1 Programming methodology

and introduction to c language

OBJECTIVES
 1.0. Programming Methodology and Introduction to C Language
 1.1. State different steps involved in problem solving
 1.2. Define algorithm and know its characteristics
 1.3. State the steps involved in algorithm development
 1.4. Develop algorithms for simple problems.
 1.5. Define flowchart and know symbols used in drawing flowcharts
 1.6. Draw flowchart for simple problems.
 1.7. Differentiate algorithm and flowchart
 1.8. Define program and differentiate between program and algorithm
 1.9. Define High level language and low level language
 1.10. Define Compiler, Assembler, Linker and Loader
 1.11. Define source code, assembly code, object code, machine code.
 1.12. state the importance of C language
 1.13. Explain the structure of C program
 1.14. List and Explain different stages in converting the C program source
code to executable code.
 1.15. Explain the steps involved in executing the C program
Programming Methodology and Introduction to C Language 1-2

1.1. State different steps involved in problem solving

 Problem solving by the computer involves the following steps.
1. Problem definition
2. Analysis
3. Algorithm
4. Flowchart
5. Pseudo code
6. Coding
7. Running the program
8. Debugging
9. Testing
10. Documentation
 Please note that an algorithm, flowchart and pseudocode are the steps involved in
the design phase of a problem.
1. Problem Definition
o This is the first step in computer problem solving.
o The problem solver should understand the problem thoroughly in terms of the
requirements.
o That is, what are the input and output operations to be performed?
o The programmer should extract from the problem statement, a set of well-
defined and precise tasks that can be carried out.
o If the problem is not properly interpreted then we cannot obtain the desired
results.
2. Analysis
o The given problem must be analyzed before it is solved. This determines the
data items, their types and relationship.
o We should specify the operations (Arithmetic and logical) to be performed on
them and check the suitability in terms of memory execution time.
3. Algorithm
o Refer Section: 1.2.1
4. Flow chart
o Refer Section: 1.5.1

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5. Pseudocode
o A pseudocode is neither an algorithm nor a program.
o It is an abstract form of a program. It consists of English like statements, which
perform the specific operations.
o It is defined for an algorithm.
o It does not use anigraphical representation.
o In a pseudocode, the program is represented in terms of words and phrases,
but the syntax of a program is not strictly followed.
o Advantages
 Easy to read
 Easy to understand
 Easy to modify
 The program can be developed easily from a pseudo code rather than a
flowchart.
Example 1: Write a pseudocode to perform the basic arithmetic operations.
Solution:
Read n1, n2
Sum = n1 + n2
Diff = n1 - n2
Mult = n1 * n2
Quot = n1/n2
Print sum, diff, mult, quot
End
6. Coding
o The complete structure of a problem to be solved by a computer is called a
program.
o The computer does not process an algorithm or a flowchart, but executes the
program.
o A program is a set of instructions to solve a particular problem by the
computer and the actual process of writing a program is called coding.
o Programs are written using programming languages and are fed to the
computer.

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7. Running the program

o The program can be run (executed) in the central processing unit (CPU). This
phase of problem solving by a computer involves three steps.
 Understand the instructions
 Store data and instructions
 Perform computations
o The user prepares his/her program and makes it ready for execution. All the
instruction stored in the RAM, must be fetched one by one by the ALU to
perform corresponding operations.
o This is called the fetch/execute cycle. The processed data is stored again in the
RAM. Finally, they are transferred to the output devices.
8. Debugging
o The process of detecting and correcting errors (mistakes) in the program is
known as debugging.
o There is a program called debugger that takes object program as input and
executes it and helps in eliminating the mistakes that occur in the source
program.
o The term debug was coined after detecting a real bug in MARK-I, an electro-
mechanical computer, in 1945, by Admiral Gracehopper.
o She removed the bug from the machine and wrote it in a record book The
MARK-I was debugged today.
o Generally, programmers commit three types of errors. They are,
 Syntax errors
 Logical errors
 Run-time errors
9. Testing
o The process of executing the program to test the correctness of the output
(result) of the problem is called testing.
o Executing with different sets of data tests the program. Logical errors are the
outcome of this process. .
10. Documentation
o While writing programs, it is a good programming practice to make a brief
explanatory note on the program or program segments.
o This explanatory note is called a comment.
o It explains how the program works and how to interact with it.
o Thus, it helps other programmers to understand the program.
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1.2. Define algorithm and know its characteristics

1.2.1. Algorithm
 This is a problem solving technique. It can be defined as a step-by-step procedure to
solve a particular problem.
 It consists of English like statements. Each statement must be precise and well-
defined to perform a specific operation.
 When these statements are carried out for a given set of conditions, they will
produce the required results.
 The word Algorithm is named after the famous ninth century Arabic author and
mathematician, Abu Jafar Mohammed Ibn Musa AI Khowarizmi.
 The last two terms of the name took different pronunciations over the period such
as Alkhowarism, Algorism and finally it became Algorithm.
1.2.2. Characteristics of Algorithm
 Each and every algorithm is characterized by the following five important
characteristics.
1. Input : It may accept zero or more inputs.
2. Output : It should produce at least one output (result).
3. Definiteness : Each instruction must be clear, well-defined and precise.
There should not be any ambiguity.
4. Finiteness : It should be a sequence of finite instructions. That is, it
should end after a fixed time. It should not enter a
infinite loop.
5. Effectiveness : This means that operations must be simple and carried
out in a finite time at one or more levels of complexity.
It should be effective whenever traced manually for
the results.

 Computer programming languages are required to check the definiteness and

effectiveness of each instruction of the algorithm.

1.3. State the steps involved in algorithm development

 The development of an algorithm (a plan) is a key step in solving a problem. Once
we have an algorithm, we can translate it into a computer program in some
programming language.
 Our algorithm development process consists of the following steps.
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Example 1: Real life example algorithm to write a ‘C’ program
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Analyze the problem
Step 3: Gather what are the inputs required and outputs needed
Step 4: Write program in C editor
Step 5: Compile the program
Step 6: If errors then
Step 6.1: Go to editor, correct the errors and repeat from step 5
Step 6.2: Else
Step 6.3: Supply input
Step 6.4: endif
Step 7: Verify outputs
Step 8: Stop

1.4. Develop algorithms for simple problems.

Example 1: Algorithm to find the number is negative or positive. Assume
that the number is ‘n’.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read n
Step 3: If n > 0 then
Step 3.1: Print number is negative
Step 3.2: Else print number is positive
Step 3.3: endif
Step 4: Stop
Example 2: Algorithm to find biggest in two number Assume that the two
numbers are ‘a’ and ‘b’.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read a, b
Step 3: If a > b then
Step 3.1: Print ‘a’ is big
Step 3.2: Else
Step 3.3: Print ‘b’ is big
Step 4: endif
Step 5: Stop
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Example 3: Write a program to find the largest of three numbers
Step 1: Start
Step 2: READ a, b, c
Step 3: IF (a > b) and (a > c) Then
Step 3.1: Print ‘A is Big’
ELSE
Step 4: IF 9b > c) Then
Step 4.1: Print ‘B is Big’
ELSE
Step 4.2: Print ‘C is Big’
Step 5: Stop
Example 4: Write a program to find area of the triangle.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read the value of a, b, c
Step 3: To calculate three sides of the triangle using formula
s  (a + b + c)/2
Step 4: To find area of a triangle apply formula.
area  sqrt(s * (s - a) * (s - b) * (s - c))
Step 5: Print the area
Step 6: Stop
Example 5: Write a program to find the factorial of the given number
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read the value of n
Step 3: Set initial values of Fact, i
Step 4: Is I < = n else Goto step 6
Step 4.1: Fact¬Fact *i
Step 4.2: i  i +1
Step 5: Goto step 4
Step 6: Print Fact
Step 7: Stop

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Example 6: Write an algorithm to find the roots of the quadratic equation.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Enter the value of a ,b, c.
Step 3: Find the value of 'D' of using the formula
D=b*b–4*a*c
Step 4: If D is greater than or equal to zero then find the two roots are
root 1  (- b + sqrt(d)) / (2 * a)
root 2 (- b – sqrt (d)) / (2 * a)
Step 5: Print the two roots, root l, root 2.
Step 6: If D is not greater than or equal to zero, then print the roots are imaginary.
Step 7: Stop
Example 7: Algorithm to compute the area of circle.
Algorithm: Area of a circle
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read radius
Step 3: [Compute the area] Area =3.142 x radius x radius
Step 4: [Print the area] Print 'Area of a circle:', Area
Step 5: [End of algorithm]
Step 6: Stop.
Example 8: Algorithm to perform the basic arithmetic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Algorithm: Arithmetic operation
Step 1: Start
Step 2: [Read the value of A and B]
Read A, B
Step 3: [Compute the sum, difference, product and quotient]
sum = A+ B
diff = A- B
prod = A x B
quot = A + B
Step 4: [Print the contents of sum, diff, prod, quot]
Print 'Sum of A and B =', sum
Print 'Difference of A and B =', diff
Print 'Product of A and B =', prod
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Print 'Quotient after dividing A by B =', quot
Step 5 : [End of algorithm]
Step 6: Stop
Example 9: Algorithm to calculate the simple interest and compound
interest for the amount deposited (P) for some years (T) for the rate of
interest (R).
Algorithm: Simple Interest
Step 1: [Re
Step 2: [Read the value of P, R, T]
Read P, R, T
Step 3: [Compute the simple interest]
SI = (P x R x T) /100
Step 4: [Compute the compound interest]
CI = P x [1 + (R/100W - P
Step 5: [Print the simple interest and compound interest]
Print 'Simple interest =', SI
Print 'Compound Interest =', CI
Step 6: [End of algorithm]
Step 7: Stop

1.5. Define flowchart and know symbols used in drawing

flowcharts
1.5.1. Flowchart
 This is a chart showing a flow of logic involved in solving a problem. This is
defined for an algorithm.
 The flowchart can be defined as a diagramatic representation of an algorithm. It is
referred to as the blue print of an algorithm.
 It is also defined as a visual or graphical representation of an algorithm.
 The flowchart is an easy way to understand and analyze the problem. It is a useful
aid for programmers and system analysts. It is machine independent. Itcan be used
for any type of problems.
 Flowcharts are classified into two types. They are,
o Program flowcharts
o System flowcharts.
 Flowcharts make use of geometrical figures, to specify a particular operation.

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1.5.2. Symbols used in drawing flowcharts
 Following table shows different geometrical figures used in a program flowchart
with their functions. While drawing a flowchart, operations must be written inside
the geometric figures.
Geometrical Name Function
figure
Oval Start and stop

Parallelogram Input and Output

Rectangle Processing

Rhombus Decision Making

Arrows Connections

Circle Continuation

The symbols used in the flowchart are described below.

1. Oval /Rounded rectangle: Show the starting and ending point of the process.
2. Parallelogram: Represents the Inputs given to the process or an Output generated
by the process.
3. Rectangle: Illustrates a processing step.
4. Rhombus/Diamond: Renders the decision point generally in the form of Yes/No
or True/False.
5. Arrows/Flow lines: These are the left to right or top (to bottom lines connecting
symbols. These lines shows the flow of control through the program. These
flowlines indicates the exact sequence in which the statements or instructions to be
executed. However to avoid ambiguity, flowlines are usually drawn with an arrow
head.
6. Circle/Connectors: A connector symbol is represented by a circle and a letter or
digit is placed in the circle to specify the link. Whenever a complex flowchart is to
be drawn with the number of direction of flow lines is confusing or it can long as
over the more than one page, in such a situation, the connector symbols are used to
connect the flowchart.

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1.6. Draw flowchart for simple problems.

Example 1: Draw a flowchart to find largest of three numbers.

Example 2: Draw a flowchart to find the area of a triangle when its three
sides are given.

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Example 3: Draw a flowchart to compute the factorial of a given number.

Example 4: Draw a flowchart to find the roots of the quadratic equation.

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1.7. Differentiate algorithm and flowchart

S. No Algorithm Flow chart

1 An algorithm is the series of steps It is nothing but a manner of

that must be executed to solve a representing an algorithm. It is also
problem. known as the flow diagram
A flowchart is the pictorial illustration
of the algorithm.

2 Hard to understand Easily interpreted

3 Uses text Uses symbols

4 No rules are employed Predefined rules are implemented.

5 Debugging is easier Debugging is difficult

6 It is difficult to write algorithm as It is easy to make flowchart.

compared to flowchart.

Example:

Example Flowchart Step by step Algorithm

Begin the flowchart.

Initialize value for memory variables a and b.

Multiply a and b and store the result in

variable c.

Print the value of variable c.

End the flowchart.

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Example Flowchart Step by step Algorithm

Begin the flowchart.
Read two variables and store the value in
variable m and n.
Check whether the value of m is greater
than value of n.
If m is greater than n then print m is
greater. Otherwise print n is greater
End of the flowchart.

1.8. Define program and differentiate between program

and algorithm
 Program: A program is a set of instruction written to carry out a particular task, so
that computer can follow them.
 The terms computer program, software program, applications program, system
software, or just programs that are used to refer either an executable program or the
collection of source code from which an executable program is created.
 A computer program is a set of instructions or statements to carry out particular
task by the computers CPU.
 Using set of instructions or statements the users can develop a program or software
which is called programming.
 The program tells the computer what the system will do. Specifically the term
software describes an operating system or application.
 A computer takes instructions, in the form of computer programs, and carries out
the requested task.
 The human beings cannot interact directly with the computer using natural
languages such as English, Tamil, etc., because computers knows and understand
only programming languages.
 The example of the programming languages are BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN,
PASCAL, C,C++, JAVA etc.

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1.8.1. Differences between program and algorithm
S. No. Algorithm Program
1. Algorithm is finite Program need not to be finite
2. Algorithm is written using natural Programs are written using a specific
language or algorithmic language. programming language.
3. An algorithm is a description of A program is an implementation of
how to solve a problem. an algorithm in a particular language
to run on a computer.
4. Algorithms are free from Programs must follow some syntax
grammatic rules. rules
5. It helps to simplify and understand A method of developing an
the problem algorithm.

1.9. Define High level language and low level language

 Basically, computer languages are classified into low level and high level
programming languages.
 Here, the terms low level do not mean the real world low level or high level.
 The low level languages are those which are easily understood by machines.
 For example, machine language is a low level language.
 On the other hand, the high level languages are those which are nearer to the
natural languages like English.
 The figure shows the classification of computer programming languages.

1. Low Level Languages

 These are easily understood by computers. They are machine dependent languages.
That is, these languages are specific to computers.
 The machine language and assembly language are specific to computers.

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 The machine language and assembly language are examples of low level languages
and they are discussed in the following sections.
 Programs written in these languages are not transferable from one computer to
another.
a) Machine Languages
o As the name itself implies, programming is done at machine level. The
vocabulary of computer consists of only two words, zero and one. That is, the
digits of a binary number system.
o A 0 indicates low voltage level and 1 indicates high voltage level, since the
computer is operating in only two levels of voltage such as high and low.
o The machine level language is considered as a first generation language. This
is because, programming was started with this language.
o Any sequence of 0'sand 1's forms an instruction in this language.
b) Assembly Language
o To overcome the drawbacks of the machine level language, computer
engineers developed a new programming language which uses symbolic
instructions.
o This symbolic instruction oriented programming language is known as
assembly language or assembly level language.
o This is called as the second generation programming language
o Symbolic words used in this language are referred to as mnemonics.
o Examples:
ADD for Addition
SUB for Subtraction
MUL for Multiplication
STA for Store at
Accumulator
HALT for Halt
JMP for Jump
INR for Increment and so
on.
o The writing of program in assembly language is much easier as compared to
the writing of a program in machine language.

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2. High Level Languages
 The machine language and assembly language are highly machine dependent. It
will be ·very difficult for the programmer to switch over from one machine
language to another and from one assembly language to other.
 Programming languages that are more concerned with the problem specification
and not oriented towards the details of a computer are called High Level
Languages (HLLs).
 High level languages are English like. The elements of these languages are
alphabets, digits, punctuations and other special symbols. The instructions are
composed from these elements.
 Hence, each and every instruction is easier to read and understand. Instructions are
machine independent.
 That is, program written for one computer can be run on another computer with
very little or no modifications. Hence, the programmer feels comfortable. These are
standardized as compared to the other two programming languages.
1.9.1. Differences between machine level and assembly level
programming
S.No. Machine Language Assembly Language High-Level Language
1 Language consists of Language consists of Language consists of
binary codes which mnemonics which English-like statements
specify the operation. specify the operation. which specify more-than
one operation.
2 Processor dependent Processor dependent and Independent of
and hence requires hence requires processor.
knowledge of internal knowledge of internal
details of processor to details of processor to
write a program. write a program.
3 Programs require less Programs require less Programs require more
memory. memory. memory.
4 Programs have less Programs have less Programs have more
execution time. execution time. execution time.
5 Program development Program development is Program development is
is difficult. similar than machine easy.
language.
6 It is not user friendly. It is less user friendly. It is user friendly.

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1.10. Define Compiler, Assembler, Linker and Loader

 Assembler: It is a software that converts assembly language program codes to
machine language codes.
 Compiler: It is a software that converts the programs written in high level language
to machine language.
 Interpreter: It is similar to a compiler but it converts the instructions one by one.
 Compiler and Assembler plays an important role in the execution of a program.
Some compilers directly generate the executable code instead of assembly code.
 The compiler takes the preprocessed source code and translates it into the assembly
code.
 The assembler takes the assembly code from the compiler and translates it to the
relocatable machine code.
 The below fig illustrates the translation of high level and assembly languages into
machine language.

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1.10.1. Assembler
 The process of converting assembly language instructions to machine readable form
is carried out by a program called assembler.
 The translation process is show in the figure.

 The assembly language program (ALP) that is given as input to the assembler is
called source program and the output of the assembler is called object program.
 There are different assembler programs available in the software market.
 Example: TASM (Turbo Assembler), MASM (Macro Assembler).
1.10.2. Compiler
 The process of translating high level language program into machine language
requires an intermediatory program called the translator.
 The compiler and interpreter are two translator programs that are used to translate
the high level language programs into machine language.
 Here, also the program written in high level language is called source program.
 The corresponding program after translation (either by compiler or interpreter) is
called object program.
 The high level language program to machine level conversion is shown in figure.

1.10.3. Differences between the compiler and an interpreter

S. No Complier Interpreter
1. It takes entire high level language It takes one statement of a high level
program as input and translates it Language program as input and
into machine language. translates it into machine language
and executes it.
2. All errors that occur in the Errors that occur only in the
program are listed and displayed. statement being taken for translation
are displayed
3. Debugging is faster. Debugging is slower.
4. Requires more memory Requires less memory.
5. Costlier. Cheaper.
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1.10.4. Linker and Loader

a) Linker vs Loader

Linker is the software that links the object The loader is the system software that
code with additional files such as header loads the executable file generated by the
files and creates an executable file with linker to the main memory.
.exe extension.

b) Role of Linker and Loader

Source code Written in any HLL

Compiler Convert LLL into 0 and 1

Assembler Assembler generates the object code of a source program

Object code Code produced by a compiler or assembler executable machine

code

Linker Helps to link a object modules of program into a single object file.
It is executable file as output for loader.

Executable file Input for Loader

Loader Load the executable file/module to the main memory for

execution.

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1.11. Define source code, assembly code, object

code, machine code.
1.11.1. Source code and Object Code

 Source code: A program written in a high-level language is called source code.

Source code is also called a source program. The computer cannot understand the
statements written in a high-level language. Source code cannot be executed by the
computer directly. It is converted into object code then executed.
 Object code: A program written in machine language is called an object code.
Object code is also called an object program. The computer can understand object
code directly.
S. No. Source Code Object Code
1. Source code is written in high level Object code is written in machine
or assembly language. language through compilers.

2. Source code is easy to understand. Object code is difficult to understand.

3. Source code is easy to modify Object code is difficult to modify

4. Source code contains fewer Object code contains more statements

statements than object code. than source code.

5. Source code is human Object code is not human

understandable. understandable.
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6. Source code is not directly Object code is machine

understandable by machine. understandable and executable.
7. It is written in high level language It is written in machine language
like C, C++, Java, Python etc or through compiler or assembler or
assembly language. other translator.
8. It contains less number of It contains more number of
statements than object code. statements than source code.

1.11.2. Machine code and Assembly Language

S. No. Machine code Assembly Language
1. Consists of binaries, which are zeros Follows syntax similar to the
and ones English language.
2. Only understood by the CPU Understood by the programmer.
3. Depends on the platform or the Consists of a set of standard
operating system instructions.
4. Can be directly executed by the CPU Used by applications such as real-
to perform the defined tasks in the time systems and microcontroller-
computer program based embedded systems

* Programming Language *

Fig. Programming Language

 When a particular problem is to be solved, it is necessary to design statements or
instructions for the computer to carry out.
 The art of writing instructions for a computer to solve the specific task is known as
programming.
 The output of programming is a well-defined set of instructions. This is called a
program.

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 Software is a program or a collection of programs. Software cannot be sensed or
touched. It makes the computer hardware to work. Software can be developed by
using programming languages.
 A Programming language is the medium of communication between the man and
the machine.

1.12. State the importance of C language

Additional Information
 To write a computer program, we need a programming language.
 Based on the applications different programming languages such as FORTRAN,
COBOL, PASCAL, PROLOG, LISP,B, C, C++, JAVA etc., were developed.
 Every programming language has a specific goal.
 For example FORTRAN was developed for scientific calculations, COBOL for
business data processing, PASCAL for general applications and PROLOG and LISP
for artificial intelligence applications.
 There was need for a programming language which would be used to develop both
application programs and the system programs. C is a new programming language,
is developed to fulfill this requirement.
* History of ‘C’ *
 C is a high level language. It is both a general purpose and a specific purpose
programming language. C is the most popular and common programming
language for every application developer.
 C was developed by Dennis Ritchie in the year 1972 at AT& T Bell Laboratories;
USA. C is derived from two early programming languages such as BCPL (Basic
Combined Programming Language) and B language.
 The BCPL was developed by Martin Richards and B was developed by Ken
Thompson.
 In 1972, Dennis Ritchie developed a new version of B and named it as C. He
selected the name C for his new language because C comes after B in the
alphabetical order which indicates of BCPL (i.e., C) for naming his language.
 Initially, there was a plan to develop the UNIX operating system using C language,
but C language itself is implemented on the UNIX operating system.
 Although, C is strongly associated with the UNIX operating system, it also runs
under various operating systems including MS-DOS, Windows 95/98/2000/XP,
LINUX etc.
 For years the book “The C Programming Language, 1st edition” was the standard
on the language C.

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 In 1983 a committee was formed by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) to develop a modern definition for the programming language C.
 In 1988, they delivered the final standard definition ANSI C. (The standard was
based on the book from K&RC 1st edition).
* Features of ‘C’ *
 C language has number of characteristics or features. Due to this C-language
becomes a popular programming language. The important characteristics of C are
given below:
1. C is a general purpose and simple programming language.
2. C is a structure based programming language.
3. Helps in the development of system software.
4. It has more operators than other languages
5. It has more data types.
6. It has very less number of reserved words (32 keywords).
7. C programs are highly portable.
8. C programs are efficient and have fast execution speed.
9. No rigid format. Any number of statements can be typed in a single line.
*Note: Portable means any C program can be run on different machines with little or
no modification.
 The C programming language timeline is shown in the table below.

Language Year Founder

ALGOL 1960 International group

BCPL 1967 Martin Richards

B 1970 Ken Thompson

C 1972 Dennis Ritchie

K&RC 1978 Kernighan and Ritchie

ANSI C 1989 ANSI committee

ANSI/ISO C 1990 ISO committee

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Programming Methodology and Introduction to C Language 1-25
* Applications of ‘C’ *
 Because of its portability and efficiency, C is used to develop the system as well as
application software. Some of the system and application softwares are listed
below.
a) System Software
1. Operating system
2. Interpreters
3. Compliers
4. Assemblers
5. Editors
6. Loaders
7. Linkers
b) Application Software
1. Graphics Packages
2. Spread Sheets
3. Office Automation Tools
4. Word Processors
5. Scientific and Engineering Application
6. Data Base Management System (DBMS)

1.13. Explain the structure of C program

1. Documentation Section
 The documentation section is used to write the details about the program like,
name of the program, author, when it is coded and what are the features of it, etc.
 The documentation section begins with /* symbol and ends with */ symbol.
 The documentation section is only for the user or programmer understandable
purpose, the documentation part is not compiled and executed by the compiler.
2. Link Section
 The link section provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the
system library. The syntax used to include files is as shown below.
Include<header file name>
*Note: The statements begin with # symbol are called the preprocessor directives.

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Programming Methodology and Introduction to C Language 1-26
3. Definition Section
 The definition section defines all symbolic constants.
 The general syntax is,
#define NULL 0, for defining symbolic constant, NULL = 0.
#define PI 3.14 for defining symbolic constant PI = 3.14.

Part-I
Documentation section
Link (preprocessor)section
Definition section
Global Declaration section

OR Part-II
main() Function section
{
Declaration part;
Executable part;
}
Part-III
User defined functions

4. Global Declarations
 There are some variables that are used in more than one function. Such variables
are called global variables whose existence is known throughout the program. This
declaration should be made before main() function.
 Examples:
1. inta,b,c;
2. float x,y,z;
3. char name[20];

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Programming Methodology and Introduction to C Language 1-27
5. The main() function
 As the name itself indicates this is the main function of every C program. Execution
of a C program starts with main(). No C program executes without the main()
function
 This section contains two parts: declaration part and executable part.
 The declaration is a part of the C program where all the variables, arrays, functions
etc used in the C program are declared and may be initialized with their basic data
types.
 The executable part is a set of statements to perform a given task, there should be at
least one statement in the executable part.
6. Braces
 Every C program uses a pair of curly braces({ , }). The left braces indicates the
beginning of the main() function. On the other hand, the right brace indicates the
end of the main() function.
7. User-Defined Functions
 These are subprograms.
 These are written by the user, hence the name user-defined functions.
Additional Information
* Compiling and Executing a C program *
 A C program typed from the keyboard cannot be directly used as it is not in the
machine language of the computer.
 A readable C program is known as the source program. It normally has a .C
extension. The source program is converted to machine language using C
compilers.
 Compiling a C program means translating it into machine language. The C
program to be compiled must be typed in using an editor. An editor is a program
which allows the programmer to write the program and edit it.
 C compilers are available with and without editors. The environment where you
find the compiler, editor, debugging tools, linking facilities, tracing and testing
tools is called the Integrated Development Environment (IDE).
 Examples: Turbo C (TC), Borland C/C++, Microsoft C/C++ and ANSI C.

1.14. List and Explain different stages in converting the

C program source code to executable code.
 Programs written in high level language must be translated into machine language
for execution.
 Creating and executing C program requires at least four steps as follows:

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Programming Methodology and Introduction to C Language 1-28

1. C program (source code) is sent to preprocessor first. The preprocessor is

responsible to convert preprocessor directives into their respective values. The
preprocessor generates an expanded source code.
2. Expanded source code is sent to compiler which compiles the code and converts
it into assembly code.
3. The assembly code is sent to assembler which assembles the code and converts it
into object code. Now a simple.obj file is generated.
4. The object code is sent to linker which links it to the library such as header files.
Then it is converted into executable code. A simple.exe file is generated.
5. The executable code is sent to loader which loads it into memory and then it is
executed. After execution, output is sent to console.

1.15. Explain the steps involved in executing the C

program
 There are basically five steps in the successful execution of a program.
1. Creating a program file (source file)
2. Saving the program ( with .c as extension)
3. Compilation
4. Linking system library functions
5. Running (executing .exe file) the program
 The fig. illustrates how an executable program is created from the source code.

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Programming Methodology and Introduction to C Language 1-29

 The steps involved in the procedure are:

Step 1: The source code is entered using a text editor in a file with a .C extension.
(Press F2 to save). It consists of preprocessor directives and functions.
Step 2: The preprocessor expands the #define directive and adds the #include
files.
Step 3: Press Alt + F9 to compile the program. The compiler produces an
intermediate object code with a.obj extension from the extended source code.
Step 4: If there are errors, correct the errors and recompile the program. If there
are no errors, then press Ctrl + F9 to execute/run the program.
Step 5: Press Alt + F5 to open User Screen and check the result. The linker adds
the relevant library routines and produces an executable version with a.exe
extension.

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Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Programming in C