, the play follows Richard and Lyle hierarchy, white supremacists must deny certain forms of
as they antagonize each other, often in front of their wives and interracial attraction while infecting others with violence. In
girlfriends, in escalating bids to assert their dominance and this context, love—truly knowing and caring for another person
prove their masculinity. But during their final conversation, as an individual—is represented as an extraordinarily difficult
when Lyle demands Richard apologize to him, Richard says, “It’s achievement. This dynamic is clear in the sexual and emotional
settled. You a man and I’m a man.” Implicitly, Richard has come lives of Jo Britten, a conformist white woman, and Parnell
to realize his own individual worth and dignity—and so can James, a rich white man with progressive racial attitudes
offer grace to Lyle by telling Lyle that he too is a “man,” (relative to the setting of the U.S. South in the 1960s). Prior to
someone who has inherent human dignity and doesn’t need to her marriage, Jo feels that she must repress all her sexual
assert his worth through violence against others. Yet Lyle, thoughts, implicitly to live up to a white-supremacist ideal of
psychologically and racially insecure, derives his sense of worth sexually pure white Southern womanhood. Though she is
and masculinity from white supremacy—so he murders Richard sexually curious about both white and Black men, she
to prove his manhood, violently asserting his power but cutting interrupts any such curious thoughts by insisting to herself that
himself off from the secure, dignified masculinity that Richard her mind is a “citadel” that must not admit sin. Eventually, Jo lies
has found. Blues for Mister Charlie also shows how Lyle that a young Black man, Richard Henry, sexually assaulted her
associates manhood with sexual dominance, which in turn leads to prejudice a jury against convicting her husband Lyle of
him to dehumanize his sexual partners, both white and Black Richard’s murder. In this way, Jo represents how a white-
women. Thus, the play illustrates how investment in “being a supremacist society denies the possibility that white women

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could be attracted to Black men, while insisting that Black men Analysis sections of this LitChart.
must be attracted to white women—and it uses the latter claim
to justify violence against Black men.
GUNS
Conversely, Parnell James’s first love at age 18 was a 17-year-
old Black girl named Pearl. Parnell believes that they genuinely In Blues for Mister Charlie, guns represent how in a
loved each other because they shared their dreams and knew white-supremacist society, Black people are denied
each other as individuals. Yet Parnell knows that many of his the right to legitimate self-defense. Early in the play, Lorenzo, a
white male peers harass and rape Black girls and women with Black student who has been protesting for civil rights, points
impunity. His awareness that white-supremacist society taints out that white counter-protestors have been trying to kill the
white male attraction to Black women with violence makes him Black protestors, the white police won’t protect Black
feel “sick” and uncertain in his relationship with Pearl. After people—and the Black protestors have “no guns.” In a flashback
Pearl’s mother discovers their relationship and sends Pearl occurring later in the play, a young Black man, Richard Henry,
away, Parnell never has another genuinely loving romantic tells his grandmother Mother Henry that he has a gun and
relationship again. Instead, he has what he calls “black fever”—a means to use it if attacked—horrifying her, implicitly because
desire to escape his guilt-ridden whiteness through sexual she believes white people would kill him if they found out he
contact with Black people. Through Jo and Parnell, the play possessed a weapon. Later, to soothe his grandmother, Richard
shows how in a white-supremacist society, interracial sexual gives the gun to his father, the Christian minister Meridian
attraction is fraught with violence while love is difficult, if not Henry, for safekeeping. After Richard—while unarmed—is shot
impossible, to find. to death by a virulently racist white store owner named Lyle
Britten, Meridian wonders aloud to his white friend Parnell
James whether he did the right thing in asking Black protestors
MONEY AND OPPORTUNITY not to secure weapons and to protest only nonviolently. When
Blues for Mister Charlie implies that white Parnell argues that Black people would “be slaughtered” if they
supremacy is driven, in part, by white economic took up arms, Meridian observes that Black people are being
anxiety—a fear of competing on a level playing field “slaughtered anyway.” Thus, guns represent a catch-22 for
against Black people for money and job opportunities. The Black Americans in a white-supremacist society: they will be
white character with the most progressive racial attitudes, killed for securing guns with the intention of defending
Parnell James, is independently wealthy; by implication, it is themselves against racist violence—but they will also be killed if
easier for him to espouse ethical attitudes about racial justice they are unarmed.
because he need not worry about money—and thus does not
This catch-22 becomes even clearer during Lyle’s trial for
worry about whether, in a racially just society, a Black person
Richard’s murder. Though Lyle shot Richard to death, the
might be hired before him. By contrast, the white character
defense lawyer (called only The State) spends a great deal of
whose violent racism leads to the play’s central conflict, Lyle
time trying to establish whether Richard had a gun,
Britten, is represented as a “poor white” anxious about his
erroneously implying that Richard’s having a gun would justify
economic status and his baby son’s economic future. Lyle
Lyle’s murder of him. Thus, in the play, guns represent how only
eventually murders a young Black man, Richard Henry, for
white people are allowed to defend themselves with violence;
what he perceives as Richard’s humiliation of him in a fight.
Black people are treated as suspicious and killed if they defend
Tellingly, though Lyle and his wife Jo will later push the false
themselves—but they’re also killed if they don’t defend
narrative that Richard sexually assaulted Jo, the fight was
themselves.
largely precipitated by Richard mocking Lyle for not having
enough change for a 20-dollar bill. In other words, Lyle kills
Richard after Richard humiliates him economically. In the same PHOTOS
vein, Parnell later gets into a fight with a racist white man about In Blues for Mister Charlie, Richard’s photos of his
racially biased hiring practices that ends with the other man white girlfriends represent how, in a white-
declaring that white men must be hired before Black people. supremacist society, white people project their sexual anxieties
Thus—while the play also explores the social, sexual, and onto Black people in a racist fashion. The photos initially appear
religious underpinnings of racist violence—it also suggests that in the play when Richard shows them to Juanita, Pete, and Papa
economic anxiety plays a major role in white racism. D at Papa D’s juke joint to prove that he had white girlfriends
when he lived in New York. Juanita, Pete, and Papa D all advise
him to put the photographs away, suggesting that they could be
SYMBOLS a pretext for white violence against him. After virulently racist
Symbols appear in teal text throughout the Summary and white storeowner Lyle Britten kills Richard for a perceived
humiliation, the defense lawyer at Lyle’s trial, called only The

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State, repeatedly asks witnesses about supposedly obscene or
pornographic photographs that Richard had of white the play, for example when racist white man Lyle Britten
women—even though Richard’s photos were ordinary casually admits to raping a married Black woman, Willa
snapshots—and then claims that Richard must have been a Mae, before conducting a dubiously consensual affair with
“pimp” and a “rapist.” The State’s false characterization of the her. That is, Lyle assumes that Willa Mae is or should be
photos and Richard shows how in a white-supremacist society, sexually available to him just because she is Black.
white people attempt to police Black male sexuality with Similarly, when Tom threatens “to cut that big, black thing
violence. It also highlights how white people’s sexual anxieties off,” he imagines a white heckler threatening to castrate a
(about white female sexuality, white male masculinity, and their Black man protesting for social justice. This threat activates
relations to Blackness) get projected onto Black people’s two themes in the play: the emasculation or figurative
perfectly normal behavior, such as having non-obscene photos “castration” of Black men in a white-supremacist society,
of old girlfriends. and white people’s racist fantasies about Black men’s penis
sizes (“big, black thing”) or sexual prowess. Thus, this early
exchange emphasizes that sexuality and masculinity are
QUO
QUOTES
TES important to the play’s representation of white people’s
anti-Black racism.
Note: all page numbers for the quotes below refer to the
Vintage edition of Blues for Mister Charlie published in 1995.

Act 1 Quotes Lorenzo: Mother Henry, I got a lot of respect for you and
all that, and for Meridian too, but that white man’s God is
Ken: How much does your wife charge? white. It’s that damn white God that’s been lynching us and
Meridian: Now you got it. You really got it now. That’s them. burning us and castrating us and raping our women and
Keep walking, Arthur. Keep walking! robbing us of everything that makes a man a man for all these
Tom: You get your ass off these streets from around here, boy, hundreds of years. Now, why we sitting around here, in His
or we going to do us some cutting—we’re going to cut that big, house?
black thing off of you, you hear?
Related Characters: Lorenzo Shannon (speaker), Meridian
Related Characters: Meridian Henry (speaker), Lyle Henry, Mother Henry
Britten, Willa Mae
Related Themes:
Related Themes:
Page Number: 4
Page Number: 3 Explanation and Analysis
Explanation and Analysis Lorenzo Shannon, a Black college student who protests for
Meridian Henry is a Black Christian minister who helps to racial justice during the African-American civil rights
organize protests for racial justice during the African- movement, is questioning why two other racial-justice
American civil rights movement (1954–1968). In this protestors—elderly Mother Henry and her son, Christian
passage, he is coaching several Black students, including minister Meridian Henry—continue to be devout Christians
Ken, Tom, and Arthur, as they roleplay ignoring taunts or and to organize protests for racial justice out of the
threats by white protestors during a nonviolent protest. Christian God’s “house,” i.e. a church.
During the roleplay, Ken and Tom taunt and threaten Arthur Lorenzo is not speaking literally when he calls the Christian
with distinctly sexual overtones, thereby emphasizing early God “that damn white God” and claims that the Christian
in the play the importance of sexual stereotypes to anti- God has been “lynching,” “burning,” “castrating,” “raping,” and
Black racism in a white-supremacist society. “robbing” Black people for “hundreds of years.” Rather,
When Ken asks, “How much does your wife charge?”, he is Lorenzo is indirectly pointing out that many African
imagining a white heckler who assumes—or pretends to American Christians are Christians because white enslavers
assume—that all Black women are sex workers available for forcibly converted them, and that many white “Christians”
the right price. The racist sexual stereotype of Black have committed atrocities against Black people.
women’s general sexual availability will appear elsewhere in Lorenzo is figuratively attributing these atrocities to God to

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point out that nominal belief in the Christian God has never violence if necessary—a form of self-defense that a white-
prevented white Christians from doing terrible, racist, supremacist society denies to Black people.
violent things. He seems to suggest that if the Christian God
can’t improve his followers’ morality, then God isn’t worth
worshipping. And, given his own doubts about God and his
Parnell: You may think that a colored boy who gets ruined
condemnation of white Christians’ moral hypocrisy, he
in the North and then comes home to try to pull himself
cannot understand Mother Henry and Meridian’s ongoing
together deserves to die—I don’t.
Christian belief.

Related Characters: Parnell James (speaker), Richard

Henry, Lyle Britten
Juanita: And then you wouldn’t be any better than they
are. Related Themes:
Lorenzo: I don’t want to be better than they are, why should I
be better than they are? And better at what? Better at being a Page Number: 14
doormat, better at being a corpse?
Explanation and Analysis
Parnell James, a relatively liberal white Southerner in the
Related Characters: Juanita Harmon, Lorenzo Shannon
1960s, has been working behind the scenes to ensure that
(speaker)
the police arrest racist white man Lyle Britten for the
murder of a young Black man, Richard Henry. When the
Related Themes:
police agree to arrest Lyle, Parnell goes to deliver the news
to Lyle himself—because Lyle is his longtime friend. After
Related Symbols:
Parnell delivers the news, Lyle says the arrest is nonsense
and then criticizes Richard, claiming that living in the North
Page Number: 4
“ruined” him.
Explanation and Analysis Parnell’s retort reveals both his racial progressivism relative
Racial-justice protestor Lorenzo has just expressed a desire to Lyle and the limits of Parnell’s anti-racism. When Lyle
to commit public violence against the Christian God, whom says that the North “ruined” Richard, he means that the
he considers a racially white God responsible for white absence of legally enforced racial segregation in the North
violence against Black people. Another protestor, Juanita, made Richard forget his “place” in America’s white-
retorts that such violence would mean that Lorenzo wasn’t supremacist racial hierarchy. By contrast, when Parnell says
“any better than they [i.e. violent white people] are.” that Richard “got ruined” and returned home “to try to pull
Juanita’s claim suggests that oppressed people should care himself together,” he seems to be referring compassionately
about being “better” than their oppressors—about to the heroin addiction that Richard developed in New York
maintaining the moral high ground and avoiding culpable City, which he returned home to recover from. Moreover,
violence. This idea, among others, animates the implicitly by stating that Richard didn’t deserve to die, Parnell is trying
Christian ideals of nonviolent resistance that the protestors to make clear—to the man he knows may have murdered
in the play are currently following. Richard—that there is no justification for killing Richard.
Lorenzo rejects the Christian ideal of nonviolent resistance Yet even as Parnell tries to defend Richard from Lyle’s racist
when he asks rhetorically, “Better at being a doormat, criticisms, he adopts Lyle’s racist language, calling Richard
better at being a corpse?” He is suggesting that nonviolent “boy” even though Richard was in his 20s, and echoing Lyle’s
resistance is ultimately self-defeating because the resisters use of the word “ruined.” While Parnell may be echoing
will end up “corpse[s],” destroyed by their oppressors who Lyle’s terminology ironically, he still echoes it—which
are willing to use violence to maintain privilege. Lorenzo’s suggests that the racism of Parnell’s white friends
suggestion that survival is more important than the moral unconsciously influences Parnell’s thinking, even as he
high ground helps to introduce an ongoing debate among attempts to differentiate himself from it.
the Black protestors about whether they should obtain
guns to protect themselves. In this context, the guns
represent a willingness to defend oneself with homicidal

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Richard: My mother fell down the steps of that damn white Richard: Every one of them’s got some piss-assed, faggoty
hotel? My mother was pushed—you remember yourself white boy on a string somewhere. They go home and
how them white bastards was always sniffing around my marry him, dig, when they can’t make it with me no more—but
mother, always around her—because she was pretty and black! when they want some loving, funky, down-home, bring-it-on-
here-and-put-it-on-the-table style—
Related Characters: Richard Henry (speaker), Mother Juanita: They sound very sad. It must be very sad for you, too.
Henry
Related Characters: Richard Henry, Juanita Harmon
Related Themes: (speaker), Meridian Henry, Pete Spivey
Page Number: 20–21 Related Themes:
Explanation and Analysis
Page Number: 26
In a flashback, Richard Henry—who has returned to his
childhood home after eight years in New York City to Explanation and Analysis
recover from a heroin addiction—is talking with his Richard, recently returned home to the South from New
grandmother Mother Henry about his mother’s death, the York City, has gone out with college students and racial-
event that led Richard to leave the South in the first place. justice protestors Juanita and Pete for drinks and dancing.
Richard’s mother was found dead at the bottom of some Richard is bragging about taking money from his white
rain-soaked stairs at a white hotel (presumably her place of girlfriends who want him for his superior “loving,” i.e. sexual
employment). Though Mother Henry claims that Richard’s prowess.
mother died in an accidental fall, Richard insists that she
This quotation shows how Richard has reacted to feelings of
“was pushed.”
being “emasculated” in a white-supremacist society with
Richard’s justification for believing that his mother was internalized racism and unproductive attempts at revenge.
murdered illuminates the different ways that white The audience already knows that Richard believes his
supremacy polices interracial relationships. Whereas white mother was murdered by a white man whose sexual
supremacy forbids sexual relationships between white advances she refused; he feels that he and his father have
women and non-white men, it allows white men to sexually been emasculated by their failure to revenge her murder.
prey on nonwhite women. Richard witnessed that white Aware of racist white men’s anxious fantasies about Black
men were “sniffing around” his mother because she was male endowment and sexual prowess, Richard tries to take
“pretty and black”—that is, the white patrons of the hotel an indirect revenge on white men by having sex with white
sexually harassed his mother because they felt sexually women. Yet in doing so, Richard caricatures not only white
entitled to her due to her Blackness. By implication, when men—whom he calls “faggoty,” a homophobic slur clearly
Richard’s mother refused to have sex with one or several of attempting to disparage their masculinity—but also himself,
these entitled white men, one of them killed her in using slang terms like “funky” and “down-home” to racially
retaliation—and got away with it. stereotype himself as an earthy, primitive sexual expert.
Richard’s suspicion illustrates that anti-Black racism, By implication, Richard’s white girlfriends may also be
especially sexual racism, operates differently on Black men racially stereotyping him in this way—they may not want
and Black women. Whereas, in a white-supremacist society, Richard himself, but Richard as a “Black” sexual experience.
Black men are under threat of fatal violence if they agree to When Juanita flatly suggests that this dynamic—in which
have sex with a white woman, Black women are under Richard dislikes the women he sleeps with, sexually and
threat of fatal violence if they refuse to have sex with a white racially stereotypes himself, and seeks unsatisfying
man. In both cases, however, white supremacy violently revenge—as “very sad,” she seems to speak for the play,
restricts Black sexual autonomy. which suggests that Richard’s casual sexual relationships
with white women have been psychologically damaging for
him.

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Meridian: Of course, if you go back far enough, you get to a
point before Christ, if you see what I mean, B.C.—and at
Related Themes:
that point, I’ve been thinking, black people weren’t raised to
turn the other cheek, and in the hope of heaven. No, then they Page Number: 41
didn’t have to take low. Before Christ. They walked around just
as good as anybody else, and when they died, they didn’t go to Explanation and Analysis
heaven, they went to join their ancestors. After Lyle Britten is arrested on suspicion of having
murdered Richard, Meridian talks with Parnell—a white
Related Characters: Meridian Henry (speaker), Richard man who is friends with both Meridian and Lyle—about Lyle.
Henry, Lyle Britten, Parnell James Though Parnell himself helped pressure the police chief into
arresting Lyle, he asks Meridian to consider whether Lyle
Related Themes: might be innocent in Richard’s death. When Meridian points
out that Lyle has previously killed a Black man—though the
Page Number: 38 killing was tendentiously ruled “self-defense”—Parnell tries
to argue that Lyle isn’t a bad person, just a “poor white man”
Explanation and Analysis who has thus been “victimized” like Black people in the
After Lyle murders Richard, Meridian—who has been South.
organizing nonviolent protests for racial justice—talks to his Parnell’s argument has two functions. One, it shows the
white friend Parnell James about whether Christian- limits of Parnell’s anti-racism. The claim that “poor whites
inflected pacifism is really the right approach to fighting for have been just as victimized in this part of the world as the
racial justice. blacks” is clearly false, both in general and in Lyle’s case. In
The phrase “turn the other cheek” refers to the Sermon on general, poor white people were never enslaved, whereas
the Mount, in which Jesus Christ advises his followers not Black people were. In Lyle’s case, though he has struggled
to return violence for violence: “If anyone slaps you on the with poverty, he has never suffered the kind of violent
right cheek, turn to them the other cheek also” (Matthew discrimination that he inflicts on Black men like Old Bill (the
5:39). When Meridian says that Black people have been man he claimed to have killed in self-defense) and Richard.
“raised” in Christian nonviolence “in the hope of heaven,” he Parnell simply wants to believe that Lyle is prejudiced
means that Christianity teaches that people who suffer because he is “victimized” rather than face the extent of his
violence but refuse to commit violence themselves will be longtime friend’s violence and racism.
rewarded in the afterlife. Yet while the play insists Parnell is in the wrong here, the
Meridian worries that Black Christians’ hope for the claim that Lyle is a victim of sorts does hint that Lyle’s
afterlife has led them to accept poor treatment in this life: poverty is important to his psychology. This claim will later
prior to converting to Christianity, Black people “walked be borne out when it is revealed that Lyle killed Richard
around just as good as anybody else,” implicitly because they after Richard humiliated him economically—by repeatedly
were willing to violently resist anyone who oppressed them. pointing out that Lyle’s store didn’t have enough change for
But after converting to Christianity, Meridian suggests, they a $20. Thus, though Parnell’s defense of Lyle fails, it does
humbly accepted poor treatment from white people in hope foreshadow that Lyle’s anti-Black racism derives in part
of a reward from God. Meridian’s questioning of this from his insecurity around his class status, insecurity that
dynamic is an important turning point for his character: a he tries to mitigate through a belief in his essential
Black Christian minister himself, he shows his growing supremacy as a white person.
doubts about Christianity by questioning whether
Christianity has exacerbated racial injustice in the U.S.
Parnell: Meridian—what you ask—I don’t know if I can do it
for you.
Parnell: He’s a poor white man. The poor whites have been Meridian: I don’t want you to do it for me. I want you to do it for
just as victimized in this part of the world as the blacks you.
have ever been!

Related Characters: Meridian Henry, Parnell James

Related Characters: Parnell James (speaker), Richard (speaker), Richard Henry, Lyle Britten
Henry, Meridian Henry, Lyle Britten, Old Bill

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supremacy’s fear of interracial romantic relationships.

Related Themes:
Ellis dehumanizes Black men, referring to them using a
Page Number: 43 racial slur, by comparing them to “a orang-outang” or a
“stallion.” He is essentially claiming that Black men have
Explanation and Analysis animalistically large genitalia that physically ruin the women
Meridian has requested that Parnell ask Lyle Britten they have sex with. Ellis’s casual invocation of this racist
whether Lyle murdered Meridian’s son Richard. In myth about Black male genitalia reveals nothing about Black
response, Parnell, who is friends with both Meridian and men themselves: rather, it reveals that Ellis feels less sexual
Lyle, admits, “I don’t know if I can”—suggesting both that and less masculine than Black men—that his racism derives
Parnell fears betraying his friendship with Lyle and that he in part from his own anxieties about masculinity and
fears finding out who Lyle really is. Meridian replies that sexuality.
Parnell wouldn’t be doing it for Meridian but for himself. Ellis’s comment also reveals the sexism behind white-
This reply illuminates why, in the play’s view, white people supremacist men’s belief that they must be “vigilant” in
should be anti-racist. White anti-racism isn’t about white protecting white women. He says that a white woman
people doing Black people a favor, just as Parnell asking Lyle “wouldn’t be no more good for nobody” if a Black man raped
whether he killed Richard wouldn’t be about Parnell doing her. This statement reveals that he thinks of women in
Meridian a favor. Rather, the play suggests that white terms of who they are “good for” and worries about white
people should be anti-racist to learn the truth about the women being raped, not because it would be bad for the
world, other people, and themselves. In this sense, Parnell women, but because he thinks it make them “no more good
might learn about how the world truly is, about Lyle’s true for” sexual use by white men. Thus, in this scene, Ellis
nature, and about his own moral commitments by unwittingly shows that white-supremacist myths about
discovering whether Lyle actually murdered Richard in a animalistic Black men raping white women are rooted in
racist hate crime. In other words, the play is suggesting that extremely racist and sexist white anxieties.
white people should be anti-racist if they care about the
truth and if they care about their own moral development.
Lillian: I wouldn’t filthy my hands with that Communist
sheet!
Act 2 Quotes
Parnell: Ah? But the father of your faith, the cornerstone of that
Ellis: Mrs. Britten, if you was to be raped by a orang- church of which you are so precious an adornment, was a
outang out of the jungle or a stallion, couldn’t do you no worse communist, possibly the first.
than a nigger. You wouldn’t be no more good for nobody. I’ve
seen it
Related Characters: Parnell James (speaker), Richard
[…] Henry, Lyle Britten, Jo Britten
That’s why we men have got to be so vigilant.
Related Themes:
Related Characters: Richard Henry, Lyle Britten, Jo Britten Page Number: 52
Related Themes: Explanation and Analysis
After Parnell enters Jo and Lyle’s house, where white
Page Number: 50
townspeople have gathered to support Lyle in anticipation
Explanation and Analysis of his arrest for the murder of Richard Henry, various white
After the news that Lyle will be arrested for Richard Henry’s townspeople criticize Parnell for his relatively progressive
murder spreads through town, some white townspeople racial politics. When one woman named Lillian accuses the
come to Lyle’s house to show support for Lyle. When the newspaper Parnell runs of being “Communist,” Parnell
talk turns to race relations, the white townspeople begin to retorts that “the father of [her] faith,” i.e. Jesus Christ, “was
make racist and segregationist comments. Through one a communist, possibly the first.”
such comment, by a white man named Ellis, the play The exchange between Lillian and Parnell reveals the
explores the dehumanizing racism and sexism behind white narrow-mindedness and hypocrisy of the town’s nominally

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Christian white population. The play, which was published in Interestingly, although the white people around Parnell
1964, takes place during the Cold War (1947–1991), keep claiming they believe in segregation and white
decades of tension and competition between the capitalist supremacy to protect white women from sexually predatory
U.S. and the communist USSR. Communism, as it was Black men, they react just as badly to Parnell’s desire for
practiced in the USSR, was notably anti-religious. Thus, economic equality as they do to the idea of interracial
when the woman accuses Parnell’s newspaper of being romantic relationships. One man actually interrupts Parnell
“communist” in a Cold War setting, she is essentially before Parnell can even finish explaining the concept of
claiming that Parnell’s calls for racial justice are somehow racial equality among jobseekers. This incident—both
anti-Christian and anti-American. Parnell’s championing equality of economic opportunity and
Parnell responds by claiming that Jesus was a communist. the white townspeople’s hostile reaction to it—suggests
Though Jesus was not literally a communist in the modern that while sexual anxiety may play a major role in white
sense, he did say that “it is easier for a camel to pass through racism, white fears of having to compete economically on a
the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter the level playing field with Black people also feed white
Kingdom of God” (Matthew 19:24), and his early apostles supremacy.
“shared everything they had” with one another rather than
asserting any right to personal property (Acts 4:32). Thus,
Christ and Christianity are critical of wealth accumulation Jo: It’s not different—how can you say that? White men
and sympathetic to communal property-owning—which is ain’t got no more business fooling around with black
consonant with some communistic claims. Parnell’s retort women than—
that Jesus was a communist thus shows that Lillian’s Lyle: Girl, will you stop getting yourself into an uproar? Men is
association of Christianity with capitalism, America, and different from women—they ain’t as delicate.
white supremacy is unthinking, hypocritical, and not
supported by the religion in which she claims to believe.
Related Characters: Lyle Britten, Jo Britten (speaker),
Parnell James
Parnell: It means that if I have a hundred dollars, and I’m Related Themes:
black, and you have a hundred dollars, and you’re white, I
should be able to get as much value for my hundred dollars—my Page Number: 59–60
black hundred dollars—as you get for your white hundred
dollars. It also means that I should have an equal opportunity to Explanation and Analysis
earn that hundred dollars— Jo and Lyle have been bantering with Parnell about Parnell’s
early education in Switzerland, where Parnell was co-
educated with upper-class African students who dated
Related Characters: Parnell James (speaker)
American and European white girls. When Lyle claims that
Related Themes: he’d never let his daughter go to Switzerland but letting his
son go and date African girls would be different, Jo angrily
Page Number: 54 insists that it’s not “different”—but Lyle, talking over her,
insists men and women are “different” because men are less
Explanation and Analysis “delicate.”
Parnell is attempting to explain to a group of hostile white The different reactions of Jo and Lyle to interracial romantic
townspeople what he means by social justice. Though the relationships illustrate two different forms of racism. Jo’s
white townspeople keep assuming he is talking about form of racism is purely segregationist: she believes that
interracial romantic relationships, Parnell cashes out his white people, male or female, have no “business fooling
concept of social justice in economic terms, arguing that around with” Black people. By contrast, Lyle believes that
social justice involves two elements: getting “as much value” white women have no “business fooling around with” Black
for $100 regardless of your race, and having “an equal men—but it’s fine for white men to have sexual relationships
opportunity to earn” $100. In other words, Parnell believes with Black women.
that social justice involves equality among consumers and
This form of racism suggests a social hierarchy with white
equality among jobseekers.
men at the pinnacle: white women are for white men’s

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exclusive sexual use, so white female-Black male Related Characters: Richard Henry, Lyle Britten (speaker),
relationships are forbidden. But in this hierarchy, Black Juanita Harmon, Jo Britten
women are also for white men’s sexual use, so white male-
Black female relationships are fine. Thus, this exchange Related Themes:
reveals that racism and white supremacy come in different
flavors—and Lyle’s racism is also deeply sexist, premised on Page Number: 73
white male entitlement to white and Black women’s Explanation and Analysis
sexuality.
In a flashback, Richard has entered Lyle’s store with the
apparent intention of starting a fight with him—presumably
to pay back Lyle for Lyle’s earlier rudeness to Richard’s
Parnell: Nobody in the world knew about her inside, what friend and love interest Juanita. Richard’s main tactic for
she was like, and how she dreamed, but me. And nobody in humiliating Lyle—and secondarily Lyle’s wife Jo—is to ask
the world knew about me inside, what I wanted, and how I whether Jo can make change for $20 when Richard tries to
dreamed, but her. buy two Cokes (which cost mere cents in 1964 when the
play was first produced). When Jo is unable to make change
Related Characters: Parnell James (speaker), Jo Britten for $20, Richard sarcastically claims that he “know[s]” the
Brittens must have “some change at home”—and then asks,
Related Themes: rhetorically, “Don’t you?” The implication is, in fact, that the
Brittens don’t have change at home: Richard is mocking
Page Number: 64 their poor class status.
Explanation and Analysis Interestingly, Lyle uses Richard’s neutral mention of his wife
Jo to change the implicit subject of the fight from economics
When Jo Britten—anxious about rumors she has heard
to sexuality. Whereas Richard is trying to fight Lyle by
about her husband Lyle’s previous sexual relationships with
calling Lyle poor, Lyle tries to make the fight about his white
Black women—asks Lyle’s friend Parnell whether Parnell
wife’s honor being insulted by a young Black man: “I don’t
has ever loved a Black woman, Parnell tells Jo about his
stand for nobody to talk about my wife.” Lyle’s change of
high-school girlfriend Pearl, whom he believes he loved.
subject here suggests he is too insecure about his economic
When describing their relationship, he talks about it in
status relative to Richard’s to fight about it
terms of him and Pearl really knowing each other as
directly—instead, he has to activate the white-supremacist
individuals: he was the only one who “knew about her inside”
myth of the white man defending the white woman’s honor
and she was the only one who “knew about [him] inside.” from the predatory Black man. Through Lyle’s dodge, the
This focus on Pearl and Parnell’s insides is clearly intended play may be suggesting that white racism, though nominally
to exclude questions of skin color: knowing that Pearl is a about sexual anxiety, may also be about white economic
Black girl is not adequate to know who she really is as a anxieties of competing with Black people as consumers and
person, just as knowing that Parnell is a white boy is not employees. The sexual anxiety, however, is easier to give
adequate to know who he really is. Rather, this suggests voice to than economic anxieties.
that truly knowing someone requires knowing what they’re
“like,” how they “dream[],” and what they “want[]”: their
personality, their aspirations, and their desires. This
Juanita: I used to watch you roaring through this town like
quotation from Parnell thus implies that, in the play’s view, if
a St. George thirsty for dragons. And I wanted to let you
people fixate on social categories like race to the exclusion
know you haven’t got to do all that; dragons aren’t hard to find,
of paying attention to people’s other characteristics, it
they’re everywhere. And nobody wants you to be St. George.
prevents love. In this view, racism is—among other things—a
We just want you to be Parnell.
failure of love.

Related Characters: Juanita Harmon (speaker), Richard

Henry, Parnell James
Richard: Maybe your wife could run home and get some
change. You got some change at home, I know. Don’t you?
Related Themes:
Lyle: I don’t stand for nobody to talk about my wife.
Page Number: 79

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Explanation and Analysis At Lyle Britten’s trial for the murder of Richard Henry, the
defense attorney (The State) repeatedly asks witnesses
At Richard’s funeral, Parnell is talking to Juanita when he about whether Richard had a gun and whether he ever
realizes aloud—for the first time—that Juanita loved showed them pornographic photos of white women. When
Richard. When Juanita asks how Parnell manages to be Richard’s friend Lorenzo testifies, he flatly declares, “It
ignorant of so many things, he asks why she’s being harsh, wasn’t like that.” This declaration could be interpreted in
and she eventually explains that he acts, unnecessarily, “like two ways. Lorenzo could be declaring that Richard didn’t
a St. George thirsty for dragons.” In the legend of St. George have a gun or pornographic photos of white women. In that
and the dragon, St. George (the patron saint of England) case, Lorenzo would either be partially lying or ignorant of
slays a dragon that has been besieging a city and eating its the truth: Richard did in fact own a gun, and he did have
inhabitants. Through the comparison to St. George, Juanita snapshots of white girlfriends, though they were in no way
is suggesting that Parnell has a hero complex—or perhaps pornographic.
more specifically a white savior complex. That is, he derives
his self-worth from an idea of himself as a hero helping On the other hand, when Lorenzo says, “It wasn’t like that,”
(Black) others. he could simply mean that The State trying to use the gun
and the photographs to change the subject from the
When Juanita says that “nobody wants [Parnell] to be St. important point: Richard “was a beautiful cat, and they killed
George” but only “to be Parnell,” she is suggesting two him.” In other words, whether Richard had a gun or photos
things. First, by claiming that nobody wants Parnell to be St. of white girlfriends has no bearing on whether Lyle
George, she is pointing out that the Black townspeople murdered Richard. However, the existence of the gun and
don’t want a white savior—they don’t desire and aren’t the photos might prejudice the white jury against Richard
asking for Parnell to solve all their problems, though they because they want to deny Black people’s legal right to bear
may accept him as an ally. Second, when she says that she arms for self-defense or because they fear interracial
and others just want Parnell “to be Parnell,” she is offering to relationships; indeed, this seems to be why the State
value Parnell as an individual person rather than as a continues to bring up both throughout the trial. Thus, in this
stereotype of the “good white man.” Through this offer, quotation, Lorenzo is calling attention to the fact that Lyle’s
Juanita implies that Parnell has, in a way, been racially defense attorney is using the gun and the photos in a racist
objectifying himself—treating himself as a white knight or a attempt to put Richard on trial for his own murder—to
“good white person” and so ignoring his own individual blame Richard for his own death.
humanity. Parnell’s self-objectification shows how, in the
play’s view, racial thinking can be bad for white people’s self-
knowledge and individuality as well as their moral
development. Juanita: I am not responsible for your imagination.

Related Characters: Juanita Harmon (speaker), Richard

Act 3 Quotes Henry, Meridian Henry, Lyle Britten, Jo Britten, Pete Spivey,
Lorenzo: They been asking me about photographs they say The State
he was carrying and they been asking me about a gun I never
saw. No. It wasn’t like that. He was a beautiful cat, and they Related Themes:
killed him.
Page Number: 97

Related Characters: Lorenzo Shannon (speaker), Richard Explanation and Analysis

Henry, Lyle Britten, The State, Counsel for the Bereaved Lyle Britten’s defense attorney, called The State, has been
questioning Juanita about whether she had romantic
Related Themes: relationships with Richard Henry, Meridian Henry, or Pete
Spivey—and concludes by insinuating that Juanita is an
Related Symbols: unreliable witness because she is sexually promiscuous.
Juanita simply replies, “I am not responsible for your
Page Number: 93 imagination.”
Explanation and Analysis This reply is an important thematic statement for the play.

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Throughout the play, white characters have projected their become one.” This declaration is an important turning point
own sexual anxieties and fantasies onto Black characters in for Meridian’s character. Over the course of the play,
a racist manner. For example, they have claimed that Black Meridian has vocally doubted his own leadership of Black
men are sexually predatory and that Black women are townspeople protesting for social justice, wondering
sexually promiscuous and generally “available.” These racist whether someone else would do a better job. His tentative
white fantasies cause Black characters material harm—most claim that he “may be beginning to become” a minister, a
obviously when Lyle is acquitted for Richard’s murder after spiritual leader, in defending his dead son’s character from a
Jo lies on the stand that Richard sexually assaulted her, white racist smear campaign shows that Meridian has come
playing into the racist stereotype of the predatory Black to harshly judge his own previous leadership in the past—he
man attacking the innocent white woman. What Juanita’s doesn’t think he is yet a full-fledged leader—but also that he
statement asserts is that Black people should not be held believes he is growing into the role.
morally or practically “responsible” for white people’s racist
imaginings about them—these anxieties and fantasies are
properly white people’s problems to solve.
Lyle: You ain’t no better than me!
Parnell: I am aware of that. God knows I have been made aware
of that—for the first time in my life.
Meridian: I don’t think that the alleged object was my son’s
type at all!
Related Characters: Lyle Britten, Parnell James (speaker),
The State: And you are a minister?
Richard Henry, Meridian Henry, Juanita Harmon, Jo Britten
Meridian: I think I may be beginning to become one.
Related Themes:
Related Characters: Meridian Henry, The State (speaker),
Page Number: 117
Richard Henry, Lyle Britten
Explanation and Analysis
Related Themes:
After Lyle is acquitted for the murder of Richard, Meridian
still demands to know whether Lyle murdered Richard—and
Related Symbols:
Parnell backs Meridian up. Lyle expresses outrage that
Parnell seemed to doubt Jo’s story about Richard sexually
Page Number: 105
assaulting her and tells Parnell, “You ain’t no better than
Explanation and Analysis me!” Parnell replies that he has “been made aware of
that—for the first time.”
At Lyle’s trial for Richard’s murder, Lyle’s defense attorney,
called The State, attempts to get Lyle acquitted by This exchange helps to characterize how Lyle and Parnell’s
prejudicing the jury against Richard in various characters have developed—or failed to develop—over the
ways—essentially putting Richard’s character on trial. While course of the play. When Lyle cries out that Parnell isn’t
questioning Meridian, the State asks Meridian whether better than he is, he seems to mean that even though
Richard ever showed him pornographic photos of white Parnell is richer, he and Parnell are social equals—because
women—a clear attempt to activate racist stereotypes they are both white men. In other words, Lyle has failed to
about predatory Black men interested in white develop beyond crude white-supremacist thinking because
women—and then accuses Richard of having attempted to he derives his self-esteem solely from his racial status.
rape Lyle’s wife Jo. Meridian, aware that the accusation is a By contrast, when Parnell admits that he has realized he is
ridiculous lie, mockingly replies: “I don’t think the alleged no better than Lyle “for the first time,” he means something
object [i.e. Jo] was my son’s type at all!” By ridiculing the quite different. Parnell is admitting that he has been just as
State’s claim, Meridian defends his son while simultaneously complicit in white supremacy as Lyle—because, during Lyle’s
revealing as absurd the racist stereotype that Black men are trial, he failed to call out Jo’s lie that Richard sexually
always interested in white women. assaulted her even though he was sure she has lying. In
When the State pretends outrage at Meridian’s response, other words, Parnell has realized that his long-term
rhetorically questioning whether Meridian is a Christian friendship with Lyle is no longer tenable because supporting
“minister,” Meridian replies, “I think I may be beginning to Lyle means supporting white supremacy, something that
Parnell is disgusted to realize he has done. Yet Parnell’s

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realization that he is no better than Lyle, in contrast with foreshadowing the play’s ending, when Parnell asks Juanita
Lyle’s total failure of self-knowledge, leaves open the whether he can march with the racial-justice protestors in
possibility that Parnell will grow as a person—thus opposition to Lyle’s acquittal.

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SUMMARY AND ANAL

ANALYSIS
YSIS
The color-coded icons under each analysis entry make it easy to track where the themes occur most prominently throughout the
work. Each icon corresponds to one of the themes explained in the Themes section of this LitChart.

ACT 1
A gunshot rings out. A white man, Lyle, drops the corpse of a When Lyle wishes that every Black person would die like Richard, it
young Black man, Richard, and expresses his wish—using a makes clear that Lyle did not shoot Richard from merely individual
racial slur—that every Black person should die like Richard. or interpersonal motives: Lyle murdered Richard in an anti-Black
Later, in a church—from which is visible a courthouse flying an hate crime, and racist Lyle sees Richard as somehow representative
American flag—a Black minister, Meridian, coaches Black of Blackness. Subsequently, when Black Christian minister Meridian
students on not reacting when white hecklers call them slurs, is training racial justice protestors in a Christian church, it reminds
call their sisters or mothers sex workers, or threaten to cut off readers of the centrality of Black Christian churches to organizing
their penises. One student spits on another, and Meridian has the African-American civil rights movement (1954–1968), an
to break up a fight. Everyone is shaking. extended campaign against segregation and for equal rights in the
U.S. The protestors anticipate that white hecklers will insult them in
specifically sexual ways, emphasizing how anti-Black racism often
involves negative sexual stereotypes about Black women and men.

Meridian’s mother, Mother Henry, enters. More Black Though the protestors are organizing out of a church, Lorenzo
students—including Juanita, Lorenzo, and Pete—enter carrying expresses skepticism toward the Christian ideal of pacifism when he
signs and looking like they’ve been attacked. Pete is crying. wishes the protestors were in an “arsenal,” i.e. a place for storing
Lorenzo claims not to blame Pete—it makes him feel terrible weaponry. By calling the Christian God the “white man’s God,”
too, standing there while white people attack—but eventually Lorenzo also reminds his listeners that many white enslavers
he yells at Pete to stop, “goddammit!” When Juanita points out forcibly converted the Black people they enslaved to Christianity,
that they’re in church, Lorenzo says he wishes they were in an making Christianity by some viewpoints an oppressors’ religion.
“arsenal” and says he doesn’t understand Meridian: Meridian’s
son Richard was murdered last week, and the “white man’s
God” let it happen.

When Lorenzo says he wishes he could drag God “through this To Lorenzo, guns represent the possibility of violent self-defense.
town at the end of a rope,” Juanita tells him that would make Because he lives in a violent white-supremacist society that targets
him no better than white people. Lorenzo asks what better him for his Blackness, he feels that embracing Christian pacificism
means: “Better at being a doormat, better at being a corpse?” and the moral high ground will end with him as a “doormat” or a
He points out that, after many non-violent protests, several of “corpse.” Juanita, by contrast, cares about maintaining the moral
their protesters have been seriously harmed and all they’ve high ground over white oppressors: precisely because dragging
gained is access to an obsolete library. Now white people are someone “through this town at the end of a rope” sounds like
killing them, while they don’t have guns and the police won’t something white lynchers would do, she wants no part of it.
protect them.

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Meridian asks whether the police arrested any protestors. Pete Meridian and Lorenzo’s disagreement over Parnell poses an
says the police are too busy trying to explain away Richard’s important thematic question: are white people like Parnell capable
corpse. When Meridian declares his intention to bring the of breaking with their white-supremacist social indoctrination and
murderer to trial, Lorenzo points out that the murderer has acting according to their individual consciences? Then, Meridian
killed a Black man before, and the police did nothing. When and Lorenzo’s disagreement about whether Lorenzo “know[s]
Meridian declares that Parnell will help, Pete says that Parnell better” than to act as badly as white people do poses another
won’t act against his “buddy.” Meridian insists that Parnell is the thematic question: do Black people have an obligation to be more
one white person who’s worked to ensure a trial. Lorenzo says moral than their white oppressors, and, if so, why? Meridian thinks
he doesn’t trust Parnell: white people only act morally when that Black people do not have the right to behave as badly as white
they want Black people to—and Lorenzo feels that he, Lorenzo, people simply because they do “know better”—though he doesn’t
has the right to act as immorally as anyone. Meridian retorts make clear whether he thinks that is due to the teachings of Black
that he doesn’t have the right—because he “know[s] better.” Christian churches or simply due to a clearer-eyed view of the
horrors of white supremacy.

Parnell enters and announces that a warrant has been issued This short scene suggests that Parnell is trying to act against white
for Lyle’s arrest. When Juanita says that no one in town will talk supremacy according to his individual conscience—yet he still
to Parnell anymore, he says he hopes those assembled will. openly admits that he is friends with Lyle, the white man who
Then he says he wants to go warn Lyle—who is his friend. When murdered Richard. This admission foreshadows that Parnell may
Juanita thanks Parnell, he asks her not to—he only did as he felt have to choose between following his conscience and maintaining
compelled. He leaves. Meridian wonders whether Lyle will be his friendship with Lyle. Meanwhile, when Juanita says that Lyle is
convicted. Juanita says that they haven’t yet arrested Lyle, who “no worse than” the other white people in town, it suggests that
is “no worse than the others.” Lyle’s violent white supremacy is mainstream in the town, not an
aberration.

On the white side of town, Lyle is bouncing his infant son. His Lyle’s regular use of racial slurs underscores his casual racism and
wife Jo enters and complains about how Lyle has been staying white-supremacist commitments. Yet his conversation with Jo
out until the early morning. Lyle claims he’s planning to expand makes clear he is economically reliant on Black customers and that
the store. When Jo points out that the store is scraping by, Lyle he lacks money to expand his store by himself. His words hint that
predicts—using a racial slur—that their Black customers will he resents relying on Black customers, suggesting that his economic
come back soon. Jo asks where Lyle will get money to expand anxiety and his racism feed off one another.
the store, Lyle suggests he’ll get a loan from Parnell. Jo says
that Parnell called earlier, saying he’d looked for Lyle at the
store, but Lyle wasn’t there. Lyle claims he went for a walk.

Jo says Parnell mentioned he would come by with bad news Jo’s casual reference to Richard, an adult, as a “crazy boy”
and predicts that Lyle will be arrested: he was the last person underscores her racism. Her and Lyle’s discussion of “that other
to see “that crazy boy” Richard and that now everyone is time”—by implication, the other time Lyle killed a Black man—both
thinking about “that other time.” Lyle insists the other time was makes clear that Lyle has a violent history and that Jo and Lyle feel
self-defense. When Jo wonders what happened to the wife of uneasy about the prior killing, though perhaps for different reasons.
the man Lyle killed, Lyle suggests he’d wouldn’t know—but then The revelation that Lyle’s first victim had a young, pretty wife hints
he says she had relatives in Detroit. When Jo says that the wife that perhaps Lyle had a sexual motive for killing him—and hints in
was pretty, Lyle (using a racial slur) says she looked like a child, turn that Lyle has experienced interracial sexual attraction despite
too young for her husband. Jo says that all the “talk” about the his virulent racism.
incident frightens her. When Lyle asks whether she believes it,
she claims she doesn’t and mentions that the coming Monday is
their one-year wedding anniversary.

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The Brittens’ bell rings. It’s Parnell. Lyle, calling Parnell “old Lyle insinuates that Parnell only advocates for the Black townsfolk
rascal,” says he’s been too busy with Black people for his white because he has a Black girlfriend. This association suggests that
friends and (using a racial slur) suggests he might have a Black white supremacists tend to link advocacy for racial justice with the
“wench” for a girlfriend. Parnell apologizes to Jo for her possibility of interracial sex, on which white supremacists like Lyle
husband. When Lyle asks Parnell what he’s been up to, Parnell seem anxiously fixated. Parnell’s claim that he defended Lyle to the
claims he’s been defending Lyle to the Chief of Police—but that police—when his earlier conversation with Meridian and the others
the police do intend to arrest Lyle, as Joel Davis (Papa D) has suggests that he actually pushed the police to arrest Lyle—shows his
testified that Lyle was the last person to see Richard alive. Lyle troubling desire to preserve his friendship with Lyle despite Lyle’s
suggests that all this is “foolishness,” but Parnell points out that violent hate crime. When Parnell points out that Lyle would already
if Richard had been white, Lyle would already be in jail. be in jail if Richard were white, meanwhile, it makes clear that
racism will likely stymie justice in Richard’s murder case.

Lyle and Parnell (using racial slurs) discuss whether Richard Even though Parnell seems to be trying to help Meridian get justice
counted as a “northern” Black person and whether the North for Richard’s murder, he still casually uses racial slurs and calls adult
“ruined” him. Lyle thinks yes; he also speculates that Richard Richard a “boy” in conversation with Lyle, showing how ingrained
was a drug addict and that another Black man probably killed anti-Black racism and white supremacy were among white people in
him. When Parnell says that he doesn’t think a “colored boy” the 1960s U.S. When he and Lyle debate whether the North
who comes home to the South from the North deserves to die, “ruined” Richard, it suggests that white-supremacist Lyle believes
Lyle says that he has nothing “against colored folks”—but he that Black people in the South “know their place” in a way that
doesn’t believe in racial mixing, which he says (using racial slurs Northern Black people don’t—another example of Lyle’s virulent
again) will end with a large Black man coming on to Jo. racist views. Finally, Lyle bizarrely insists that racial justice will lead
to Black men hitting on his wife, showing how sexual anxieties and
the employment of anti-Black sexual stereotypes feed into white
supremacy.

Parnell asks whether, if Lyle’s son wanted to marry a Chinese When Parnell “tr[ies] to make [Lyle] think” about how Lyle would
girl, Lyle would shoot his son or the girl to stop it. When Lyle react if his son wanted an interracial marriage, it shows that Parnell
asks whether Parnell is turning on him, Parnell says he’s “just understands it’s racist anxieties about interracial sex that drive
trying to make you think.” Lyle points out that Parnell never some of Lyle’s white-supremacist attitudes. However, Parnell may
married a Chinese girl or anyone. When he asks whether underestimate the depths of Lyle’s racism, as Parnell still seems to
Parnell will marry his current girlfriend, Parnell says believe he can change Lyle’s mind through dialogue.
no—anyway, she could do better than him. After Parnell leaves,
Lyle announces that he’ll never be convicted.

On the Black side of town, in church, Meridian, Mother Henry, In the prior conversation between Lyle and Parnell, a Black person
and the Black students reminisce about Richard’s favorite going North represented a fundamental change in their racial
songs. In a brief flashback, Richard sings in his childhood room. attitudes—a casting-off of Southern white supremacy. Thus, when
When Mother Henry brings him food, Richard calls himself a Richard claims that he really knew New York City in a way that
“busted musician” and asks aloud what he’s doing back in the Meridian never did, he may be implying that he has more
South. When Richard asks whether Mother Henry has ever enlightened pro-Black and anti-racist views than his Southern
been north, she tells him that Meridian told her about it after father. Mother Henry’s claim that all children think they know more
his visits. Richard says Meridian never really knew New than their parents, meanwhile, suggests that newer generations
York—that Richard knew more. Mother Henry says all children always believe they are more enlightened than previous
think they know more than their parents. When Richard asks ones—which may or may not actually be true.
whether she thought that, she says she thought she could find
out more because she was born after slavery.

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Richard asks Mother Henry what she found out. She says she Though in prior scenes Lorenzo has critiqued Christianity as a force
learned to care for her family and instill awe of God in her of white oppression, this scene represents Mother Henry’s
children. Richard says he’s an atheist. Mother Henry retorts Christianity as fierce and dignified—Richard, despite his professed
that that’s not his decision—his living body believes in God atheism, calls her faith “smart.” Thus, the play demonstrates
even if he doesn’t. Richard calls Mother Henry “smart.” Then he sympathy with Black Christians even if not with Christianity per se.
says that while he convinced Meridian that New York was a Meanwhile, Richard’s claim that New York wasn’t actually any
better place for a Black person, it really wasn’t. better for Black people than the South indicates that anti-Black
racism is not a strictly regional, Southern problem but a ubiquitous
national problem in the U.S.

Mother Henry asks why Richard didn’t come home. He says he The conversation between Richard and Mother Henry implies that
wanted Meridian to be proud of him—because he wasn’t proud Richard’s mother worked at a white hotel, where she fell—or was
of his father, whom he wishes had used a gun to kill every pushed—to her death. Richard’s belief that white sexual harassers
person in the “white man’s hotel” where his mother died. When murdered his mother suggests another dimension to white
Mother Henry insists that his mother fell, Richard insists that supremacists’ anxieties about interracial sex. It portrays the idea
the white men at the hotel sexually harassed her—and one of that racist white men are afraid of competing with Black men
them pushed her. Mother Henry says he can’t blame white sexually but feel entitled to sexual access to Black women, reacting
people for every bad thing—“hatred” is “poison.” Yet Richard with violence when Black women refuse them. Mother Henry’s
insists that hatred is going to cure him. claim that “hatred” is “poison” is an implicitly Christian viewpoint
(Christianity encourages its adherents to love even their enemies), a
viewpoint that the atheist Richard rejects.

Richard takes out a gun and tells Mother Henry that he’ll “take Richard’s claim that he’ll “take one of the bastards with me” if
one of the bastards with me” if he needs to. Mother Henry begs necessary suggests that he is talking about defending himself
him to give her the gun. He refuses and insists that she not tell against a possible fatal attack, not about instigating violence
Meridian. After a moment, she exits. Later, Juanita walks in himself. In the U.S., people supposedly have the right to defend
looking for Meridian and Mother Henry and encounters themselves with guns in this way—yet Mother Henry’s horror
Richard. At first they don’t recognize each other; then they hug indicates that she believes that because Richard is Black, white
with exclamations. Pete walks in, and Juanita introduces him as people would kill him if they knew he was asserting his right to self-
a college student. They invite Richard to come with them for a defense. Thus, Richard’s gun seems to symbolize how, in a white-
drink. supremacist society, Black people are denied the right to self-
defense.

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Richard, Juanita, and Pete go to Papa D’s Juke Joint. Juanita When Richard asks whether Papa D is a “Tom,” he is alluding to
reintroduces Richard to Papa D, who asks how long Richard has white author Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin
been gone. Richard says eight years. Afterwards, when Richard, (1852). Though the novel is strongly anti-slavery, its condescending
Juanita, and Pete sit down together, Richard asks whether Papa representations of Black people, in particular the titular character
D is a “Tom.” Pete says yes: Papa D still trades with Lyle, who Uncle Tom, gave birth to “Uncle Tom” as a slang term for a Black
treats Black people badly and whom the students have been man who is deferential toward white people or betrays other Black
boycotting. Juanita explains that Lyle killed a Black man named people to white people. When Juanita explains that Lyle may have
Old Bill, and the rumor was it was because Lyle was “carrying been having an affair with Old Bill’s wife, meanwhile, it further
on with” Old Bill’s young wife, and Old Bill tried to stop it. illuminates the nature of Lyle’s white supremacy and anxieties
about interracial sex: Lyle feels sexually entitled to Black women but
tremendously anxious about sexual competition with Black men.
This explains his irrational fear of Black men flirting with his
wife—and his murder of his lover’s husband.

Richard expresses disgust that white men can assault and kill As the writer of Blues for Mister Charlie, James Baldwin, was
Black women, while any Black man who touches a white woman himself a gay man, readers should not interpret the play as
will be castrated. Then he starts showing Pete photographs of endorsing Richard’s homophobic descriptions of his white
white girls he’s dated in New York, bragging about how girlfriends’ future husbands. Implicitly, Richard feels emasculated by
desperate they are. He claims that every one of them will marry a white-supremacist society in which he cannot protect Black
a “faggoty white boy” but they want him for good sex, while he women victimized by white men. As Richard has not yet figured out
freeloads off them. When Juanita mentions that this sounds how to move past his extreme grief and powerlessness
“sad,” Richard says he wants them to be sad—but then he constructively, he tries to emasculate white men in turn by having
admits that he just “screwed up.” When Papa D walks by, sex with white women, claiming to be better at sex than white men,
Richard tries to show him the photos—but Papa D says he and calling white men homophobic slurs. Juanita’s flat description
thought Richard was smarter than that and leaves. When of Richard’s behavior as “sad” hints that the play wants readers or
Richard criticizes Papa D’s fear, Pete and Juanita suggest that viewers to view Richard’s behavior as unproductive and perhaps
Richard is courting a lynching. self-destructive. Meanwhile, the fear that Papa D, Pete, and Juanita
express about the photos hints that even having photos of white
women could make Richard a target for white-supremacist anxieties
about interracial sex.

Pete excuses himself for a moment. When Richard asks Juanita When Richard describes himself as extremely lonely in New York
to dance, she declines and asks whether he was “sick.” Richard despite having had a string of white girlfriends, it may imply that his
asks why Juanita wants to know, and she says because she was girlfriends saw him as a trophy rather than as an individual, while he
his girlfriend once. When Richard asks whether she’s going to saw them as an opportunity to get back at sexually anxious white
marry Pete, she says she’s not planning to marry soon—and she men rather than as people he actually wanted to spend time with.
wants to leave the South. She used to think she’d go to law
school in the North and come back, but now she isn’t sure: she
hates fearing death all the time. Then, when she insists on
knowing whether he was sick, Richard admits that he was a
drug addict. Five years ago, he was lonely, working really hard
at his music, and disenchanted with his white girlfriends whom
he didn’t even like. Drugs made him feel better—until he got
really addicted and ended up in jail.

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Juanita says she’d like to see him get better and suggests going When Richard wonders aloud what would happen if he wandered
everywhere with him—because they’re both lonely. Then Lyle into a “white place” the way Lyle just wandered into a Black-owned
walks in. Juanita points him out to Richard, who wonders what establishment, it suggests that Richard is noticing and resenting a
would happen if he, Richard, walked into a “white place” so racial power imbalance: Lyle doesn’t have to worry about violence in
casually. Juanita warns him not to find out, and they go dance. Black spaces the way Richard would have to worry about violence
Lyle comments wistfully to Papa D that he could never “dance in white spaces. Lyle’s comment that he could never “dance like
like that”—and bumps into Juanita on his way out. When he that”—i.e. dance like Richard and Juanita—hints that he is jealous of
says, “Pardon me,” Richard retorts, “Consider yourself Richard and Juanita’s grace and perhaps what he perceives to be
pardoned.” Lyle asks whether Richard is new to town and their physical or sexual freedom. Implicitly due to his jealousy, he
leaves. Afterward, Pete asks whether Richard has a death wish. bumps Juanita, just to insert himself into her and Richard’s dance
Richard dismisses him and continues dancing with Juanita. and make their happy experience about him. When Richard speaks
to Lyle sarcastically and Lyle asks whether Richard is new in town,
Lyle is implying that Richard doesn’t know how things work in
town—that Lyle can get away with doing whatever he wants to
Black people.

Back in the main timeline of the play, in the church, Pete asks Though sexuality and in particular white-supremacist anxiety about
Juanita why she’s been avoiding him. He says that she started Black sexuality are everywhere in the play, romantic love seems
withdrawing as soon as Richard arrived, but even now that much rarer, perhaps because romantic love requires people to pay
Richard’s dead, she won’t turn to him. Juanita tries to explain attention to one another as individuals—an individual attention
that Richard’s need for her and his command of her attention that racist thinking renders more difficult. Juanita’s claim that “the
rocked her self-understanding, and now she feels too adrift to world is a loveless place” thus indirectly comments on the way that
promise fidelity to Pete. Pete insists that he’ll give her his racism tends to infect and ruin many interpersonal relationships
fidelity and attention regardless. He says there’s love in her, but throughout the play.
she won’t be able to “give it to the world” until someone helps
her. Juanita agrees, saying “the world is a loveless place.”

Car headlights pass through the church windows, and Freddy Roberts’s story is an example of a Black person successfully
everyone goes silent. The office telephone rings. Mother Henry using a gun in self-defense, strengthening the association between
answers; afterward, she tells the others that a man named Black gun ownership and legitimate self-defense in the play. In this
Freddy Roberts just discovered two white men under his porch context, Lorenzo’s sarcastic comment about people using a Bible for
trying to blow up his house—he went for his rifle, but the men protection if they don’t have a gun is best understood as a criticism
got away. He was calling the church to warn them in case white of Christian pacifism. Lorenzo believes that Black people would be
men came around there. Lorenzo laments that they have no better off shooting white people who threaten them than protesting
guns like Freddy Roberts—and suggests that white men nonviolently as Christian teaching would have them do.
wouldn’t feel so confident about invading Black neighborhoods
if a few of them got shot. Everyone discusses how to warn
people, and Lorenzo sarcastically comments that anybody
without a gun or a dog can use their Bible for protection.

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In a flashback, Richard returns home from Papa D’s juke joint After Meridian admits an attraction to Juanita that he never
and runs into Meridian. They chat, and Richard mentions that if mentioned to her, Richard makes what seems like an abrupt change
he’d stayed in the South, he might have married Juanita by now. of subject: he asks about his mother’s murder. Yet perhaps Richard
When Meridian points out that he could still marry Juanita, isn’t changing the subject: perhaps the reader is meant to
Richard asks whether Meridian ever considered understand that Meridian never acted on his attraction to Juanita
remarrying—Juanita, for instance. Meridian, after dodging the because he was so traumatized by “terrible suspicions” about his
question a moment, admits that he has considered marrying wife’s death—namely, that she was murdered by a white man or
Juanita but has never mentioned it to her. Then Richard white men with whom she refused to have sex. If so, Meridian’s
demands to know why Meridian never told him that Richard’s ongoing trauma and inability to enter into another romantic
mother was murdered. Meridian says that he didn’t want relationship would show how violent racism can “poison[]” not only
Richard’s life “poisoned” by “useless and terrible suspicions.” interracial relationships, but also relationships between Black
people.

When Richard insists that Meridian let Richard go North The claim that Meridian has been all “public” and no “private”
because he was afraid Richard was ashamed of him, Meridian suggests that, in becoming the leader of civil rights activism in his
says that he thought he had a duty to his dead wife to stay and town, Meridian has had to shelve all his personal concerns for the
try to change and help the town he loved. Richard says that greater good—another way that white racism attacks Black
Meridian has been all “public,” no “private.” Meridian admits it individuality. When Richard gives Meridian his gun, he is
and asks forgiveness. Richard claims “there’s nothing to symbolically cooperating with Meridian’s desire for Christian
forgive”; then he takes out his gun, says it upset Mother Henry, nonviolence. However, he’s also asserting that he still has a right to
and asks Meridian to hold it for him—until Richard asks for it. ask for the gun later, and to defend himself with violence if
Meridian agrees and takes the gun. Richard asks whether necessary.
Meridian thinks Richard and Juanita getting together is a good
idea. Meridian says it is. They say goodnight.

Back in the play’s main timeline, the students say goodbye to There is no indication that Richard had his gun on him when Lyle
Meridian and Mother Henry and leave the church. Parnell murdered him. When Meridian wonders whether he made a
enters. When Parnell says he heard things had taken a turn for mistake in counseling nonviolence to the Black townspeople, he
the worse, Meridian says they’ll get worse still—and wonders may be wondering more specifically whether he accidentally
aloud whether it was a mistake to counsel the Black contributed to his son’s death. Parnell’s argument that Black people
townspeople against having guns. Parnell argues that if the would be killed for having guns and Meridian’s retort that Black
Black townspeople had guns, they’re the ones who’d be killed. people are killed anyway, meanwhile, suggests a catch-22 for Black
Meridian points out that they get killed anyway—and expresses people in a violent white-supremacist society: Black people will be
doubt about Parnell’s claim. killed if they attempt to assert their right to self-defense—but they’ll
also be killed if they don’t defend themselves.

When Parnell asks what will happen if Meridian breaks down, In Matthew 5:39, Jesus encourages people to “turn the other cheek”
Meridian says maybe the Black townspeople would find if slapped rather than hitting back—a teaching that emphasizes
someone competent to lead them. Parnell asks whether he forgiveness and nonviolence. In the aftermath of Richard’s murder,
means “someone with a gun.” Meridian says that before they Meridian vocally doubts whether these Christian teachings of
were converted to Christianity, Black people weren’t raised to nonviolence are good for Black people under constant assault from
“turn the other cheek”—and maybe things were better then. He a violent white-supremacist society. In this context, when Parnell
wonders aloud whether he turned to the Christian God to give asks whether Meridian wants “someone with a gun” to lead the
him dignity because men wouldn’t allow him to have any, and Black townspeople, “someone with a gun” symbolizes someone who
then he points out that his Christianity didn’t save his wife or would preach not Christian pacifism but violent self-defense.
his son Richard.

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When Parnell reminds Meridian how he used to say that his When Parnell reminds Meridian that he used to say his race was
race was “the human race,” Meridian repeats the phrase in “the human race,” Parnell is alluding indirectly to the Christian
astonishment. Parnell says he’s never heard this “rage” or teaching that all human beings are figuratively siblings because all
“hatred” in Meridian’s voice before, but Meridian says Parnell are children of God—and, as such, all human beings belong to the
has heard it—in Black religious music he claims to same family or “race.” Meridian repeats this phrase in astonishment
appreciate—but hasn’t realized what it was. When Parnell says because—even if it is morally true that all human beings are in some
that maybe he has realized it—maybe his life is hard sense “family”—Meridian’s life is shaped by white racism that denies
too—Meridian says that when Parnell was talking to the police the equality of white and Black people. When Meridian furthermore
about Richard’s case, he saw Richard as a “problem,” not a claims that Black religious music contains “rage” and “hatred,” he
human being. Parnell claims he took that tone to “accomplish suggests that Black Americans sublimate the pain of racism into
what we wanted”: he can get things for Meridian precisely religious expression. Finally, Meridian indicates that Parnell, despite
because he’s white. being a nominal ally, sees Richard as a “problem”—a racist viewpoint
even if Parnell is trying to solve the “problem” in the name of racial
justice. Parnell, for his part, argues that he was just using his white
privilege to accomplish Meridian’s goals.

Parnell asks for “mercy.” When Meridian points out that white Mercy and forgiveness are highly valued in the Christian tradition.
people never show mercy to Black people, Parnell begs When Meridian has difficulty showing “mercy” to white people, it
Meridian to remember their friendship and see that Parnell indicates how white racism negatively impacts even Black religious
“didn’t do it.” Then he begs Meridian to understand that it’s practice, making it harder for Meridian to live out Christian ideals.
hard to divest oneself of privilege when privilege is a visceral When Meridian calls Parnell and all white men “Mister Charlie”—an
part of one’s identity. Meridian asks what hope there is if old-fashioned slang-term for bossy, racist white men—it hints that
“Mister Charlie can’t change.” When Parnell asks who Mister white racism flattens white as well as Black individuality, making
Charlie is, Meridian explains it’s Parnell—it’s “all white men.” white people behave in predictably destructive patterns.
When Parnell says that Meridian sounds like Richard,
expressing Black people’s smothered hate for white people,
Meridian says that he just wanted his son to have a life—but
Lyle killed him.

When Parnell claims that they don’t know Lyle killed Richard, Parnell’s claim that poor white Lyle is just as “victimized” for his
Meridian points out that there’s no other suspect, Lyle killed class as Black people are for their race is clearly false: white Lyle has
Old Bill, and Lyle hates Black people. Parnell denies that Lyle literally gotten away with murdering Old Bill, a Black man,
hates Black people—he’s just “poor” and “victimized,” as something that would never have happened if their races were
victimized by his class as Black people are by their race. reversed. Yet Parnell’s invocation of class prejudice does suggest
Meridian tells Parnell to “spare him the historical view” and that Lyle’s racism may be related to his poverty and class insecurity.
insists Lyle killed Richard. In turn, Parnell insists that to uphold Meanwhile, Meridian’s claim that he wants white people to “turn
justice, they have to consider Lyle innocent until proven guilty. from evil and do good”—an approximate quotation of Psalm
When Parnell asks whether Meridian wants vengeance, 34:14—indicates that what Meridian wants is for nominally
Meridian says no: he wants Lyle and all the white people in Christian white people to actually follow the teachings of
town to see the evil they commit and permit—and to “turn from Christianity.
evil and do good.”

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Parnell asks Meridian to consider whether Lyle didn’t do it and Parnell’s claim that Lyle “suffers” is an interesting one—it may imply
claims that Lyle “suffers.” When Meridian asks how, Parnell says that, in the view of the play, racism is self-destructive as well as
Lyle suffers from ignorance and a lack of self-knowledge or destructive toward others because it involves a lack of self-
self-control—but he isn’t an evil person. Meridian demands that knowledge: Lyle falsely assumes his worth derives from his
Parnell go ask his friend Lyle whether Lyle killed Richard. whiteness and so never develops any self-worth. Parnell’s claim that
Parnell demurs, saying he can’t “betray” Lyle. Meridian says that Lyle isn’t evil and his refusal to “betray” Lyle, however, suggest that
Parnell can betray Meridian, though—that Parnell is “just Parnell may also lack self-knowledge or self-control: he doesn’t
another white man.” Parnell says he’s just not sure he can do it realize or can’t manage how his long-term friendship with Lyle
for Meridian, and Meridian retorts that Parnell should do it for implicates him in anti-Black violence. Finally, Meridian’s grief-
himself. Parnell leaves, and Meridian cries out, “would God I stricken cry “would to God I had died for thee—my son, my son!” is
had died for thee—my son, my son!” an approximate quotation of the Biblical King David mourning his
son Absalom (2 Samuel 18:33), another indication that despite
Meridian’s ambivalent feelings toward his Christianity, his religion
also deeply structures his emotions.

ACT 2
On Sunday morning in Lyle and Jo’s kitchen, several white The white women and men in this scene seem to be rallying around
women are helping Jo cook for a wedding anniversary Lyle and Jo exactly because they think Lyle killed Richard, as
celebration later that night and comforting her about Lyle’s evidenced by one white man’s claim that Lyle has “done a lot” for
likely arrest the following day. Some of the men propose a toast them—i.e., Lyle has violently defended white supremacy in the town.
to Jo. After Jo fetches them some bourbon, one man toasts This shocking scene shows how common white-supremacy and the
Lyle, saying that Lyle has “done a lot for us […] you all know embrace of anti-Black violence are in the play’s setting.
what I’m talking about.” They drink and sing.

After the white people finish their song, they hear singing from The play is set during the Cold War (1947–1991), a geopolitical
the Black part of town. One woman praises the song and asks conflict between the capitalist U.S. and the communist USSR. Here,
why race relations have gotten so bad. Using racial slurs, white Americans casually and incorrectly conflate communism
various white people talk about how much better things used (which is atheistic) with racial integration and equality, thus
to be, how Black people have gotten ungrateful, and so on. A implying that racial justice is somehow irreligious or anti-Christian.
white preacher, Reverend Phelps, blames “degenerate This dialogue shows how white people in the U.S. used Christianity
Communist race-mixers.” One woman complains about to justify anti-Black racism. Meanwhile, the white man spreading
integrated schools, comparing it to atheist indoctrination in racist myths about Black male genitalia and claiming that white
Communist countries. Another man says that a Black man’s men have to be “vigilant” as a result suggests that racist sexual
genitalia is like that of a male horse or orangutan, and that after myths about Black people derive, in large part, from white
he rapes a white woman, she isn’t “no more good for masculine insecurity. This insecurity, to cloak itself, claims that
nobody”—which is why white men have to be “vigilant.” Black men are sexually dangerous and must be controlled by white
men.

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Parnell walks in and greets the assembled, all of whom—except Jesus preached against the accumulation of wealth, and his early
Jo—receive him with hostility. One man, using a racial slur, asks followers shared property communally rather than owning
whether he was at the Black people’s funeral. Parnell says that individually. While Jesus was not literally a Communist in the
the funeral is in the evening. One man demands to know where modern sense, Parnell is still pointing out that Jesus’ actual
Parnell “stand[s]” and another woman accuses the newspaper teachings do not align with the capitalist fervor of the white
he runs of being “Communist.” When Parnell says that Jesus Christians in the scene. In so doing, Parnell is also indirectly
was a Communist, Reverend Phelps chastises him and says suggesting that these white Christians’ racist insistence that Parnell
they all want to know whether Parnell stands with white people show loyalty to white supremacy are also unchristian.
or not—because they won’t “tolerate” his “irresponsibility”
anymore. Parnell asks what exactly they won’t tolerate and how
they’ll punish him.

One woman, using a racial slur, says that Parnell is worse than When Parnell scoffs that he isn’t talking about sex when he talks
a Black person. Parnell retorts that he “take[s] that as a about social justice, it suggests that he interprets the woman’s cry of
compliment.” Reverend Phelps, with support from the others, “race-mixing” to be a reference to interracial sex specifically—yet
holds forth on how they put up with Parnell’s airs and another indication that the possibility of interracial attraction
progressive ideas because they thought he’d mature out of makes white supremacists extremely nervous and thus makes
them. When Parnell asks what ideas they’re referencing, one sexuality a flashpoint for extreme prejudice and even violence.
woman cries out, “Race-mixing!” Parnell, scoffing, says he
doesn’t care at all who they choose to have sex with—but he
believes in “social justice.”

When one woman says social justice sounds like Communism, The belligerent white man’s insistence that white people ought to be
Parnell objects that it’s not: it’s the idea that people should economically privileged over Black people hints that fear of
have the same economic opportunities and get the same economic competition—fear of being viewed as just another
amount for their dollar. One man, using racial slurs, says that individual under capitalism, not a privileged white
some Black people make more than he does. Parnell, also using person—motivates some of the white characters’ violent racism.
racial slurs, retorts that some Black people are “smarter”—and
they all know some employers won’t employ Black people. The
man, bested in argument, then simply insists that white people
must be privileged over Black people. Parnell asks why.

Lyle—who up to this point has been sleeping—now enters the Reverend Phelps is nominally a Christian religious leader, and
kitchen. When he apologizes to Reverend Phelps for not Christianity is nominally a universal religion—one that applies
getting up sooner, Reverend Phelps tells him that all the white equally to all humanity. Yet Reverend Phelps clearly sees himself as
people in town are supporting him. Lyle thanks and greets the speaking for the white townspeople and not the Black townspeople,
people in his kitchen. One man asks when Lyle will be arrested, showing how, in the play’s view, white American Christian leaders
and Lyle says the following morning. The man, using a racial can use their religious authority to propagate racist views, which
slur, says that he heard Northerners wants them to put Black don’t line up with their nominal religious beliefs. Meanwhile,
people on the jury. When Lyle asks where they’ll find the Black Parnell’s claim that he wants Lyle to have a fair trial—and therefore
people, the man says he’s sure Parnell will find them. Parnell wants Black as well as white people on Lyle’s jury—suggests that
retorts that he might “recommend a couple.” The other men ask Parnell believes racial equality would ultimately be good for all
him who would defend them and whether Parnell really thinks people, as it would give everyone access to a fairer society.
Black people should serve on a jury. Parnell insists that,
precisely because Lyle is his friend, he wants Lyle to have a fair
trial.

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Jo and Lyle’s guests begin to leave. As they go, they give Lyle While the white townspeople seemed to be expressing hostility
words of comfort and support. Soon Lyle, Jo, and Parnell are toward Parnell because Parnell is anti-racist, Lyle’s words here
alone in the kitchen. When Parnell comments on the esteem in suggest that the white townspeople resent Parnell because he’s rich.
which the guests seem to hold Lyle, Lyle says it’s because he This suggestion may in turn imply that the white townspeople’s
and the other white people have known hard work and racism is driven in part by their class status and economic anxiety.
economic hardship in a way rich Parnell hasn’t—but he swears In other words, they fear a more egalitarian society because they
that his son is going to be rich and even better-educated than fear having to compete economically with Black people on equal
Parnell. footing, something that independently wealthy Parnell doesn’t
worry about.

When Parnell asks whether Lyle will send his son to school in Parnell’s comment that the “African princes” with whom he went to
Switzerland, Jo comments that Parnell got his “wild ideas” in school had never learned they weren’t men implies that a major part
Switzerland. Parnell agrees and says he attended school there of anti-Black racism in the U.S. involves attacking Black men’s
with some “African princes” who had never been taught they masculinity. Lyle’s belief that he must protect his hypothetical white
weren’t men and whom lots of European and American white daughter from interracial dating, but his white son may do what he
girls liked to go out with. Lyle swears he’ll never send a likes, reveals a double standard. White men like Lyle want exclusive
daughter of his to Switzerland. When Parnell asks what if Lyle’s sexual access to women of their own race as well as sexual access
son falls in love with an African princess, Lyle says that would to women of other races. That is, they don’t actually care about
be fine—if he “leaves her over there.” white men having sex with non-white women—they only fear
romantic and sexual competition for white women from non-white
men.

When Jo protests that white men shouldn’t have sex with Black Here Lyle doubles down on white-supremacist sexual hypocrisy,
women any more than white women should have sex with Black wherein white men can have sex with non-white women but white
men, Lyle essentially tells her to be quiet because men are women must be sexually and racially “pure.” In this context, his
different. For a moment, Lyle and Parnell banter about “sowing praise of Jo for loving him despite his “wild” past seems more like a
wild oats.” When Jo asks whether good women just have to racialized—and racist—gladness that Jo is a “pure” white woman
wait until men get tired of loose women and want to settle who waited until marriage to a (white) man to have sex.
down, Parnell says it does sound unfair—though who knows
how good women spend their time in the meantime? Lyle
insists that no really good woman would go wrong, no matter
how long she had to wait. Then he talks about how wonderful
and light he felt when he realized Jo loved him despite his “wild”
past.

After Lyle leaves to go bathe and dress, Jo asks Parnell whether Parnell’s story about having—or trying to have—a genuinely loving
it’s true that Lyle was having sex with Old Bill’s wife and killed relationship with a Black girlfriend nuances the novel’s portrayal of
Old Bill because of it. When Parnell dodges the question, Jo how white supremacy polices sexuality. White-supremacist figures
insists on knowing whether Lyle has had affairs with Old Bill’s like Lyle are fine with white men having predatory sex with non-
wife and other Black women. Parnell refuses to tell her on the white women—but probably not with white men loving and
grounds that what men tell their male friends shouldn’t be respecting non-white sexual partners. When Parnell says he was
shared with women. Then Jo asks whether Parnell ever loved a “ashamed to be white” in his relationship with a Black girl, it
Black woman—not just for sex, but the way he would love a suggests that his knowledge that people would expect him to be
white woman. Parnell says that, at age 18, he had a 17-year-old sexually predatory toward her negatively influenced how he saw
Black girlfriend, but he knew some white boys went to the himself and their relationship.
Black part of town to harass and rape Black girls, and it made
him “ashamed to be white” in his relationship.

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Jo asks how Parnell met his Black girlfriend. Parnell says that Stendhal’s The Red and the Black (1830) is a classic French
his girlfriend’s mother worked for his family; one day, he saw psychological novel. That Parnell and Pearl had both read it as
the girl, whose name was Pearl, reading Stendhal’s The Red and teenagers characterizes them as similarly bookish and intellectual,
The Black, and he started talking to her about it. Parnell found as do their shared artistic ambitions. Yet despite their similarities,
her intelligent and proud—too proud to admit she was scared their relationship is stymied by their white-supremacist cultural
of Parnell, though she was. Jo asks what happened. Parnell says context: they can’t be seen together, and when Pearl’s mother
that it used to make him sick wondering whether other white discovers them, she sends Pearl away—presumably to protect her
boys were harassing Pearl when she walked home. They talked from sexual “ruin” by a potentially predatory white boy. Thus, the
about how she wanted to be a painter and he wanted to be a play suggests that interracial love is very difficult under conditions
writer. They got to know each other really deeply as individuals, of white supremacy even while (predatory) interracial sex may be
but they couldn’t be seen in public together. Then, one day, commonplace.
Pearl’s mother caught them kissing in the library—and she sent
Pearl away.

Jo anxiously states that Parnell must have forgotten about Jo’s panicked response to Parnell’s revelations about Pearl may be
Pearl, though. Parnell says that he never did. When Jo asks interpreted in two ways. One, she may be worried about having to
what Parnell would do if he reunited with Pearl, Parnell says compete sexually and romantically with Black women in the same
he’d want to marry her and have children with her. Jo, panicked, way that white-supremacist men like Lyle are anxious about
says that if Parnell could feel that way about Pearl, maybe Lyle competing with Black men. That is, she is realizing that she might
could have felt that way about Old Bill’s wife Willa Mae. And if have to be jealous of Lyle’s Black sexual partners. Two—and more
he killed Old Bill over Willa Mae, not in self-defense, then he overtly—she is consciously realizing what she may already have
could have killed Richard—and it would be murder. Parnell suspected: her husband is a murderer.
cautions Jo to be quiet. Lyle calls from another room to ask
what that “racket” is, and Parnell dodges the question.

Parnell tells Jo that Lyle told him he didn’t kill Richard—and In this scene, Parnell expresses a belief that Lyle wouldn’t lie to him
Parnell believes that Lyle wouldn’t lie to him. Lyle reenters the while Lyle expresses a belief that Parnell wouldn’t let anything
kitchen with his son in his arms and invites Parnell to walk happen to him. As the play opened with Lyle murdering Richard, the
down the road with him for a drink. Jo takes the baby, while audience already knows that Lyle has lied to Parnell. As such, this
Parnell and Lyle exit. Later, Parnell and Lyle are tipsy at Lyle’s scene implicitly asks the audience to consider whether Parnell will
store. When Lyle admits to feeling weirdly “restless” despite all realize that Lyle is lying to him and let his “white hometown” friend
the good in his life, Parnell asks whether he’s worried about the suffer the consequences of his homicidal racism—or remain unable
trial. Lyle says no—and he isn’t angry with Parnell either. He to fully turn his back on the white-supremacist culture in which he
believes that since he and Parnell are both white hometown grew up.
boys who’ve been friends all their lives, Parnell won’t actually
allow anything bad to happen to Lyle.

Lyle admits that something about Richard coming to town When Lyle says that he “had to fight” Willa Mae the first time he
made him think about Willa Mae. Lyle believes that Old Bill was “took” her, he is casually admitting to having raped her, showing his
far too old for her—but Lyle still “had to fight her” the first time failure to consider how his own violent and racist actions will sound
he “took” her. After that, Lyle claims, Willa Mae was as to others. Parnell’s expression of doubt about Willa Mae’s
enthusiastic as he was. Parnell expresses doubt but encourages subsequent consent and his questions about Old Bill (whom Lyle
Lyle to keep talking, asking when Old Bill found out. Lyle says murdered) suggests that Parnell may not believe that the affair
Old Bill only thought of it due to gossip that arose because between Lyle and Willa Mae was consensual at any point—and is
Willa Mae was at Lyle’s house so much working as a nurse for trying to determine whether Lyle is lying about having killed Old Bill
Lyle’s ailing father. When Parnell asks whether Old Bill ever in self-defense.
talked to Lyle about the affair, Lyle says no.

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Parnell asks why Lyle and Old Bill fought, then. Lyle says Old When Parnell changes the subject from Old Bill to Richard, it
Bill suspected Lyle of “cheating” him in business—possibly furthers the implication that Parnell is angling for information.
because Papa D poisoned Old Bill against him. When Parnell Meanwhile, the audience knows that Lyle is lying about having been
asks why Papa D would do that, Lyle suggests that Papa D was reasonable the first time he met Richard: he intentionally bumped
jealous over Willa Mae. Then Lyle pauses and says he still Juanita in an arguably sexual way and then implicitly threatened
recalls how “he” looked entering the store. Parnell asks who Richard for standing up to him. Meanwhile, Lyle’s claim that Richard
he’s talking about, and Lyle says Old Bill, of course. Parnell says “insulted” Jo emphasizes how, under white supremacy, racist white
he thought Lyle might have been talking about Richard. Lyle men falsely claim that they have a masculine obligation to protect
admits that Richard did come into the store at one point and white women from non-white men. They then use that “obligation”
says he doesn’t know what Richard’s problem was—when they as an excuse to demonize and commit acts of violence against non-
ran into each other the first time, Lyle claims, Lyle was perfectly white men.
reasonable. Then, in the store, Richard looked at Lyle
murderously and “insulted” Lyle’s wife.

In a flashback, Lyle and Parnell help Jo bring a baby carriage “Ofay” is a pejorative term for a white person. This scene thereby
into the store. Lyle goes into the back of the store, while Parnell reveals that Richard was mildly rude to Jo. Jo responds by calling
leaves. While Lyle hammers in the back room, Richard and adult Richard “boy,” a common racist way of demeaning adult Black
Lorenzo walk past the store. Richard wants to buy a Coke. men. Twenty dollars was a fairly large amount of money in the
When Lorenzo tells him they don’t shop at that store, Richard 1960s when the play was written; as such, it’s unclear whether
asks whether it’s Lyle’s store of and says he’s willing to spend a that’s genuinely the only bill Richard has or whether he is trying to
little money to take another look at Lyle. He enters the store, get back at Richard by calling attention to the Brittens’ status as
greets Jo as “Mrs. Ofay,” and asks for a Coke. Jo calls Richard poor, small-time businesspeople who don’t have change for large
“boy” and asks what he wants. When he says Coke, she bills.
indicates the cooler and says it’ll be 20 cents. Richard asks
whether she has change for 20 dollars. When Jo asks whether
he has smaller tender, he says no.

Jo calls to Lyle, asking whether he has change for 20 dollars. Richard sarcastically calls attention to the Brittens’ relative poverty
Lyle walks in, carrying a hammer, and says he doesn’t. Richard by saying the thought “white folks was rich at every hour.” This
sarcastically expresses disbelief and says he thought “white suggests that Richard is indeed attempting to humiliate the Brittens
folks was rich at every hour.” Lyle asks whether “that boy to pay Lyle back for his rude treatment of Juanita. When Lyle calls
outside” has 20 cents. Richard says that Lorenzo is 24—and no, Lorenzo a “boy,” Richard clarifies that Lorenzo is 24 and an adult.
he doesn’t. When Richard suggests that Jo could go home and The clarification shows that Richard notes and resents the
get change, Lyle threateningly tells Richard not to talk about his “emasculating” anti-Black racism of talking about Black men as if
wife. Richard says he just asked whether Jo could find any they were children. Notably, when Richard again mocks the Brittens’
money for change at home. When Lyle says he’s seen Richard economic status by asking whether Jo could find $20 at home, Lyle
somewhere before, Richard says Lyle remembers where. Lyle tells Richard not to talk about his wife—thus implicitly changing the
tells Richard to “get [his] black ass out of here.” Richard, calling subject from his own poverty to Richard’s “threatening” Black male
Lyle a “white mother-fucker,” tells him he doesn’t own the sexuality. The conflict escalates from there, becoming more
town—or 20 dollars, for that matter—and threatens to crush explicitly racialized and containing threats of actual violence.
his head if Lyle raises the hammer to him.

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Jo, panicked, tells Lyle not to fight Richard—whom she calls a When Jo calls Richard “crazy” and “boy,” it shows her inability to
“crazy” “boy”—with the baby in the store. Then she announces understand his legitimate grievances about the way she and Lyle
that she’s going to call the sheriff. Richard, calling Lyle “ball- have treated him. Rather than understanding that he’s been
less,” asks how many times he had to try for the baby. Lyle insulted for his race, she typecasts him as “crazy” and once again
menaces Richard with the hammer, Richard grabs his arm, and calls him “boy,” an insulting way to refer to an adult Black man. Her
they fight. Lorenzo rushes into the store, and Jo begs Lorenzo pleading with Lorenzo, on the other hand, hints that she’s not
to get Richard out of there: “he’s going to get himself killed.” actually afraid of Richard: she’s afraid of Lyle and what Lyle might
Then Richard hits the hammer out of Lyle’s hand and knocks do to Richard. Meanwhile, when Richard insults Lyle as “ball-less”
Lyle down. Lorenzo picks it up and tells Jo that Lyle won’t be and knocks Lyle down, it shows Richard asserting his masculinity in
killing any Black men today. Then he tells Richard to leave with the face of racist emasculation through name-calling and violence,
him. which may ultimately not help Richard achieve the self-respect he is
seeking.

When Lyle tells Richard and Lorenzo to remember it was two Previously in the play, guns have represented how white people
on one, Lorenzo points out that he never touched Lyle—Lyle’s monopolize the right to violent self-defense, denying that right to
no good without his gun. Lyle threatens them with jail. Lorenzo Black people. Here, when Lorenzo says that Lyle is no good without
claims they’ve been in jail already and says he’ll leave the his gun, Lorenzo implies that Lyle derives all his power from
hammer at Papa D’s for Lyle. Richard laughs at Lyle on the floor, whiteness—without white privilege, including the racially exclusive
mocks the concept of a white master race, and says, “You let me right to bear arms without penalty, Lyle is “emasculated.”
in that tired white chick’s drawers, she’ll know who’s the Meanwhile, Richard’s mocking comment about showing Jo “who’s
master!” He and Lorenzo leave. the master” sexually hints that, under white supremacy, white
women are considered the exclusive sexual property of white men.
In this context, a non-white man having sex with a white woman
becomes a threat to white men’s white-supremacist “master” status.

In the present, Lyle tells Parnell, using a racial slur, that after Lyle seems to feel that his masculinity was humiliated because
the incident in the store, Black people were laughing at him “for Richard, a Black man, bested him in a physical altercation—hence
days.” Parnell notes that Lyle never actually called the his (perhaps paranoid) claim that Black people were laughing at him
sheriff—and that it’s almost time for Richard’s funeral. Again “for days.” His wish that all Black people die like Richard shows that
using racial slurs, Lyle wishes aloud that every Black person he doesn’t consider Richard to be anything more than a
dies like Richard, “face down in the weeds.” After hesitating, representative of Black people in general—a racist generalization. As
Parnell asks whether Richard was lying face down. Lyle claims a consequence of Lyle’s clear humiliation and resentment, Parnell
the newspapers said so. comes to suspect more strongly that Lyle did kill Richard. This
explains his comment that Lyle never called the sheriff and his
question probing how Lyle knew that Richard was “face down in the
weeds.”

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Parnell asks whether he and Lyle are friends. When Lyle says Lyle’s claim that Parnell is smarter because Parnell is richer suggests
yes enthusiastically, Parnell admits that he wondered why Lyle that Lyle thinks racially progressive attitudes are a luxury for rich
wanted to befriend him when poor men often hate rich men. white people—in Lyle’s view, poor white people must support white
Lyle says he isn’t like that; he wanted to befriend Parnell to supremacy because they must want to maintain what economic
figure out what made Parnell smarter than him, because advantages they have over Black people.
otherwise, they seemed so similar: obsessed with women and
alcohol. Parnell asks whether Lyle ever discovered what made
Parnell smarter. Lyle says it was money. Parnell asks whether
Lyle has said all he means to say about Richard. Lyle says that
Parnell can hear the rest at the trial. When Parnell says he
needs to get to the funeral, Lyle begs Parnell to stay.

In church in the Black part of town, Meridian is preaching at Meridian’s claim that Black people suffer horrors inflicted on them
Richard’s funeral. He preaches that while he and his people by “their kinfolk” has two meanings. First, in Christian theology,
have undergone terrible suffering in the past, it’s the present every person is a child of God and so all human beings are “siblings”
rather than the past that weighs on them now. He asks God in theological terms. Thus, when white people commit racist
where their hope is. He feels himself faltering when his violence against Black people, they are hurting and killing their
congregation asks him for advice—how can he advise them to brothers and sisters. Meridian is thus particularly horrified that
put up with the horrors inflicted on them by those who are, “in nominally Christian white people would claim that Christianity
very truth, their kinfolk,” in the name of Jesus himself? He prays upholds racism and segregation. Second, many Black people in the
to God for a sign. U.S. South in the 1960s may have had some white ancestors due to
white slaveowners’ sexual violence against enslaved Black women
or due to socially unsanctioned interracial relationships under
segregation. In this second case, white people who commit racist
violence are attacking their literal biological relatives when they
attack Black people—even if these racist white people would not
acknowledge the relationship.

After the sermon, Mother Henry lines up the mourners to say That Parnell, looking “sick,” begins crying as he laments that Lyle will
their farewells to Richard. Parnell enters looking worse for “never confess” indicates that Parnell has just realized Lyle really did
wear. As Juanita files past him, she stops and asks what’s kill Richard. That Parnell nevertheless refers to Lyle as “poor Lyle”
wrong—he looks “sick.” Parnell says he wanted to arrive earlier indicates that Parnell sees Lyle’s racism and murderousness as
but Lyle wouldn’t let him leave. Juanita asks whether he was poisonous to Lyle himself, as they prevent Lyle from telling the truth
trying to “beat a confession out of” Lyle. Parnell laments that and thus keep him from real friendship or self-knowledge.
“poor Lyle” will “never confess.” Juanita, realizing that Parnell is
crying, says he’s fortunate: she can’t cry or mourn in front of
others who don’t know what she’s lost. Parnell realizes aloud
that Juanita loved Richard and says he didn’t know. Juanita asks
how Parnell can possibly not know so many things.

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Parnell asks why Juanita is being sharp with him and admits When Juanita tells Parnell that no one needed him to be a hero, she
there are many things he’s never been able to say to her. When is implying that Parnell has a “white savior complex,” relating to the
Juanita counters there are many things he hasn’t heard either, Black people he knows only as an oppressed social category toward
Parnell asks whether she’s been trying to tell him. Juanita tells whom he feels guilty and whom he wants to “save.” Juanita is
Parnell that no one needed him to be a hero—they just wanted essentially telling Parnell that his white savior complex means that
him to be himself, which is harder. When Parnell begs Juanita to he engages with her like he is a white man interacting with a Black
say they’re friends, Juanita orders him to be more honest. woman, not like they’re genuine friends or real people. Parnell
Parnell admits that he had romantic feelings for Juanita but essentially admits the truth of Juanita’s criticism when he admits
didn’t want to act on them lest she think he was just trying to that he was afraid to say he had feelings for her because he didn’t
“exploit” her. Juanita tells him he ought to have had more faith want to be perceived as “exploit[ing]” her the way that other white
in himself. Parnell brings up his age, but Juanita says that was men—such as Lyle—exploit and assault Black women sexually.
never the issue. When Parnell asks if they ever could have had
something, Juanita says there was once a possibility—but no
longer. Nevertheless, Richard taught her how to love, and she
plans to recover.

ACT 3
Two months later inside a sparkling white courtroom are The visibility of a Christian church from the courtroom suggests
crowded together various members of the press, a jury, and that religion will be at play, for better or worse, during Richard’s
Black and white townspeople. A church steeple with a cross is trial. Meanwhile, Jo’s lustful thoughts about Mr. Arpino, combined
visible from the courthouse. A clerk calls Jo to the stand. In a with her curiosity about his racial background, suggest that
flashback, Jo serves coffee at a church social while trying to she—like Lyle and Parnell—experiences interracial sexual attraction,
ward off errant lustful thoughts about Reverend Phelps and a but she represses this attraction because she wants to live up to the
man named Mr. Arpino; Jo briefly wonders if Mr. Arpino is white-supremacist ideal of a “pure” white woman. Finally, her
mixed-race. She also worries that she is becoming an longing for Lyle to love her and look at her hints that she knows Lyle
unmarriageable spinster. Then Lyle approaches her for coffee. married her precisely because he wanted a “pure white woman”
In another flashback, Reverend Phelps marries Jo and Lyle. Jo rather than because he loved her.
is thrilled that Lyle wanted her—but she also begs him to love
her and look at her.

A lawyer known as “The State” asks Jo her relationship to Lyle. Jo lies under oath that Richard sexually assaulted her—in fact he
She says she’s his wife. Then the State asks her to narrate the never touched her, though he did make a disparaging sexual
first time she encountered Richard. Jo claims that when comment about her. Clearly, Jo is attempting to prejudice the jury
Richard came into the store, he said “dirty” things to her as if against Richard to secure an acquittal for Lyle by activating racist
she were a Black woman he wanted to have sex with. Jo stereotypes about sexually predatory Black men. Her testimony
wondered whether he was high. She tried to give him the two foreshadows that, even though Lyle is the one on trial for murder,
Cokes he asked for, but then he grabbed her and tried to kiss Lyle’s defense will essentially put Richard’s character on trial—an
her. She screamed for Lyle, who came running from the back illustration of racism in the legal system.
room. Then Richard’s friend came running into the store, and
he and Richard jumped on Lyle. When the State asks why Jo
didn’t report any of this to the police, she claims she was trying
to avoid causing trouble in town. The State asks where Jo and
Lyle were the early morning of August 24th when Richard was
killed. Jo says they were at home.

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A lawyer called “The Counsel for the Bereaved” asks Jo The Counsel for the Bereaved evidently knows that Jo is lying and
whether it wouldn’t be strange for Richard to sexually assault establishes many holes in her story. And yet, he never directly
her in the middle of the day, in a public store, with her husband accuses her of perjury—an omission that may illustrate how white
Lyle in the back room. Jo claims Richard didn’t know Lyle was women’s testimony against Black men was considered sacrosanct
there. When the Counsel for the Bereaved points out that Lyle and thus extremely difficult to challenge in the segregated U.S.
was hammering loudly, Jo suggests that Richard was “crazy” South of the 1960s. Jo’s queasiness about actually using the word
and on drugs. The Counsel asks whether Jo has ever heard of “a “rape,” despite having already lied and suggested that Richard tried
junkie trying to rape anybody,” Jo cries out that she didn’t say to forcibly kiss her, may indicate that she feels some guilt about
“rape.” smearing a murdered man’s name.

Through additional questioning of Jo, the Counsel for the Again, the Counsel for the Bereaved points out holes and
Bereaved establishes that—according to Jo—Lyle never saw inconsistencies in Jo’s testimony—but stops short of accusing her of
Richard with his hands on Jo, and Jo told Lyle about the alleged lying, which illustrates how, as a white woman accusing a Black
assault but asked him not to retaliate. Then the Counsel man of sexual assault, Jo is treated far more respectfully than she
establishes that Richard died between two and five a.m. on deserves.
Monday, August 24th. The Counsel notes that while in an
earlier statement, Jo said Lyle was at the store that night, she is
now claiming he was with her at home. Jo claims she got “mixed
up” because Lyle spent so much time at the store. The judge
dismisses Jo.

Joel Davis, who’s known to most as Papa D, is called to the Lyle’s insistence on killing Black people who talk to him the way that
witness stand. In a flashback, Lyle demands to know why Joel Old Bill did indicates that he derives his self-esteem from his
told Old Bill about Willa Mae—especially since Willa Mae isn’t whiteness and takes any perceived disrespect from a non-white
the first girl that Joel has brought to Lyle’s place. When Papa D person as an existential threat to his race and his masculinity. The
says he didn’t believe Lyle would kill Old Bill, Lyle—using a racial revelation that Papa D has brought multiple (presumably Black)
slur—says he’ll kill any Black person who talks to him the way girls to Lyle’s place before Willa Mae underscores that Lyle’s racism
Old Bill did. Then he insists the killing was self-defense and in no way prevents him from preying on Black women sexually.
threatens to kill Papa D if he doesn’t “say the right thing.”

On the stand, Papa D calls Lyle an “oppressor” who, unlike many In a prior scene, Juanita and Pete told Richard that Papa D was a
white people, refuses to change his opinion on Black people “Tom”—a Black man who is inappropriately deferential toward white
despite social progress. While white spectators in the people and betrays Black people to white people. Thus, when Papa
courtroom insist that Lyle always treated Papa D well, Black D argues that Lyle is an “oppressor” unlike most white townspeople,
spectators call out that Papa D “loved” Lyle. Papa D admits he readers are primed to believe that Papa D is simply flattering the
did love Lyle “in [his] way.” When Black spectators demand to white spectators in the courtroom: in fact, most of them are just as
know why Papa D didn’t stop Lyle from killing Richard, Papa D racist as Lyle. Papa D’s odd admission that he and Lyle loved each
admits that both he and Lyle loved money. Papa D, having other “in [their] way” suggests that mutual regard can arise even in
already covered up one of Lyle’s murders, was “in too deep” relationships severely damaged by racism—yet his subsequent claim
with him. When the Black spectators ask whether Lyle killed that he and Lyle both loved money indicates that perhaps their
Richard, Papa D says that Lyle entered his juke joint the night peculiar relationship was merely one of shared economic anxiety
Richard died. and greed.

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Papa D’s monologue transitions into a flashback. Papa D is In Juanita, Richard has found someone to love who loves him back.
telling Richard to leave town if he feels like his life is going well This relationship takes him out of the “pain and darkness” of his
and he’s found someone who loves him. Richard tells Papa D racist context, which seems him not as an individual person but as a
that he wants to get Juanita out of town and asks Papa D racial type. Tragically, Lyle—who is incapable of seeing Black people
whether Juanita will laugh. When Papa D assures Richard she as individuals—comes along to pull Richard back into “pain and
won’t, Richard says that now is the first time in his life that he's darkness” just as Richard is about to escape.
felt there is more to existence than “pain and darkness.” Then
Lyle enters the juke joint and asks whether Richard is “ready.”
Richard insists on playing one more song and finishing his drink.

Richard finishes his drink and asks how much he owes Papa D. Richard’s exchange with Papa D clearly indicates that Richard knew
When Papa D suggests that Richard pay him tomorrow, Lyle might kill him. Richard’s calm provides a positive example of
Richard says he may not be able to. Papa D charges him two masculine bravery to contrast with Lyle’s loud, insecure, and racist
dollars. Richard pays and leaves. Papa D says goodbye to masculinity.
Richard and to Lyle. Then, as the flashback ends, Papa D
testifies that he never saw Richard again—and that Lyle killed
him just like he killed Old Bill.

Lorenzo is called to the witness stand. In a flashback, Lorenzo is “Big Jim Byrd” and his “boys” are presumably a police chief or sheriff
in a jail cell with Pete, who wakes up screaming from a and his officers who brutalized and arrested Pete, Lorenzo, Anna
nightmare. Pete tells Lorenzo about the nightmare, which Mae Taylor, and other Black people protesting racial injustice. This
involves a man named “Big Jim Byrd” and his “boys” violently flashback to racist police brutality in the midst of Lyle’s murder trial
beating a woman named Anna Mae Taylor, kicking a pregnant cues readers to understand that the U.S. criminal legal system is
woman, and using a cattle-prod on Pete himself. Lorenzo racist. It thus casts doubt on the possibility that the court will find a
hushes Pete, telling him that unless he quiets down, “they” will white man guilty of a Black man’s murder.
come beat Pete and Lorenzo again. Pete asks whether Juanita
was arrested. Lorenzo reassuringly tells him that he thinks not
and promises to hold Pete while he sleeps.

In the present, Lorenzo takes the stand. The State asks Unlike the Counsel for the Bereaved, Lorenzo explicitly points out
whether Lorenzo went with Richard to Lyle’s store on August that Jo lied about Richard touching her. Here the spectators’
17th. Lorenzo says that events didn’t occur the way Jo reactions are instructive. The white spectators imply that a Black
said—Richard never touched Jo. The white spectators, using man doesn’t have standing to question a white woman’s word,
racial slurs, demand to know who Lorenzo thinks he is, while whereas the Black spectators urge Lorenzo on, indicating that they
the Black spectators urge Lorenzo on. The State claims that the all know Jo is lying. Meanwhile, the State, acting as Lyle’s defense
argument couldn’t have been over the cost of Coke and asks attorney, tries to caricature Richard as a drug addict and sexual
whether Lorenzo and Richard had been drinking or smoking predator in a racist fashion. By suggesting Richard’s ordinary photos
“dope”—and whether Richard decided to act out what his of prior white girlfriends are pornographic, the State reveals how the
pornographic photos of white women suggested. Lorenzo white-supremacist imagination exaggerates and distorts depictions
retorts that he never saw any such photos, he and Richard had of Black sexuality.
not been drinking, all that they’d smoked was tobacco—and
Richard never tried to rape anyone.

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The State asks the judge to remind Lorenzo that he’s under Again, the State’s questioning of Lorenzo essentially puts Richard on
oath. Lorenzo says that he knows he’s under oath—and that the trial, even though Richard is a murder victim and Lyle is supposed
reason for the fight was simply that Richard hated white to be the one on trial for murder. By bringing up the gun to prejudice
people. Then the Counsel for the Bereaved begins questioning the jury against Richard, the State reveals that Black people are
Lorenzo, asking whether Richard was still addicted to drugs. considered guilty of something if they bear arms—even though
Lorenzo says no. The Counsel asks whether Richard was bearing arms is nominally a constitutional right. By bringing up the
carrying pornographic photos of himself and naked white photos, the State preys on the white jury’s presumed racist anxieties
women. Lorenzo says no—people keep asking him about photos about sexual relationships between white women and Black men. In
and a gun, but Lorenzo never saw either. The judge dismisses sum, the State is caricaturing Richard as violent and hyper-
Lorenzo. sexualized.

Juanita is called to the stand. In a flashback, Juanita When Juanita compares sex with Richard to “life and death,” it
monologues about how sex with Richard felt like “life and suggests that Juanita’s love for Richard helped bring him back from
death.” She wishes that she could have given birth to Richard so deathly despair after racist white people caricatured him and
that he could be reborn. Commenting that her mother was denied his humanity all his life—until Lyle took Richard’s life away
afraid that Juanita had brought a lover home, she speculates permanently. Juanita’s claim that she wants a human lover, not
that her mother feels about God how Juanita felt about God, indicates another way the play thinks Christianity may be
Richard—but Juanita wants a human lover. She hopes that she’s counterproductive: it turns humans toward God and thus,
pregnant so that she can “raise [her] baby to be a man.” Then potentially, away from relationships with each other—including
she thinks that there are no more men, not for her, and sexual relationships. Juanita’s desire to “raise [her] baby to be a
wonders whether similar tragedies blighted the life of her man” suggests that a major function of anti-Black racism is to
mother and Mother Henry. She thinks she’ll end up caring for “emasculate” or even kill Black boys and men, a vicious cycle of
another man someday, whether that man is Pete, Meridian, or violence that Juanita wants to break in her hypothetical son’s case.
Parnell—and she comments that Parnell’s life must be terrible: Finally, Juanita’s claim that all bodies are “bloody” to Parnell
all bodies are “bloody” to him. suggests that Parnell’s guilt over his whiteness taints all his sexual
relationships with the history of white male sexual violence against
Black women—and white violence against Black people generally.

When Juanita takes the stand, one of her arms is in a sling. The When the Black spectators ask why Black people are called upon to
Black spectators call out that everyone should have seen her be loving to white people, they are suggesting that Christianity
when she was initially released from jail—and demands to know supports a double standard: Black Christians are supposed to
why Black people are always called up to be loving to white imitate Christ by loving their white oppressors, whereas white
people. Meanwhile, the white spectators call Juanita a “slut” Christians fail to imitate Christ—and, indeed, weaponize
and suggest that “somebody had to twist” her arm. The State Christianity against Black people. Meanwhile, both the white
asks how old Juanita was when Richard’s mother died. Juanita spectators and the State question Juanita’s sexual and romantic
was 16. The State asks whether she and Richard were talking history, suggesting that racist stereotypes about hyper-sexual Black
about marriage then. When Juanita says that they obviously women will be used to discredit Juanita’s testimony.
weren’t, the State asks whether they only talked about
marriage shortly before Richard’s death. Juanita agrees.

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The State asks whether Juanita had other boyfriends between In this scene, the State doubles down on his attempts to turn
Richard’s departure and his return—and whether her Juanita into a racist caricature of the promiscuous, hyper-sexual
loneliness and Meridian’s caused her and Meridian to draw Black woman. Juanita’s response—“I am not responsible for your
closer together. Without waiting for an answer, the State then imagination”—doubles as the play’s response to this phenomenon of
asks where she has spent the past few weeks. When Juanita white anxiety about Black sexuality: Black people are not
says she was in jail and begins to explain why she was arrested, responsible for white sexual and racial anxieties about Black people
the State cuts her off and asks how long, in total, she has ever and therefore should not have to respond to them.
spent in jail. When she says it’s been a substantial time, the
State makes a sarcastic comment about how she’s preparing for
her future. Then the State mentions that she considered
marrying another student, Pete Spivey, and suggests Juanita
can’t say anything about Richard she couldn’t also say about
Pete, Meridian, and “many” other men. Juanita replies, “I am not
responsible for your imagination.”

The State asks Juanita about the fight between Lyle and Yet again, the State asks about Richard’s use of drugs and alcohol to
Richard at Lyle’s store. When Juanita says she wasn’t there, the paint him as a dangerous Black man for the white jury. The
State asks whether Richard was sober before and after the flashback to Meridian and Juanita’s conversation makes clear that
fight. Juanita says that he was. She heard about the fight in the Richard is not the dangerous one: it is fatal violence from Lyle
evening and went running to Meridian’s house to see Richard. against Richard that Meridian (rightfully) fears. Thus, the
In a flashback, Meridian greets Juanita, tells her Richard is juxtaposition between the trial and the flashback highlights the
sleeping, and asks whether she’ll go with Richard when extreme racism and injustice of essentially putting Richard, the
Meridian sends him away due to the danger Lyle poses. murder victim, on trial.

When Juanita replies, “oh, my God,” Meridian says he wants to When Meridian admits that he repressed his feelings about his
ask her a question just one time: was he imagining their wife’s death so thoroughly that he ended up repressing all his
connection before Richard arrived? Juanita says he wasn’t feelings, it shows the psychic toll of practicing Christian nonviolence
imagining it—he was lonely and hoping, as was she. When she when violently oppressed. It also shows the damage that white
cries out that she never wanted to wound Meridian, he says racist violence does not only to the people who directly suffer it, but
that he knows—he just wanted to check that he wasn’t going also to their families and other loved ones for years afterward.
crazy. He admits that he has culpably allowed himself to
become terribly lonely because he can’t forget the sight of his
wife’s dead body covered in rain. He let his chance with Juanita
slip past because of it—it wasn’t her fault or Richard’s. He
repressed his feelings so as not to kill someone—and he wants
to have control of himself now and wish Juanita the best.

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Juanita asks Meridian whether they’ll always suffer. Meridian When Juanita testifies that Richard didn’t want to leave town
says he doesn’t know, but they have to keep going. They enter despite the threat of violence from Lyle because he wanted to live as
the house. Back in the present, Juanita testifies that she tried a man, her testimony poses an implicit question to the audience:
to make plans to leave town with Richard, but Richard said he given that Richard obviously has a right to live without threat of
wanted to remain and live as a man rather than keep fleeing violence, is it an example of positive masculine bravery or negative
white people. Eventually Juanita convinced him to take her masculine pride that Richard refuses to leave town to save his own
away from town, but before they could go, Lyle killed him—just life? Since Richard was ultimately willing to leave town for Juanita,
like white men have been killing Black men for centuries. The whom he loved, the play suggests that Richard’s initial unwillingness
judge dismisses Juanita and adjourns court for the day. to leave town was an example of the former: he had the masculine
bravery and self-respect not to flee from danger that he shouldn’t
have had to face in the first place.

On the next day of the trial, Mother Henry is called to the When Mother Henry points out that white people never referred to
stand. When the State, calling her “Mrs. Henry,” says that she her respectfully (as “Mrs. Henry”) until her grandson was murdered,
and her husband never caused any problems with white people, she is underscoring the racist cultural context in which Lyle’s trial is
Mother Henry points out that no white person ever referred to taking place. In the same vein, when the State speaks on behalf of
her as “Mrs. Henry” either, not until Richard was murdered. every white person in town, it shows that the State thinks of himself
The State claims that he and every white person in town feels as a representative of whiteness—and thus highlights that the
Mrs. Henry’s pain—but then asks whether Richard came to State’s defense of Lyle is part and parcel of defending white
town with a gun. Mother Henry says she never saw a gun—and supremacy. Finally, the audience knows that Mother Henry is lying
repeats it even when the State reminds her she’s under oath. when she says she never saw a gun. Her lie under oath implies that
she’s sure Richard—not Lyle—is on trial here, and that the white jury
would become irremediably prejudiced against Richard if they knew
he was a gun owner. This double standard shows that, in this white-
supremacist context, Black people are not afforded the same right
to violent self-defense that white people are.

The State asks Mother Henry whether she ever saw Richard Yet again, the State emphasizes Richard’s drug use in attempt to
acting like he was on drugs. She says no, except for the time she caricature him as a dangerous Black man and prejudice the jury
saw him etherized for tonsil surgery when he was six. She against him. Mother Henry counters the State with a story about
recalls how, the day Richard was born, Meridian prayed “to how, when Richard was born, Meridian prayed to raise him as “a
raise him to be a good strong man.” The judge dismisses her. good strong man”—an anecdote that emphasizes both the family’s
Christianity and their investment in positive forms of masculinity.

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Meridian is called to the stand. In a flashback, Meridian is The Song of Songs, a book in the Old Testament, is a romantic poem
teaching the Song of Songs to a Sunday school class. To the often interpreted allegorically as about Christ’s love for the church
class he interprets the Song of Songs as about Christ’s love for or God’s love for the Jewish people. Meridian’s wish that the poem
the church—but in an aside, he wishes it were about an were non-allegorical hints that he feels sexually repressed by
individual man’s love for a woman. In the present, the State Christianity and longs for romantic love rather than for
asks whether Meridian is a reverend and Richard’s father, who Christianity’s general love of mankind. His claim that he had no
raised his son a Christian. Meridian says that he tried, but answer to Richard’s questions about the behavior of racist
Richard often wondered why some Christians treated Black Christians, meanwhile, points out the hypocrisy of white Christians
people so badly, and Meridian had no good answer for him. who claim to imitate Jesus Christ’s universal love yet hate and
oppress Black people.

The State says that Meridian, as a minister, certainly wouldn’t Meridian, like Mother Henry, lies that he never saw Richard with a
have encouraged his son to carry a gun. Meridian says he and gun; these repeated lies emphasize that the Black witnesses know
Richard never really discussed that—he never saw Richard that Richard is the one on trial, despite being the murder victim.
carry a gun, and the topic only came up when Richard said he They know that Richard’s owning a gun would prejudice the white
“could live without” a gun. The Black spectators sarcastically jury against him because white racists don’t believe Black people
suggest that Richard couldn’t “say how” he could live without a have the same right to violent self-defense that white people do. The
gun, while the white spectators yell that Meridian is lying. Black spectators’ sarcastic comment that Richard couldn’t “say
how” he would live without a gun implies that Richard might have
survived Lyle’s attack if he had had his gun on him. This casts
further down on the wisdom of nonviolent Christian protest.

The State insinuates that Richard strayed from Christianity When the State insinuates that Meridian was a bad Christian
because Meridian, in preaching “social equality,” served as a bad because he preached “social equality,” it shows how certain strands
Christian example. Meridian replies that he’s not interested in of Christianity encourage oppressed people to simply endure their
seeing Black people become “equal” to their murderers—but oppression rather than fighting back. Meridian’s claim that he wants
only “equal to themselves,” living up to their own human Black people to become “equal to themselves” emphasizes that his
potential. The State angrily blames Meridian for Richard’s goal in protesting for social equality isn’t to make Black people more
“tragic” death, but Meridian denies that the State sees like white people—who are not role models—but rather to give Black
Richard’s death as “tragic.” people a chance to flourish on their own terms.

The State asks Meridian about his relationship to Juanita and Just as the State attempted to discredit Juanita’s testimony by
whether he’s had sex since his wife died. When Meridian asks accusing her of sexual promiscuity, so the State here tries to
whether that’s the State’s business, the State asks the judge to discredit Meridian by asking about Meridian’s sex life. This redirects
make Meridian answer the question. Meridian, outraged, says the white jury’s attention away from Meridian’s actual testimony to
that he’s a man who was trying to help his son become a white-supremacist anxieties about Black male sexuality. Meanwhile,
man—but the “pursuit” of manhood killed Richard due to Meridian announces that he just wanted to help his son become a
overwhelming white racism in every sphere, including law and man, a claim that suggests manhood or masculinity isn’t a default
religion. The Black spectators call out, “Amen!,” while the white for men—rather, it’s an ideal that men work toward.
spectators yell that Meridian is fomenting race hatred.
Meridian declares himself responsible for Richard’s death but
also says he hoped to change the world so that it would be
different by the time Richard grew into manhood.

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The State asks Meridian about Richard’s obscene photos of Again, the State claims Richard had pornographic photographs of
himself and white women. Meridian says Richard never told white women to play on the racist white jury’s fear of Black male
him about any such photos. When the State asks whether sexuality and prejudice the jury against Richard. When Meridian
Meridian and Richard ever talked about women, Meridian says says that he and Richard talked about women as people, not about
they certainly talked about individual women such as Richard’s pornography, he is implicitly asserting that both he and Richard
mother and Juanita—but not about pornography. The State have appropriate and humane respect for women. When Meridian
accuses Meridian of lying on the stand to protect a “pimp, dope announces that he is “beginning to become” a minister after
addict, and rapist.” Meridian says that he doesn’t care about the essentially stating that Richard never tried to rape Jo, he is
State’s judgment, he knows why Richard became a drug addict, suggesting that to be a true leader, Christian or otherwise, one must
and Richard was never a pimp or a rapist—and Jo frankly wasn’t assert the truth against the lies of one’s oppressors.
his son’s type. When the State sarcastically asks whether
Meridian is a minister, Meridian replies, “I think I may be
beginning to become one.” The judge dismisses him.

Parnell is called to the stand. In a flashback, Parnell is standing Parnell’s ruminations on what he calls his “black fever” indicate that
in his bathrobe monologuing about how his girlfriend told him in the aftermath of his relationship with Pearl, he felt so guilty about
he said the wrong name during sex—but wouldn’t tell him his whiteness that he wanted to flee it. But as a result, he stopped
whose name. He sarcastically hopes it was “a white girl’s name.” treating his Black sexual partners like people to be loved and started
Then he admits that he’s been using his girlfriend to avoid his treating them like temporary escape hatches from the guilt of
“black fever,” his attraction to Black women and men—based in whiteness. Thus, Parnell’s white guilt actually leads to more racist
his desire to be freed from his white body, not in real love. behavior.

In another flashback, Parnell is going hunting with Lyle on When Parnell says that Lyle has a capacity for attracting people, he
Parnell’s property. Lyle is asking Parnell whether it would be a may be indirectly admitting his own sexual attraction to Lyle—but
good idea to propose to Jo. Parnell says that Lyle will have to the line is too ambiguous to be clear. Meanwhile, Lyle’s
live with Jo his whole life if she says yes—and he thinks she will reminiscences about poaching on Parnell’s property make clear that
say yes. When Lyle asks why she would, Parnell says that Lyle Lyle’s family was much poorer than Parnell’s. Then, Lyle’s desire for a
has a capacity for attracting people. Lyle expresses doubt about “clean” wife hints that Lyle doesn’t love Jo—he just has a
that and then says that he and his father used to poach from misogynistic and white-supremacist commitment to marrying a
Parnell’s property—the “overseers” would shoot at them, but sexually “pure” white virgin.
they always got away. When Parnell asks whether Lyle wants to
marry Jo, Lyle says he must marry and have children at some
point, and Jo is “clean.”

Parnell shoots at some animal and misses. Lyle shoots and kills Lyle’s claim that hunting was “sport” for Parnell but “life” for his
a bird. When Parnell congratulates him, Lyle says his father family hints once again that Lyle’s family was extremely poor—they
taught him well: “It was sport for you. It was life for us.” Parnell relied on the meat they poached to survive. Parnell’s joke that Lyle
jokingly says that Lyle just killed someone’s child. Changing the just killed someone’s child ominously (though accidentally) alludes
subject, Lyle says that he wants “peace,” and that Jo is the only to Lyle’s later killing of Meridian’s child, Richard. Through the joke,
“white virgin” remaining in town. Parnell asks whether Lyle is the play suggests that Lyle sees upholding white supremacy as a
worried that Jo will be turned off by the gossip about Old Bill, matter of existential survival—just as he sees hunting as a matter of
but Lyle says he isn’t—such incidents are too commonplace. He survival. Meanwhile, Lyle’s comment that Jo is the only “white
says that he’ll make Parnell his baby’s godfather and that its virgin” left in town make explicit that Lyle wants to marry Jo for her
middle name will be “Parnell.” race and her perceived sexual purity, not because he actually loves
her.

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In the present, Parnell takes the stand. The white spectators, Throughout the play, conflicts around who gets to own guns have
using racial slurs, accuse Parnell of loving Black people and symbolized how white-supremacist societies deny Black people the
betraying white people, while the Black spectators say they right to self-defense. When Parnell says that he has served
distrust him because he’s white. The State asks Parnell about alongside Black soldiers with guns, he is essentially claiming that he
Richard and Lyle. Parnell says he’s friends with Richard’s father has no racist fear of armed Black people—in the past, he has trusted
Meridian—and with Lyle. When the State asks whether the two Black people with deadly weapons to use them appropriately. When
friendships were equally strong, Parnell says they were the State retorts that soldiers have “a common enemy,” the State is
“different.” When the State asks him what “different” things suggesting that Black and white Americans are allies during
Parnell did with his friends, Parnell mentions that he hunts with wartime, but during peacetime, Black and white Americans are
Lyle. The State suggests that Parnell hunted with Lyle but not enemies and thus don’t trust one another with guns.
Meridian because he trusted Lyle but not Meridian. Parnell
objects, saying he served in the army alongside Black soldiers
with guns. The State points out that soldiers have “a common
enemy.”

The State asks Parnell what he thought of Richard. Parnell says At this point, it isn’t clear whether Parnell is lying about Richard’s
that Richard was a worthy person even if he was “tactless.” gun or never knew Richard had one. He tells the truth about
When the state asks how Richard affected the town, Parnell Richard’s photos, however: they were normal snapshots, not
says that he disturbed the town with his negative reaction to its pornography. Parnell’s willingness to tell the truth perhaps displays
racial politics. The State asks whether Richard told Black his naivete about white racism. While Parnell doesn’t believe that
people to carry guns or showed around photos of naked white Richard possessing normal photos of white women he has known
women. Parnell says he never heard of Richard telling people to will prejudice the jury against him, the State clearly does believe
carry guns and that the photos weren’t pornographic—they it—hence the State’s clarifying question about the content of the
were normal photos. When the State asks whether the photos photos.
were of white women, Parnell says they were.

When the State mentions that Parnell is the first witness to say Parnell’s commentary here reveals that he is not so naïve as he
the photos existed, Parnell says he discouraged Richard from previously appeared: he knew that Richard having even normal
showing them to anyone due to the “danger”—and that Richard snapshots of white women might put Richard at risk given the racist
wouldn’t have showed the photos to Meridian as the women in white townspeople’s extreme prejudice against any interracial
them were “beneath him.” The State pontificates that any white romantic relationships. The State illustrates just how prejudiced
woman who has sex with a Black man is “beneath all human against such relationships the white townspeople are when he uses
consideration” and has committed an act of religious religious language to call white women who have sex with Black
desecration. women “beneath all human consideration”—subhuman, essentially.

The State asks whether Richard’s attempt to rape Jo damaged Parnell does seem to be telling the truth here: he never heard about
Parnell’s friendship with Meridian. Parnell says he never heard a rape attempt until Jo’s testimony in court, though he did hear
anything about a rape attempt until today. The State asks how about the altercation at the store from Lyle. Yet—as the yells from
it’s possible that Parnell didn’t hear about it given his close the spectators suggest—Parnell is not telling the whole truth. In fact,
friendship with Lyle and Jo. Parnell says he doesn’t know. Both he’s trying to avoid admitting that he thinks Jo lied.
white and Black spectators yell at Parnell to tell the truth.
Parnell says Lyle only told him about a fight at the store.

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When the State asks how Lyle could have failed to mention an Here Parnell betrays Richard and Meridian: he merely acknowledges
attempted rape, Parnell hems and haws and says he thought Jo that Jo’s story seems “quite explicit” about sexual assault without
had misunderstood Richard. The State asks how she could pointing out the obvious fact that it’s likely she made it up for the
misunderstand a forced kiss. Parnell acknowledges that that trial to prejudice the white jury against Richard and get Lyle
seems “quite explicit.” The judge dismisses Parnell. The Black exonerated. The reactions of both Black and white spectators—in
spectators say ironically that Parnell screwed them in a “gentle” particular the white spectators’ triumph that Jo told the truth “after
fashion and comment that not even a white man is allowed to all”—suggests that everyone doubted the truth of Jo’s story, but that
call a white woman a liar, while the white spectators crow that the white spectators are taking heart from Parnell’s refusal to call
Jo told the truth “after all.” out her lie.

Lyle is called to the stand. In a flashback, Lyle monologues These flashbacks seem intended to show that Lyle has some depth
about what his son or daughter might be like as an adult and of character: he wants to care for his child and on some level
praises Jo’s goodness. He promises himself that he’ll work hard respects his wife. However, he’s still a violent racist anxiously fixated
to support them, prays to God to help him, and asks his son to on whether he is manlier and better at sex than Black men. In other
arrive soon so he can “hug” him. Then, in another flashback, Lyle words, the play is underscoring that a white “family man” can still be
is reminiscing to Papa D about how sexy Willa Mae was and a racist murderer.
how she told him he was better at sex than any Black
man—before saying he needs to get home because he’s “a
family man now.”

In the present, Lyle walks up to the stand. The judge asks the When Lyle thanks Parnell for “com[ing] through,” it emphasizes that
jury whether they’ve reached a verdict. The jury declares Lyle Parnell betrayed Meridian and Richard by failing to call out Jo’s lies
not guilty. The white spectators cheer, while the Black about Richard. Meanwhile, Meridian’s refusal to take the jury’s
spectators say nothing. Soon the courtroom is mostly empty. verdict as “good enough” suggests that Meridian never expected
Lyle thanks Parnell for “com[ing] through,” and Meridian asks justice from a white jury—but he still wants the truth.
Parnell to ask Lyle for the truth. When Lyle snaps at Meridian
that the trial was clearly a mistake, Meridian asks whether Lyle
killed Richard. Lyle says the white jury’s verdict ought to be
“good enough” for Meridian.

Parnell says it’s not “good enough.” Lyle criticizes him for Interestingly, Parnell thinks that he has failed not only Meridian, but
seeming not to trust Jo’s story on the stand and says that Lyle himself by allowing Jo’s lie about Richard to stand and so
Parnell isn’t “better” than he is. Parnell says that he’s finally helping to secure Lyle’s acquittal. It seems that Parnell believes a
realized he isn’t any better and that he has “failed” Lyle. Then, conviction would have forced Lyle to confront the horrific truth of
he declares that he knew Jo was lying because Lyle pressured his own behavior and so improved him as an individual—even if it
her to—and that not only did Lyle wrong Jo, but Parnell also also sent him to prison. By allowing Lyle to dodge the truth, then,
wronged Lyle by pretending to entertain the lie. Parnell isn’t Parnell failed Lyle.
sure whether he betrayed Lyle or Meridian more, in fact. Lyle
asks whether Parnell has forgotten he’s white—something
Lyle’s father taught Lyle never to do—and tells him, using a
racial slur, to go to the Black side of town.

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Meridian demands to know whether Richard pleaded for his Lyle’s claim that he gave Richard “every chance to live” may be
life before Lyle shot him. Lyle exclaims that Richard was too unreliable, but it suggests that Lyle believes he would have left
clever and too proud. He insists that he gave Richard “every Richard alone—if Richard had bowed to Lyle’s white-supremacist
chance to live.” In a flashback, Lyle and Richard stand in the dark ideology and apologized to Lyle. When Richard asks what he or Lyle
outside Papa D’s. Lyle demands that Richard apologize for what is trying to prove, it suggests that Richard sees their fight at the store
he did in the store. Richard refuses and asks whether they need as racially charged macho posturing—a posturing that Richard has
to do this—what is he or Lyle trying to prove? When Lyle says quickly grown out of, but that Lyle is still mired in.
he’s giving Richard a chance, Richard says Lyle won’t give him
the chance he wants—to let them both just go home.

When Richard exclaims he has “things to do,” Lyle says he does Richard, through his relationships with Meridian and Juanita, has
too and admits he wants to go home. Richard asks why they’re matured enough to be able to offer Lyle grace: despite Lyle’s racism,
still here. When Lyle says they must settle things, Richard Richard is willing to respect Lyle’s individuality and allow that he is
replies, “It’s settled. You a man and I’m a man.” Lyle demands “a man.” Yet Lyle doesn’t want to be respected in this way. Because
that Richard call him “sir” and apologize. When Richard refuses, he’s insecure in himself and his masculinity, he wants to be
Lyle asks whether Richard wants to live. Richard says yes but privileged and bowed to as a white man specifically. Whiteness, for
tells Lyle to go home. Lyle, is a kind of psychological security blanket that Richard’s
dignified refusal to call him “sir” threatens to take away.

When Lyle pulls out a gun, Richard asks why Lyle won’t stop Once again, guns symbolize how white-supremacist culture refuses
harassing him, saying that he wants nothing from white people, Black people the right to defend themselves: Richard has given up
who lack good food, talk, and dancing. Lyle shoots him. Richard his gun because his family members were afraid of what white
demands to know why white people are trying to castrate him. people would do if they knew he had it, and now Richard is
Lyle shoots him a second time. Richard warns Lyle to keep unarmed. When Richard asks why white people try to castrate him,
Jo—and himself—away from Black people lest they “get to like he indicates that a major goal of anti-Black racism is to
it.” Then he calls out for Juanita, Meridian, and his mother. “emasculate” Black men. But when he tells Lyle he and Jo might “get
to like it” if they spend too much time around Black people, he is
pointing out that white-supremacist ideology cannot account for
interracial attraction.

In the present, Lyle yells that he had to murder Richard At the play’s end, Lyle only sees himself as a white man, not as an
because no one can talk to him, a white man, that way—and that individual, and he believes he must defend his whiteness and
he feels no regret. Jo hurries him away. Mother Henry tells masculinity with homicidal violence. This shows how white-
those remaining in the church that they need “to march” now. supremacist ideology has left Lyle alienated from himself as well as
When Lorenzo makes a sarcastic comment about prayer, from others. Meridian’s comment that Black people’s story in the
Meridian suggests that things began and may end for Black U.S. may end with “the Bible and the gun” predicts that both
people with “the Bible and the gun.” Juanita asks what Meridian Christian nonviolent resistance and violent self-defense may be
did with the gun. When Parnell asks whether they have necessary to fight for racial justice. The conversation about
Richard’s gun, Meridian says yes—it’s under the Bible in the Richard’s gun reveals that basically all the witnesses knew about
pulpit of his church. Pete asks Juanita whether she’s ready to Richard’s gun and lied under oath about it—suggesting that they all
go. Everyone exits except Juanita and Parnell. Parnell asks her knew the white jury would be prejudiced against Richard if they
whether he can walk with her in the march. Juanita says they knew he had contemplated violent self-defense. Finally, Juanita’s
can at least “walk in the same direction”—but then she willingness to let Parnell “walk in the same direction” as her shows
encourages him to come with her. She leaves, and he follows. that she is willing to let Parnell redeem himself despite his betrayal
of Meridian and Richard during the trial.

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To cite any of the quotes from Blues for Mister Charlie covered in
HOW T
TO
O CITE the Quotes section of this LitChart:
To cite this LitChart: MLA
MLA Baldwin, James. Blues for Mister Charlie. Vintage. 1995.
Prendergast, Finola. "Blues for Mister Charlie." LitCharts. LitCharts CHICA
CHICAGO
GO MANU
MANUAL
AL
LLC, 26 Jun 2024. Web. 26 Jun 2024.
Baldwin, James. Blues for Mister Charlie. New York: Vintage.
CHICA
CHICAGO
GO MANU
MANUAL
AL 1995.
Prendergast, Finola. "Blues for Mister Charlie." LitCharts LLC, June
26, 2024. Retrieved June 26, 2024. https://www.litcharts.com/lit/
blues-for-mister-charlie.

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