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Introduction to Nano Technology (Sir Dr. Iran) lectures in Questions/Answers Form

prepared by Asad Abbas

Q.1 Briefly describe about Nano technology?

Nano meter: nano meter is prefix which is 10-9m a nanometer is one-billionth a meter.
Nanotechnology: There are following features of nano technology
As a field and research community has received billions of funding dollars, making it one of the nation’s largest
technology investments since the space race.
History of Nano technology
Father of Nano technology: Richard Feynman by his quote “There’s plenty of rooms at the bottom” in Dec 29,
1959 and Received Nobel prize in 1965. Due to following features
(1) Gravity would become less important.
(2) Surface tension and van der waals attraction would become more important.
Term “Nano Technology” firstly defined by Norio Taniguichi, Tokyo Science university in 1974.
K.Eric Drexler (1986) describe about nano technology in his books
Engine of creation: Coming Era of Nano technology (Time called it the “nano technologist bible”)
Nano systems: Moleculer machinery, manufacturing and computation.
Q.2 Give the History of Nano materials
In 1974 The word nano technology first coined by Nario Taniguuchi to get ultra-fine accuracy and precision of
1nm.
In 1981 IBM invented Scanning tunneling microscope which can move single atom around
In 1985 new form of carbon C60(Buckminster fullerene) in 60 carbon atoms arranged in sphere made of 12
pentagon and 20 hexagon
In 1991 carbon nanotubes discovered
In 1993 first high quality quantum dots prepared
In 2000 First DNA motor made similar to motorized tweezers may make computer 1000 more powerful
In 2001 protype fuel cell made with nano tubes
In 2002 nano materials make stain repellant trousers Nano care khakis have nano whiskers
Q.3What are the approaches in Nano technology?
There are two approaches in Nano technology
Top down approach: Creating nano scale materials by physically or chemically breaking down larger materials
Bottom up approach: Assembling nano materials atoms by atoms or molecules by molecules (Self assembling)
Q.4 briefly describe about Nano science?
Nano science is an emerging area of science which deals with the study of materials that have very small
dimensions of the size of 10-9m. For example you may report a very small mass in nano grams or amount of liquid
in one cell in terms of nano liters. Other examples of nano science things
A single component of DNA, The building block of all living things about 03 nm size
Scale on a butterfly’s wings contain nano structures, peacock feathers and soap bubbles are tens of nanometer thick.
Q.5 What is NEMS?
NEMS stands for nano electro mechanical system, These are three dimensional structures at the nano scale, these
devices might one day be used like microscopic robots to carry out tasks too small for humans to do themselves. It
also could carry out surgery on a single unit.
Q.6(i) Which discipline scientists use nano technology and why?
Scientists and engineers from several disciplines including physics, chemistry, biology and materials science use
nanoscience principles for advanced applications in energy, medicine, information storage, computing and
elsewhere.
Q.6(ii) State micrometermicro technology and MEMS with applications.
Micro 10-6 m 1/million (micron) size of light’s wavelength micro technology has been rolling along for half a
century like in Microelectronics (ICs PCs etc). MEMS (micro electro mechanical systems) air bag acclerometers
micro mirrors TVs and projectors.
Q.7 State MOOR’s law.
In 1965 observation by Intel co-founder Gordon Moors stated that “Transistor count for ICs seemed to be doubling
every 18-24 months”. It means that number of transistor in dense ICs double approximately every two years.
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Q.8 What are the principle factors cause the properties of nano materials to differ significantly from Bulk
materials?
There are two principal factors cause this
1) Increased relative surface area
2) Quantum effects
These factors can change or enhance properties such as reactivity, strength and electrical properties.

Q.9 Give the effect on surface with particle size.

As particle size decreases, a greater proportion of atoms are found at the surface compared to those inside
For example, a particle of
Size upto 30nm ..> 5% of its atoms on its surface
Size upto 10 nm ..> 20% of its atoms on its surface
Size upto 3 nm..> 50% of its atoms on its surface
Nano particles are more reactive than large particle(Catalysts)
Q.10 Describe about Quantum confinement.
Quantum confinement is the change of electronic and optical properties when the material sampled is of the
sufficiently small size typically 10nm or less. The band gap increases as the size of the nano structures decreases.
Quantum confinement is responsible for the increase of energy difference b/w energy states and band gap, a
phenomenon tightly related to the optical and electronic properties of the materials.
Q.11 What are nano materials? Give the classification of nano materials on the basis of dimensions.
Nano materials as those which have structured components with atleast one dimension less than 100nm.
One dimension in nano scale: Thin films, surface coatings, computer chips
Two dimensions in nano scale: nano wires, nano tubes
Three Dimension in nano scale: nano particles, precipitates, colloids, quantum dots.
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Q.12 Explain the types of nano materials.

There are following four types of nano materials
1) Carbon based materials
2) Metal based materials
3) Dendrimers
4) Composites
Carbon based materials:
• These nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon, most commonly taking the form of a hollow spheres,
ellipsoids, or tubes.
• Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon nanomaterials are referred to as fullerenes, while cylindrical ones are
called nanotubes.
• These particles have many potential applications, including improved films and coatings, stronger and
lighter materials, and applications in electronics.
Metal based materials:
• These nanomaterials include quantum dots, nanogold, nanosilver and metal oxides, such as titanium
dioxide, metal sulphides, nitrides etc.
• A quantum dot is a closely packed semiconductor crystal comprised of hundreds or thousands of atoms, and
whose size is on the order of a few nanometers to a few hundred nanometers.
• Changing the size of quantum dots changes their optical properties.
Dendrimers:
• These nanomaterials are nanosized polymers built from branched units. The surface of a dendrimer has
numerous chain ends, which can be tailored to perform specific chemical functions.
• This property could also be useful for catalysis. Also, because three-dimensional dendrimers contain
interior cavities into which other molecules could be placed, they may be useful for drug delivery.
• Dendrimers are hyper branched, globular, mono disperse, three-D nanoscale synthetic polymers, having
very well defined size, shape and definite moleculer weight.
• Dendrimer is a nano particle so has advantages over micro particles due to its small size and easy uptake by
cells.
• They show properties of both moleculer chemistry and polymer chemistry.
• These are used in photodynamic therapy, diagnostic application like MRI contrast and X-ray contrast agent
and in pharmaceutical application like
• Composites:
• Composites means “made of two or more different parts”. A composite is a combination of two or more
different materials that are mixed in an effort to blend the best properties of both.
 Composites combine nanoparticles with other nanoparticles or with larger, bulk-type materials.
 Nanoparticles, such as nano sized clays, are already being added to products ranging from auto parts to
packaging materials, to enhance mechanical, thermal, barrier, and flame-retardant properties.

Q.13 briefly describe about Graphite.

 Graphite is a crystalline form of carbon.
 In graphite each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three carbon atom to give trigonal geometry.
 Bond angle in graphite is 120°C.
 Each carbon atom in graphite is SP2 hybridized.
 Three out of four valence electrons of each carbon atom are used in bond formation with other three carbon
atoms, while the fourth electron is free to move in structure of graphite.
 Graphite uses in solid lubricants (moderator in nuclear reactors) and electrodes (pencil lead).
Q.14 briefly describe about Graphene?
 Graphene is an allotrope (form) of carbon consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in
an hexagonal lattice.
 It is the basic structural element of many other allotropes of carbon, such
as graphite, diamond, charcoal, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes.
 It can be considered as an indefinitely large aromatic molecule, the ultimate case of the family of
flat polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
 Graphene has many unusual properties. It is the strongest material ever tested, efficiently conducts heat and
electricity, and is nearly transparent.
 Graphene shows a large and nonlinear diamagnetism, greater than that of graphite, and can be levitated
by neodymium magnets.
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Q.15 Write a note on Carbon nanotubes.

• A carbon nanotube is a tube-shaped material, made of carbon, having a diameter measuring on the
nanometer scale.
• Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are an allotrope of carbon.
• They take the form of cylindrical carbon molecules and have novel properties that make them potentially
useful in a wide variety of applications in nanotechnology, electronics, optics and other fields of materials
science.
• They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of heat.
• Inorganic nanotubes have also been synthesized.
• Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family, which also includes bucky balls.
• Whereas buckyballs are spherical in shape, a nanotube is cylindrical, with at least one end typically capped
with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure.
• Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the order of a few nanometers
(approximately 50,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair), while they can be up to several
millimeters in length.
• There are two main types of nanotubes: single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes
(MWNTs).
• CNT are at least 100 times stronger than steel, but only one-sixth as heavy, so nanotube fibers could
strengthen almost any material.
• Nanotubes can conduct heat and electricity far better than copper. CNT are already being used in polymers
to control or enhance conductivity and are added to anti-static packaging.
• CNT are unique because the bonding between the atoms is very strong and the tubes can have extreme
aspect ratios. A carbon nanotube can be as thin as a few nanometers yet be as long as hundreds of microns.
• Carbon nanotubes have many structures, differing in length, thickness, and number of layers.
• There are many different types of carbon nanotubes, but they are normally categorized as either single-
walled (SWNT) or multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT).
• A single-walled carbon nanotube is just like a regular straw. It has only one layer, or wall.
• Multi-walled carbon nanotubes are a collection of nested tubes of continuously increasing diameters.
Q.16 Briefly describe about Fullerene?
• A fullerene is a molecule of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, and many other shapes.
• Spherical fullerenes, also referred to as Buckminsterfullerenes or buckyballs, resemble the balls used
in association football.
• Cylindrical fullerenes are also called carbon nanotubes (buckytubes). Fullerenes are similar
in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings.
• Buckminsterfullerene: It is type of fullerene with the formula C60. It has a cage-like fused-ring structure
(truncated icosahedron) that resembles a soccer ball (football), made of twenty hexagons and
twelve pentagons, with a carbon atom at each vertex of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge.
Q.17 Describe about nano cones.
The carbon nano cones are produced by carbon condensation on a graphite substrates and pyrolysis of heavy coil.
The essence of the method is heating the graphite surface with intensive short laser pulse, which evaporates some
number of atoms from role as the cut glue procedure. There is one special class of nano cones, called nano horns
with exact five defects. These structures with good electron emission properties are easy to get and stable enough.
Q.18 Describe about nano wires.
A nano wire is a nano structure, with the diameter of the order of a nanometer 10-9 m, It can be defined as
structures that have a thickness or diameter constrained to tens of nanometers or less. Many different types of nano
wires exist, including metallic, semiconducting and insulating materials. These could be used in the near future to
link tiny components into extremely small circuits. Using nano technology, such components could be created out
of chemical compounds.
Nano wires are synthesized in laboratory from elements, they are important in electronic, opto electronic and nano
electromechanical devices.
Q.19 What is Haeckelites?
If we try to bend grapheme sheet it will straighten up. A new hypothetical type of grapheen sheet which admits
pentagons heptagons and hexagons. It has been proposed, nothing that the no of heptogons and pentagons should be
same, in order to compensate for the negative curvature of heptogons and positive curvature of pentagon, these
arrangements are now called haecklelites. In favour of German zoologist who produced it.
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Q.20 Write the names of method of preparation of CNT.

There are following four methods for preparation of CNT.
Arc Method
Laser method
Chemical vapor deposition
Ball milling
Q.21 Briefly explain Laser method for preparation of CNT.
In 1996 CNT were firstly synthesized using a dual pulsed laser and achieved yields of 70% of weight.
Samples were prepared by laser vaporization of graphite rods with 50,50 catalyst mixtures of cobalt and nickel at
1200°C in flowing argon
The initial laser vaporization pulse was followed by second pulse to vaporize the target more uniformly.
The material produced by this method appear as a mat of ropes 10-20 nm in diameter and upto 10 micro meter or
more in length
Q.22 Briefly explain chemical vapor deposition method for preparation of CNT.
This method is useful in production of CNTs on large scale
All types of CNTs are obtained by this method
The method involved decomposing a hydrocarbon gas such as methane acetylene, ethylene at temperature of about
1100°C in the presence of metal nano particle catalyst mostly Ni, Co, Fe supported on MgO and Al2O3.
Carbon atoms produced by decomposition are condensed on cooler surface containing metal catalyst.
The size of metal nano particle determines the diameter of nano tube with open ends. It is continuous process used
as industrial scale.
Q.23 What are nano composite? Give characterstics, classes and applications.
Definition: A nano composite is a multiphase solid material where one of the phases has one, two or three
dimensions of less than 100 nm or structure having nano scale repeat distance b/w the different phases that makeup
the material.
General characteristics: There are following characteristics of it.
It consist of one or more discontinuous phases of distributed in one continuous phase
Continuous phase is called matrix, whereas discontinuous phase is called reinforcement or reinforcing material.
Classes of nano composites: There are two types/ classes of nano composites
Polymer based and non-polymer based
Non Polymer based: used in following
Metal/ metal non composite: either in the form of alloy or core shell structure
Metal/ceramic nano composite: Either in the form of nano tube or complicated nano structure
Ceramic/ ceramic nano composite: alloy or ceramic like zirconia
Polymer bases nano composite:
Polymer/ ceramic nano composite: layer structure like barium-titanate with polymers
Inorganic/ organic polymer nano composite: eg polymer nanofiber with zero valent nanoparticles.
Inorganic/ organic hybrid nano composites: nano crystal Cds nano crystals.
Applications:
I. Electro catalyst in batteries for energy saving
II. Lightweight materials for less fuel consumption
III. In artificial joints, economically beneficial
IV. Carbon nano tubes most widely speaking nano materials which can be made as nano composite fibers
V. Abrasion and wear applications
VI. Marine application
VII. Food packing, fuel tanks, environmental protection, flammability reaction, erosion and corrosion
applications.

Q.24 Why polymer nanocomposite are unique?

Polymer nano composite are unique because
 They increase in electrical break down strength of polymers
 Melting temperature, color, magnetization and charge capacity is more
 Interacting zone is increasing such that we can get our expected property.
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Q.25 What are Quantum Dots? Explain.

A very small semiconductor particles, only several nano meter in small size so that their optical and electronic
properties differ from those of larger particles are called Quantum dots.
They are central theme in nano technology. Many types of quantum dots will emit light of specific frequencies if
electricity or light is applied to them.
Quantum dots show properties that are intermediate b/w those of bulk semiconductors and those of discrete
molecules.
Q.26 What are plankton?
The diverse collection of organisms that live in large bodies of water and are unable to swim against a current are
called plankton. They provide a crucial source of food to many large water organisms such as fish and whales.
Plankton includes plants and animals that float along at the mercy of the sea’s tides and currents.
Their name comes from Greek meaning “Drifter” or “Wanderer”.
There are two types of plankton, tiny plants are called phytoplankton
Weak swimming animals are called zooplankton.
Q.27 What is Actin and myosin?
These are the molecules form the system responsible for muscle contraction. The system operates by a series of
steps where the head of myosin molecule pulls the actin past itself by 10-28nm each step.
Q.28 What is scanning electron microscope? and scanning probe microscope?
SEMs invented in 1930 to the see the objects as small as 10nm. It bounces electrons off surfaces to create images
and it has high resolution due to small size of electrons.
Q.29 What is scanning probe microscope? Give its types.
Scanning probe microscope developed in 1980, give us new way to see at the nano scale. We can now see really
small things, like atoms and move them to.
SPM is a branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scan the specimen. The
manner of using these interactions to obtain an image is generally called a mode.
There are two types of scanning probe microscope:
Atomic force microscope (AFM): A tiny moves up and down in response to the electromagnetic forces b/w the
atoms of the surface and the tip.
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM): It is an instrument for imaging surface at the atomic level. For a STM good
resolution is considered to be 0.1nm lateral resolution and 0.01 nm depth resolution. A flow electric current occur
b/w the tip and surface. The strength of this current is used to create an image of the atomic surface.
Q.30 What kind of nano structure exist in nature?
Life starts at the nano scale. Ion pumps move potassium ion into and sodium ion out of a cell. Ribosomes translate
RNA sequences into proteins. Viruses infect cells in biological organisms and reproduce in the host cell.
Q.31 Describe the fabrication methods of nano structure?
There are three fabrication methods
Atom by atom assembly: move atoms into place one at a time using tools like the AFM and STM.
Chisel away atoms: chisel out material from a surface until the desired structure emerges.
Self-assembly: set up an environment so atoms assemble automatically. Nature uses self-assembly(e.g cell
membrane).
Q.32 What is chisel?
Chisel is the name of the tool and also the name of action. It has a flat, sharp end. To cut using a chisel, you hit the
back of it with a hammer or another direct instrument. It is long bladed hand tool with a ground cutting edge and a
handle which is struck with a hammer or mallet used to cut or shape wood, stone or metal.
Q.33 What is Ostwald ripening?
An observed phenomenon in solid solutions or liquid solutions that describe the change of an inhomogeneous
structure over time i.e small crystals or solution particles dissolve, and re deposit onto larger crystals or solution
particles. It allows for size selective whose growth time 1-2 nm NCs in minutes.
Q.34 Give the synthesis of nano materials.
CdSe nano crystals are formed by following reactions
CdO+ oleic acid+ octadecene heat to 250°C to dissolve the CdO.
Selenium + octadecene+ tributyl phosphine heat to 150°C to dissolve the selenium.
Transfer Se solution to the Cd solution
Take aliquots ( a sample proportion of a total amount of a liquid).
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Q.35 Describe the potential impacts of nano technology?

There are following potential impacts of nano technology
Materials: Stain resistant clothes( Nano fibers cushion of air around fabric of 10 nm size is used like protective nano
paint for cars)
Health care: chemical and biological sensors, drugs and delivery devices
Technology: better data storage and computation
Environment: clean energy and clean air(nano paint on building can reduced pollution and nano solar cells mixed in
plastic could be painted on buses, roofs and clothing.
Q.36 What are nano fibers?
• A nanofiber is a fiber with a diameter of 100 nanometers or less. The properties of nanofibers have caused
researchers and companies to consider using this material in several fields.
• Researchers are using nanofibers to capture individual cancer cells circulating in the blood stream. They
use nanofibers coated with antibodies that bind to cancer cells, trapping the cancer cell for analysis.
• Nano fibers can stimulate the production of cartilage (firm, flexible connective tissue found in various
forms) in damaged joints.
• Researchers are using nanofibers to make sensors that change color as they absorb chemical vapors. They
plan to use these sensors to show when the absorbing material in a gas mask becomes saturated.
• Researchers have developed piezoelectric nanofibers that are flexible enough to be woven into clothing.
• Flame retardant formed by coating the foam used in furniture with carbon nanofibers.
Q.37 What is nano coating?
• The term nanocoating refers to nanoscale (i.e. with a thickness of a few tens to a few hundreds of
nanometers) thin-films that are applied to surfaces in order create or improve a material's functionalities
such as corrosion protection, water and ice protection, friction reduction, antifouling and antibacterial
properties, self-cleaning, heat and radiation resistance, and thermal management.
• Nanocoatings offer significant benefits for applications in the aerospace, defense, medical, marine, and oil
industries, have driven manufacturers to incorporate multi-functional coatings in their products.
• Nanocoatings also have been developed to protect buildings against pollution.
• A nanocoating made from carbon nanotubes that, when layered around an aluminum-conductor composite
core power transmission line, reduces the line's operating temperature and significantly improves its overall
transmission efficiency.
Q.38 What are nano robots?
• Nanorobotics is an emerging technology field creating machines or robots whose components are at or
near the scale of a nanometre (10−9 meters).
• More specifically, nanorobotics (as opposed to microrobotics) refers to the nanotechnology engineering
discipline of designing and building nanorobots, with devices ranging in size from 0.1–
10 micrometres and constructed of nanoscale or molecular components.
• Nanobots are able to treat a variety of diseases and conditions of a person if they are used properly.
• Given their size, they can carry only a small portion of the medication. Many doctors and engineers believe
that nanobots are accurate and more efficient than the traditional method in administering medication to the
diseased area in our body.
• For example, when a powerful antibiotic is administered to the patient via syringe to help his immune
system, the blood stream of the patient dilutes the antibiotic and eventually only a part of it reaches the
destination.
Q.39 Give some unique properties of intentionally produced nano materials.
• The unique properties of various types of intentionally produced nanomaterials give them novel electrical,
catalytic, magnetic, mechanical, thermal, or imaging features that are highly desirable for applications in
commercial, medical, military, and environmental sectors.
• These materials may also find their way into more complex nanostructures and systems.
• As new uses for materials with these special properties are identified, the number of products containing
such nanomaterials and their possible applications continues to grow.
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Q.40 Give some applications of Nano science.

There are following applications nano science.
Energy: Fuel cell membrane, nano particles
Environment: Decontamination, filters, detector-sensors, plant drug delivery.
Electronics: Computers, magneto resistance(Electronic memories), electronic devices(MEMs&NEMs), thin film
etc.
Medicine& health: Diagnose(bio sensors, chips, imaging), treatment(Drug delivery), prevention(coating, filter).
Other applications: Textile(nano composite for shoes and textiles), construction( new materials, coatings, nano
composite, CNTs), transport and space( new materials, paints and coating), chemistry and biotech( micro reactor
bio sensors etc).
Q.41 What is the future of nano technology?
Current nanotechnology products worldwide are in multi trillion dollars and is currently above 15 percent of global
manufacturing output.
Q.42 Give the potential risks of nano technology.
Health issues: nano particles could be inhaled, swallowed absorbed through skin or deliberated injected. Trigger
inflammation and weaken immune system and interfere with regular mechanism of enzymes and proteins.
Environmental issues: nano particles accumulate in soil, water, plants, traditional filters are too big to catch them.
Q.43 Give the comparison quantum physics and classical physics.
• Quantum mechanics; also known as quantum physics, quantum theory, the wave mechanical model,
or matrix mechanics), including quantum field theory, is a fundamental theory in physics which
describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles
• Important applications of quantum theory include quantum chemistry, quantum optics, quantum
computing, superconducting magnets, light-emitting diodes, and the laser,
the transistor and semiconductors such as the microprocessor, medical and research imaging such
as magnetic resonance imaging and electron microscopy.
• Classical physics, the physics existing before quantum mechanics, describes nature at ordinary
(macroscopic) scale. Most theories in classical physics can be derived from quantum mechanics as an
approximation valid at large (macroscopic) scale.
Q.44 Give the different methods for synthesis and fabrication of nano materials.
There are two main approaches for nanomaterial’s synthesis.
• Top-down: Size reduction from bulk materials(Top-down methods begin with a pattern generated on a
larger scale, then reduced to nanoscale. –By nature, aren’t cheap and quick to manufacture - Slow and not
suitable for large scale production.
• Bottom-up: Material synthesis from atomic level(Bottom-up methods start with atoms or molecules and
build up to nanostructures –Fabrication is much less expensive)
There are following three methods of synthesis (1) Physical (2) chemical (3) Biological.
Q.45 Describe the physical methods of synthesis.
There are two physical methods for synthesis
(1) Mechanical: High energy ball milling, melt mixing.
(2) Vapor: physical vapor deposition, laser ablation, sputter deposition, electric arc deposition, ion implanation.
High energy ball milling: This is simplest method of making nano particles in the form of powder. Various types of
mills are planetary, vibratory, rod and tumbler.
This consists of a container filled with hardened steel or tungsten carbide balls
Material of interest is fed as flakes
2:1 mass ratio of balls to materials
Container may be filled with air or inert gas
Containers are rotated at high speed around a central axis
Material is forced to the walls and pressed against the walls.
Then control the speed of rotation and during milling grind material to find powder of size few nm
Some nano crystalline materials like CO, Cr, W, Al-Fe, Ag-Fe are made using ball mill.
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Q.46 Explain the process of milling.

• Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material from a workpiece by advancing
(or feeding) the cutter into the workpiece at a certain direction.
• The cutter may also be held at an angle relative to the axis of the tool.
• Milling covers a wide variety of different operations and machines, on scales from small individual parts to
large, heavy-duty gang milling operations.
• Milling can be done with a wide range of machine tools.
• The original class of machine tools for milling was the milling machine (often called a mill).
• After the advent of computer numerical control (CNC), milling machines evolved into machining centers:
milling machines augmented by automatic tool changers, tool magazines or roundabouts, CNC capability,
coolant systems, and enclosures.
• Milling centers are generally classified as vertical machining centers (VMCs) or horizontal machining
centers (HMCs).
Q.47 Explain the process of ball milling?
A ball mill is a type of grinder used to grind and blend materials for use in mineral dressing processes, paints,
pyrotechnics, ceramics and selective laser sintering.
It works on the principle of impact and attrition: size reduction is done by impact as the balls drop from near the top
of the shell.
• A ball mill consists of a hollow cylindrical shell rotating about its axis.
• The axis of the shell may be either horizontal or at a small angle to the horizontal. It is partially filled with
balls.
• The grinding media is the balls, which may be made of steel (chrome steel), stainless steel, ceramic, or
rubber. The inner surface of the cylindrical shell is usually lined with an abrasion-resistant material such
as manganese steel or rubber.
• Less wear takes place in rubber lined mills. The length of the mill is approximately equal to its diameter.
• The ball mill is used for grinding materials such as coal, pigments, and feldspar for pottery.
• Grinding can be carried out either wet or dry but the former is performed at low speed.
• Blending of explosives is an example of an application for rubber balls.
• For systems with multiple components, ball milling has been shown to be effective in increasing solid-
state chemical reactivity.
• Additionally, ball milling has been shown effective for production of amorphous materials.
• It is a ball milling process where a powder mixture placed in the ball mill is subjected to high-energy
collision from the balls. This process was developed by Benjamin and his coworkers at the International
Nickel Company in the late of 1960.
Q.48 What is attrition methods?
Attrition methods include methods by which macro or micro scale particle are ground in a ball mill, planetary ball
mill, or other size reducing mechanism. The resulting particles are air classified to recover nano particles.
Q.49 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of Top down and bottom top approach.
Top-Down approach:
Advantages: (1) Large scale production (2) Chemical purification is not required
Disadvantages: (1) broad size distribution (2) control over deposition parameters is difficult to achieve (3)
expensive
Bottom top approach:
Advantages: (1) ultra-fine nano particles, nano shells, nano tubes can be prepared. (2) Deposition parameters can be
controlled. (3) Narrower size distribution is possible (1-20 nm)(4) Cheaper technique.
Disadvantages: (1) Large scale production is difficult (2) chemical purification of nano particles is required.
Q.50 What is phase transformation?
• A phase transformation often delivers a material into its technologically useful form and microstructure.
• For example, the major application of metals and alloys as mechanically strong materials relies on their
multi-phase microstructure, most commonly generated by one or more phase transformations
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Q.51 What is nucleation? Describe the categories of nucleation.

The process that determines how long we have to wait before the new phase or self organized structure, appears.
Nucleation is often found to be very sensitive to impurities in the system.
There are two categories of nucleation:
Heterogeneous nucleation: The nucleation of critical nuclei forming at defects such as surface imperfections, grain
boundaries is called heterogeneous nucleation. It is much easier since stable.(0.1-10°C)
Homogenous nucleation: nucleation that randomly occurs away from the surface. Nuclei form uniformly through
the parent phase, requires considerable super cooling(80-300°C).
Q.52 What is super cooling?
During the cooling of a liquid, solidification(nucleation) will start only after the temperature has been lowered
below the equilibrium solidification or melting temperature Tm. This phenomenon is called super cooling or under
cooling.
Small supper cooling: Slow nucleation rate- few nuclei- large crystals
Large super cooling: Rapid nucleation rate- many nuclei- small crystals.
Q.53 What is Inert Gas condensation (IGC)?
• The technique of inert-gas condensation (IGC) consists of evaporating, sputtering or ablating a material
inside a chamber that is evacuated to a vacuum pressure of about 10-8 mbar and then back-filled with a low-
pressure inert gas like helium.
• The material atoms collide with the gas atoms inside the chamber, lose their kinetic energy, and condense
in the form of small particles. The condensed particles are collected on a cold finger and the deposit is
scraped off into a compaction unit.
• Inert-gas condensation (IGC) is a bottom-up approach to synthesizing nanostructured materials, which
involves two basic steps.
• The first step is the evaporation of the material and the second step involves a rapid controlled condensation
to produce the required particle size.
Q. 54 what are fundamental rates that represent the core and control the formation of atom clusters?
there are three fundamental rates that represent the core of the process and essentially control the formation of atom
clusters:
• (1) The rate of supply of atoms to the supersaturation region where condensation takes place.
• (2) The rate of energy removal from the hot atoms through a condensing medium such as the inert gas.
• (3) The rate of cluster/particle removal from the supersaturation region.
11

Q.55 Describe the evaporation techniques (Thermal evaporation and electron beam evaporation)?
• Thermal evaporation is a common method of physical vapor deposition (PVD).
• It is one of the simplest forms of PVD and typically uses a resistive heat source to evaporate a solid
material in a vacuum environment to form a thin film.
• The material is heated in a high vacuum chamber until vapor pressure is produced.
• Thermal evaporation deposits both metals and nonmetals, including aluminum, chrome, gold, indium, and
many others.
• Thermal evaporation is used most commonly for applications involving electrical contacts, by depositing
such single metals as silver or aluminum.
• More complex applications include the co-deposition of several components and can be achieved by
carefully controlling the temperature of individual crucibles.
• Thermal evaporation can be applied to deposit metallic contact layers for thin film devices such as OLEDs,
solar cells and thin-film transistors.
• To better achieve consistent, high-quality results, Denton Vacuum controls the rate of deposition using
quartz crystal rate sensor, temperature or optical monitoring systems (OMS).
• Electron-beam physical vapor deposition, or EBPVD, is a form of physical vapor deposition in which a
target anode is bombarded with an electron beam given off by a charged tungsten filament under high
vacuum.
• The electron beam causes atoms from the target to transform into the gaseous phase. These atoms then
precipitate into solid form, coating everything in the vacuum chamber (within line of sight) with a thin layer
of the anode material.
• EBPVD systems are equipped with ion sources. These ion sources are used for substrate etching and
cleaning, sputtering the target and controlling the microstructure of the substrate.
• The ion beams bombard the surface and alter the microstructure of the film. When the deposition reaction
takes place on the hot substrate surface, the films can develop an internal tensile stress due to the mismatch
in the coefficient of thermal expansion between the substrate and the film.
High-energy ions can be used to bombard these ceramic thermal barrier coatings and change the tensile
stress into compressive stress. Ion bombardment also increases the density of the film, changes the grain size and
modifies amorphous films to polycrystalline films. Low-energy ions are used for the surfaces of semiconductor
films.
Advantages:
• The deposition rate in this process can be as low as 1 nm per minute to as high as few micrometers per
minute.
• The material utilization efficiency is high relative to other methods, and the process offers structural and
morphological control of films.
• Due to the very high deposition rate, this process has potential industrial application for wear-resistant
and thermal barrier coatings in aerospace industries, hard coatings for cutting and tool industries, and
electronic and optical films for semiconductor industries and thin-film solar applications.
Disadvantages:
• EBPVD is a line-of-sight deposition process when performed at a low enough pressure (roughly <10−4 Torr
).
• The translational and rotational motion of the shaft helps for coating the outer surface of complex
geometries, but this process cannot be used to coat the inner surface of complex geometries.
• Another potential problem is that filament degradation in the electron gun results in a non-uniform
evaporation rate.
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Q.56 What is sputtering? Explain. Also give its advantages, limitations and reason for sputtering.
It is a term used to describe the mechanism in which atoms are ejected from the surface of a material when that
surface is stuck by sufficiency energetic particles.
It was first discovered in 1852 and developed as a thin film deposition technique by Langmuir in 1920.
Metallic films like Al-alloys, Ti, tantalum, Nickel, Cobalt, gold etc.
It is widely used and high versatile vacuum coating system used for the deposition of a variety of coating materials.
Sputtered atoms ejected from the target have wide energy distribution typically upto ten of eV.
• Secondary electrons: Secondary electrons are electrons generated as ionization products.
• They are called 'secondary' because they are generated by other radiation (the primary radiation).
• This radiation can be in the form of ions, electrons, or photons with sufficiently high energy, i.e. exceeding
the ionization potential.
Energy of each incoming ion is 500-1000eV. Energy of sputtered atoms is 3-10eV.
The sputtering process is very inefficient from the energy point of view, 95% of incoming energy goes to target
heating and secondary electrons
High rate sputter processes need efficient cooling techniques to avoid target damage from over heating
The energy of ejected atoms shows a Max-wellian distribution with long tail toward higher energies.
Advantages: Non thermal process, no heating required, low vacuum (10-3 torr) is needed
Limitations: Controlling deposition parameter is difficult, high cost.
Reasons for sputtering: There are following reasons for sputtering
Use large area targets which give uniform thickness over the wafer
Control the thickness by deposition time and other parameters.
Even materials with very high melting points are easily sputtered
Sputtered films typically have a better adhesion on the substrate
Sputtered can be performed top down
Requirements: it required vacuum, inert gas, power supply and sputtering gas.
Steps: (1) Ions are generated and directed at a target (2) the ions sputter target atoms (3) the ejected atoms are
transported to the substrate (4) Atom condense and form a thin film.
Sputtering yield: It describe (i) Defined the number of atoms ejected per incident ion(ii) determine the deposition
rate which depends on mass and energy of bombarding ions and direction and pressure of incidence of ions.
Characteristics of sputtering: There are following characteristics of sputtering
Sputtered atoms have kinetic energies approximately 50 to 100 times that of a neutral atoms generated from thermal
evaporation process.
This additional energy is thought to be the reason for greater adhesion often observed for sputter deposited films
over thermally evaporated films
Due to high pressure in an operating sputter deposition chamber the mean free path of sputtered species is short.

Q.57 What is sputtering yield?

The ratio of sputtered atoms to bombing ions is called sputter yield. The higher yield the higher sputter deposition
rate.
Mm E m
Yα , it depends upon. M  mass of target atom, m  mass of bombing ion
(M  m) 2 U m
Em  K.E of bombing ion, Um  bonding energy of target metal,   depends on striking angle.
Q.58 Give the names of sputtering deposition technologies.
(1) DC diode sputtering (2) Magnetron sputtering(unbalanced magnetron, balanced magnetron) (3) RF sputtering
(4) Reactive gas sputtering (4) Ion beam sputtering(6) Pulse DC/AC sputtering.
Q.59 What is balanced and unbalanced magnetron sputtering.
• In balanced one, magnets are placed only on the cathode (target), therefore the magnetic field lines are
closed near the surface of the target.
In unbalanced one, there are other magnets placed outside the cathode let say anode, so the distribution of magnetic
field becomes different.
Q.60 Explain DC sputtering.
(1)Target is held at high negative voltage (2) substrate may be at positive, ground or floating potential (3) argon gas
is introduced at a pressure < 10Pa (3) high voltage (100 to 3000 V) is applied b/w anode and cathode (4) visible
glow is observed when current flow b/w anode and cathode
13

Q.61 What is glow discharge?

• A glow discharge is a plasma formed by the passage of electric current through a gas. It is often created by
applying a voltage between two electrodes in a glass tube containing a low-pressure gas.
• When the voltage exceeds a value called the striking voltage, the gas ionization becomes self-sustaining,
and the tube glows with a colored light. The color depends on the gas used.
• Glow discharges are used as a source of light in devices such as neon lights, fluorescent lamps, and plasma-
screen televisions.
• Glow discharge is set up with different regions such as cathode glow, crook’s dark space, negative glow,
anode dark space, anode glow etc. these regions are a result of plasma- a mixture of electrons, ions, neutrals
and photos. Density of particles depends on gas pressure.
Q.62 Describe magnetron sputtering.
• Magnetron Sputtering is a Plasma Vapor Deposition (PVD) process in which a plasma is created and
positively charged ions from the plasma are accelerated by an electrical field superimposed on the
negatively charged electrode or "target".
• The positive ions are accelerated by potentials ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand electron volts
and strike the negative electrode with sufficient force to dislodge and eject atoms from the target. These
atoms will be ejected in a typical line-of-sight cosine distribution from the face of the target and will
condense on surfaces that are placed in proximity to the magnetron sputtering cathode.
• The targets are fabricated from materials that one subsequently wishes to deposit on the surface of the
component facing the electrode. Conductive materials can be deposited using a direct current (DC) power
supply and insulators can be deposited by using a radio frequency (RF) power supply. 13.56 MHz is one of
the frequencies in the RF spectrum that has been allocated to “industrial applications” as is by far the most
common frequency used in the sputtering application.
It is the most commonly used method for a sputter deposition. It used a strong magnetic and electric field to trap
electrons close to the surface of magnetron which is called target. The electron follow helical path around the
magnetic field lines. Plasma can sustain at a lower pressure. Sputter atoms are neutrally charged and are not
affected by the magenta trap.
Q.63 What is radio frequency signal?
• Radio frequency (RF) is any of the electromagnetic wave frequencies that lie in the range extending from
around 20 kHz to 300 GHz, roughly the frequencies used in radio communication. The term does not have
an official definition, and different sources specify slightly different upper and lower bounds for the
frequency range. RF usually refers to electrical rather than mechanical oscillations. However, mechanical
RF systems do exist (see mechanical filter and RF MEMS).
• Although radio frequency is a rate of oscillation, the term "radio frequency" or its abbreviation "RF" are
used as a synonym for radio – i.e., to describe the use of wireless communication, as opposed to
communication via electric wires.
Q.64 What are the special properties of RF current?
Electric currents that oscillate at radio frequencies have special properties not shared by direct current or alternating
current of lower frequencies.
• Energy from RF currents in conductors can radiate into space as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). This
is the basis of radio technology.
• RF current does not penetrate deeply into electrical conductors but tends to flow along their surfaces; this is
known as the skin effect.
• RF currents applied to the body often do not cause the painful sensation and muscular contraction
of electric shock that lower frequency currents produce. This is because the current changes direction too
quickly to trigger depolarization of nerve membranes. However this does not mean RF currents are
harmless. They can cause internal injury as well as serious superficial burns called RF burns.
• RF current can easily ionize air, creating a conductive path through it. This property is exploited by "high
frequency" units used in electric arc welding, which use currents at higher frequencies than power
distribution uses.
• Another property is the ability to appear to flow through paths that contain insulating material, like
the dielectric insulator of a capacitor. This is because capacitive reactance in a circuit decreases with
frequency.
14

• In contrast, RF current can be blocked by a coil of wire, or even a single turn or bend in a wire. This is
because the inductive reactance of a circuit increases with frequency.
• When conducted by an ordinary electric cable, RF current has a tendency to reflect from discontinuities in
the cable such as connectors and travel back down the cable toward the source, causing a condition
called standing waves. Therefore, RF current must be carried by specialized types of cable
called transmission line.
•
Q.65 what is inductive reactance?
• Inductive reactance is the name given to the opposition to a changing current flow. This impedance is
measured in ohms, just like resistance. In inductors, voltage leads current by 90 degrees.
• But the quick (and very simplified) answer is: Reactance is the AC version of Resistance, which is
primarily a DC measurement.
• Capacitive reactance, then, is the impedance to the flow of alterating current in a capacitor.
• Inductive reactance is the impedance to the flow of alterating current in an inductor.
Q.66 What is inductor?
• An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. In its
simplest form, an inductor consists of a wire loop or coil. The inductance is directly proportional to the
number of turns in the coil.
• An inductor, also called a coil, choke or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores
energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. An inductor typically consists of an
insulated wire wound into a coil around a core.
Q.67 What is DC signal? Give uses.
• Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. A battery is a good example of a DC
power supply.
• Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors,
insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams.
• The electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term
formerly used for this type of current was galvanic current.
• AC and DC are also used when referring to voltages and electrical signals which are not currents! For
example: a 12V AC power supply has an alternating voltage (which will make an alternating current flow).
• An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a voltage.
• This form of power is most commonly produced by sources such as solar cells, batteries, and
thermocouples.
• DC power is widely used in low voltage applications such as charging batteries, automotive applications,
aircraft applications and other low voltage, low current applications.
Q.68 What is thermocouple?
• A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors forming
electrical junctions at differing temperatures.
• A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this
voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature
sensor.
Q.69 What is RF sputtering?
In this sputtering, target is to spluttered is insulating, high frequency voltage is applied b/w anode and cathode.
Oscillating electrons cause ionization. 5 to 30 MHz frequency can be used. 13.56 MHz frequency is commonly
used.
Q.70 What is reactive and non reactive sputtering?
• Reactive sputtering: Reactive sputtering is a process that allows compounds to be deposited by
introducing a reactive gas (typically oxygen or nitrogen) into the plasma which is typically formed by an
inert gas such as argon (most common), xenon, or krypton.
• Sputtering is performed with a gas not allowing chemical reaction with the target material or substrate
material. Typically noble gases.
• Reactive Sputtering is performed including in the sputtering atmosphere at least a certain percentage of a
gas which is able to chemically react with target and/or substrate materials. Typically nitrogen, oxygen and
hydrocarbons.
• Chemical reactions are activated and enabled by the action of the plasma.
15

• Non reactive sputtering: In the case of the deposition of pure metals, a non-reactive vaporization process
is required. The vaporization of compounds results in partial decomposition of the starting compound.
• When depositing optical thin-film layers, incomplete stoichiometric composition such as sub-oxidation
produces absorption and refractive index differences. The presence of absorption is more severe in the UV
(ultra violet) than in the IR (infrared) and for coatings that are intended for high laser damage threshold
applications.
When compounds are to be deposited, reactive processes must be involved. A few common exceptions exist: SiO2,
SiO, and Al2O3 can be deposited in a non-reactive environment with acceptable optical and mechanical properties.
Q.71 What is radio frequency sputtering?
RF or Radio Frequency Sputtering is the technique involved in alternating the electrical potential of the current in
the vacuum environment at radio frequencies to avoid a charge building up on certain types of sputtering target
materials, which over time can result in arcing into the plasma that spews droplets creating quality control issues on
the thin films – and can even lead to the complete ending of the sputtering of atoms terminating the process.
Q.72 What is direct current sputtering?
• DC or Direct Current Sputtering is a Thin Film Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Coating technique where
a target material to be used as the coating is bombarded with ionized gas molecules causing atoms to be
“Sputtered” off into the plasma.
• These vaporized atoms are then deposited when they condense as a thin film on the substrate to be coated.
• DC Sputtering is the most basic and inexpensive type of sputtering for PVD metal deposition and
electrically conductive target coating materials.
• Two major advantages of DC as a power source for this process is that it is easy to control and is a low cost
option if you are doing metal deposition for coating.
• DC Sputtering is used extensively in the semiconductor industry creating microchip circuitry on the
molecular level.
• It is used for gold sputter coatings of jewelry, watches and other decorative finishes, for non-reflective
coatings on glass and optical components, as well as for metalized packaging plastics.
• The basic configuration of a DC Sputtering coating system is the target material to be used as a coating is
placed in a vacuum chamber parallel to the substrate to be coated
Q.73 What is collimated sputtering?
Such a type of sputtering in which the collimator, which is almost touching the substrate, selects sputtered atoms
with a narrow range of trajectories. The result is a materialization source similar to thermal evaoporation, but
capable of depending refractory metals.
Q.74 What is ion beam deposition(IBD)?
• Ion beam deposition (IBD) is a process of applying materials to a target through the application of an ion
beam.
• An ion beam deposition apparatus typically consists of an ion source, ion optics and the deposition target.
Optionally a mass analyzer can be incorporated.
• In the ion source, source materials in the form of a gas, an evaporated solid, or a solution (liquid) are
ionized.
• The ions are then accelerated, focused or deflected using high voltages or magnetic fields. Optional
deceleration at the substrate can be employed to define the deposition energy. This energy usually ranges
from a few eV up to a few keV.
• At low energy molecular ion beams are deposited intact (soft landing), while at a high deposition energy
molecular ions fragment and atomic ions penetrate further into the material, a process known as ion
implantation.
• Ion optics (such as radio frequency quadrupoles) can be mass selective. In IBD they are used to select a
single, or a range of ion species for deposition in order to avoid contamination. For organic materials in
particular, this process is often monitored by a mass spectrometer.
• The ion beam current, which is quantitative measure for the deposited amount of material, can be monitored
during the deposition process.
• Ion beam deposition (IBD) describes a sputtering process, in which material is sputtered by an ion beam
source from a target. Equipped with a target drum, it allows coating of precise multilayers from up to four
different target materials.
• As dual ion beam deposition (DIBD) tool the system provides an additional ion beam assist source. This
source is used for ion beam etching processes and enables a dedicated substrate pre-processing and/or a
defined influence on the growing film.
• For exact thickness control is applied with an in-situ optical monitoring.
16

• The coating system is suitable for R&D and industry due to its versatile loading options from single
substrate load-lock, to cassette handling and cluster solutions.
Q.74 What are thin films? Give its synthesis and thin film deposition and by sputtering techniques.
Thin films are thin materials layers ranging from fractions of a nanometer to several micro meter in thickness.
Thin film deposition has two types which are physical and chemical deposition
Physical: Evaporation and sputtering occur Chemical: Chemical vapor deposition, Atomic layer deposition.
Thin film growth based on DC sputtering technique in which following process included (1) migration of single
atom on substrate (2) aggregate of single atoms(3) nucleation to form nano particles, (4) growth of nano particles
(5) merging of nano particles (5) formation of continuous film.
Q.75 give the applications of sputtering.
There are following applications of sputtering
Thin film deposition: Micro electronics, decorative coating, protective coating
Etching of targets: micro electronics patterning, CMOS, NMOS and PMOS fabrication.
Surface treatment: hardening
Q.76 What is CMOS?
• Complementary metal oxide semiconductor, abbreviated as CMOS, is a technology for
constructing integrated circuits.
• CMOS technology is used in microprocessors, static RAM, and other digital logic circuits.
• It is also known as Non-Volatile Ram (NVRAM) or Real-Time Clock (RTC).
• A Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor is a battery powered chip that provides start up information
like Hardware settings, system date and time settings etc to BIOS (Basic Input Output System). BIOS uses
this information when you start your computer.
• Generally, CMOS battery can last for 10 years. But that depends on certain factors, e.g environmental
factors, overheating can damage or reduce its lifetime.
A CMOS Chip has approximately 64 Bytes of memory.
• CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as image sensors (CMOS sensor), data
converters, and highly integrated transceivers (a device that can both transmit and receive
communications), in particular a combined radio transmitter and receiver for many types of
communication.
Q.77 What is NMOS?
• The most popular MOSFET technology (semiconductor technology) available today is the CMOS
technology or complementary MOS technology.
• CMOS technology is the leading semiconductor technology for ASICs, memories, microprocessors.
• The main advantage of CMOS technology over BIPOLAR and NMOS technology is the power dissipation
– when the circuit is switches then only the power dissipates.
• This allows to fit many CMOS gates on an integrated circuit than in Bipolar and NMOS technology. This
article discusses about the difference between CMOS and NMOS technology.
Q.78 What is PMOS?
• P-type metal-oxide-semiconductor logic uses p-channel metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFETs) to implement logic gates and other digital circuits.
• PMOS transistors operate by creating an inversion layer in an n-type transistor body. This inversion layer,
called the p-channel, can conduct holes between p-type "source" and "drain" terminals.
• The p-channel is created by applying voltage to the third terminal, called the gate. Like other MOSFETs,
PMOS transistors have four modes of operation: cut-off (or subthreshold), triode, saturation (sometimes
called active), and velocity saturation.
Q.79 Write the additional method of sputtering.
(1) Reactive and non-reactive sputtering (2) RF and DC sputtering (3) magnetron sputtering (4) collimated
sputtering (5) ion beam sputtering.
Q.80 What are the disadvantages of sputtering?
Substrate damage due to ion bombardment or UV generated by plasma
High pressure 1-100 m torr in evaporation more contaminations unless using ultra clean gases and ultra clean
targets
Deposition rate of some materials quite low
Most of the energy incident on target becomes heat which must be removed
Difficult to deposit uniformly on complex shapes such as turbine blades
High performance thick coating are hard to produce due to high internal residual stress levels
17

Q.82 Give the advantages of sputtering over evaporation.

• Sputtering process involves ejecting material from a “target” that is a source onto a “substrate” (such as a
silicon wafer) in a vacuum chamber. This effect is caused by the bombardment of the target by ionized gas
which often is an inert gas such as argon.
• Sputtering is used extensively in the semiconductor industry to deposit thin films of various materials in
integrated circuit processing.
• Anti-reflection coatings on glass for optical applications are also deposited by sputtering. Because of the
low substrate temperatures used, sputtering is an ideal method to deposit metals for thin-film transistors.
• Perhaps the most familiar products of sputtering are low-emissivity coatings on glass, used in double-pane
window assemblies. An important advantage of sputtering is that even materials with very high melting
points are easily sputtered while evaporation of these materials in a resistance evaporator is difficult and
problematic.
Q.83 Give special features of sputtering.
• Direct wafer handling or carrier based handling for wafers and arbitrary shaped substrates
• High homogeneity of the deposited layers with film thickness deviation < 0.5%
• Very stable processing with run to run variation < 0.3%
Q.84 Give applications of sputtering.
• Optical multilayer coatings (X-ray mirrors, Bandpass and notch filters, Anti-reflective coatings in UV and
VIS)
• Multilayer films for magnetic sensors (TMR/GMR)
• Deposition of dielectric or metal films with directional features or energy deposit (Assist mode)
• In-situ Preprocessing of substrates (Etching, Cleaning, Smoothing, Figuring, …)
Note: Errors and omission are accepted. For more details and diagrams see the slides given by Sir Dr. Irfan.
Prepared by: Asad Abbas