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The Consulting Process: A Multidimensional Approach

DeWayne J. Kurpius, Dale R. Fuqua, and Thaddeus Rozecki

The consulting process seems to work similarly regardless of whether the consultant is internal or
external or is doing individual or group consultation. Some differences may occur depending on
whether the consultant is a process helper or content helper, although good content-focused
consultants often possess excellent process skills and use them as a regular part of the consulting
process. Several consultation processes were reviewed, and from this a six-step approach is
presented.

A
lthough it is true that consultants need to have a clear conceptual As a consultant, how do you view humans? Are you more attracted to
and operational picture of their definition of consultation and they some than others? How do you listen and respond to leaders at the top
need to understand how the operational models they choose help of the organization as compared with workers at the bottom? What do
to facilitate their effectiveness as consultants, experiencing and under- you think and feel when consultees disagree with you and confront you
or your ideas? What about your espoused theories versus your theories-
standing the process steps of being a consultant is where it all comes
in-use?
together. Few consultants will succeed without high-quality process
skills. Knowing if the problem is clearly defined and owned, knowing Senge (1990) and Argyris (1991) have found that the issue of
when to confront or just listen, understanding the dynamics of resistance theories is a major problem, because consultants and consultees often
or recognizing excessive dependency, and being a good relationship espouse theories that they claim to follow, whereas these theories could
builder are just a few of the competencies needed to be an effective not actually be observed from their actions.
consultant. Another question might be “What about your competencies?” All
ethical guidelines such as those set by the American Association for
The following are six steps or stages of consultation that commonly
Counseling and Development (1988), now the American Counseling
occur in any consultation practice whether it is short-term individual or
Association, and the American Psychological Association (1992) state
long-term organization-wide consultation. The six steps are (a) preentry;
that helpers should provide only those services for which they are
(b) entry, problem exploration, and contracting; (c) information gather-
qualified. As Robinson and Gross (1985) and Newman and Robinson
ing, problem confirmation, and goal setting; (d) solution searching and
(1991) pointed out, some consultants do not understand that special
intervention selection; (e) evaluation; and (f) termination. The six steps
training and supervision are needed before one can become a consultant.
are presented in sequential form, and in general, each step precedes the
At the preentry stage it is essential for consultants to conceptualize
next. There are times, however, when considerable recycling may occur
the meaning and operation of consultation to themselves and to be ready
between any one of the steps, especially between entry and contracting
to do the same with their consultees or consultee system. To ensure a
or after evaluation.
clearer conceptual understanding, the following questions are often
helpful:
PREENTRY
What models, processes, theories, and paradigms do you draw on to
Preentry is included as part of the consultation process to underscore conceptualize your mode for helping? How do you define consultation
the significance for consultants to regularly engage in self-assessment to the consultee and consultee system? Do you see it as triadic (consul-
tant, consultee, client) or dyadic (consultant and client)? When is
to ensure that they are the right person for a particular situation. A
visioning, looking into the future, and planning a better intervention than
consultant can often be misperceived as one who possesses unusual
cause-and-effect problem solving? What about acting as a judge and
insights, knowledge, and skills to define and solve a particular problem evaluator of your consultees?
for someone else. True, consultants do have special knowledge and
As is easily recognizable, preentry focuses on the consultant and
skills and sometimes even special insights, but rarely can a consultant
represents a critical aspect of the consultant’s responsibility to under-
single-handedly define and solve another person’s problem. Therefore,
stand one’s personal beliefs and conceptual framework for doing con-
in preentry the focus is on the consultant. It is a preliminary stage when
sultation. Without a firm conceptual understanding, a consultant is apt
the consultant forms a conceptual foundation to work from and through
the process of self-assessment and is able to articulate to self and others to offer an inappropriate intervention that will cause, at a minimum,
who he or she is and the services he or she can provide. Without this disorder and frustration for everyone.
preliminary step, it is possible to both underestimate and overestimate Fortunately, preentry is a changing process. As the consultant grows
and develops from experience and training, his or her competencies for
one’s potential to be helpful. Such self-assessment may also help to
prevent the consultant from viewing most consultee needs and problems helping are also growing and developing. Therefore, it is ideal to work
with a colleague whenever possible as a way to receive objective
as fitting the consultant’s favorite paradigm and interventions for
helping. feedback, to discuss events, and to learn from each other.
In this self-assessment and reflective process, consultants should
ENTRY, PROBLEM EXPLORATION, AND CONTRACTING
understand their beliefs and values, understanding how individuals,
families, programs, organizations, or systems cause, solve, or avoid Entry is a term peculiar to consulting, but aptly describes what happens
problems. To accomplish the self-assessment process, a wide range of at the initial point of contact with the consultee, as well as the actions
questions is offered to facilitate the task: that lead up to problem exploration and, subsequently, to deciding if a

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Kurpius, Fuqua, and Rozecki

contract is feasible. It is the beginning of the consultant’s interaction 3. Decline—things are getting worse, and consultees recognize that
with the consultee or consultee system together with problem explora- they cannot solve the problem. The consultee may want a quick fix and
tion and contracting that is critical to the future success of the consulting have high expectations placed on the consultant. There is often disagree-
process. Initial contact can happen in a variety of ways. Internal consul- ment among consultee members regarding the need for help.
tants have a wide range of potential initial contacts from bumping into 4. Crisis—consultee or consultee system is needing help badly and
a consultee in the hallway to receiving a telephone call, arranging a quickly, obviously desperate. The consultant may look for dependency
formal appointment, or receiving a memorandum. External consultant first, but it is important that consultees understand that their situation
contact is often more formal and occurs most often by telephone or letter. and the investment needs to return to a stable state. Consultant shouldn’t
Regardless of the initial contact or level of acquaintance, it is important overinvest in something that is past the point of return.
for the consultant to articulate the principles and elements needing
exploration and discussion prior to the consideration of a contract. Knowing in which stage the problem manifests itself and the level
Consultees almost always have a presenting problem to discuss for of help needed can provide considerable insight for the consultant and
which they may have already tried numerous resolutions. Therefore, one the consultee in the establishment of a reasonable contract. Although it
of the first questions by the consultant is “How can I be helpful?” Some is most common for help to be requested during the decline stage, it is
will immediately offer a problem and a proposed solution. For example, important to help the consultees recognize that it is not too late to try to
“We have conflict in our group, and we want you to engage us in team resolve the problem. Because each stage is so unique, it is helpful to
building.” That is when a consultant’s preentry understanding and determine the stage of the problem and to clarify the factors operating
definitions kick in. Mentally and conceptually a consultant thinks about at that stage. Through this review process, it is often discovered that the
several things at the same time. It is usually appropriate for the consul- problem was recognized earlier, but at that time it was not possible to
tant to describe briefly his or her conceptualization of consultation and reach an agreement on what actions to take until the problem became
how he or she would like to proceed during this initial contacting; entry, more serious. As individuals and groups rely on consultants, however,
however, often requires considerable inquiry into the presenting prob- they find that the stages of change are helpful and as a result are likely
lem. Questions and statements such as the following are often helpful to ask for help earlier the next time they begin to identify a problem.
to facilitate the movement toward a successful consultation. (It is This is especially true of situations where internal consultants are
important to note, however, that as a consultant you will probably not available.
ask the questions as formally as proposed here or necessarily in the same Another aspect of both entry and contracting for the consultant to
order.) consider is understanding the forces for and against change and the
degree of openness and readiness for change within the system in which
Is this a good time to talk, or should we set up an appointment? Tell me the problem exists. Figure 1 explains the issue of system openness and
briefly about your situation. How do you know this is a problem? How readiness based on four groupings (Cells 1–4).
did you reach this definition? Who is the client in this problem? How For Cell 1 the system is closed, and the internal forces seem to be
long has it been going on? When did it happen last? Who else is balanced for and against change. Usually, this spells trouble with little
involved? What have you already tried? Why do you think your or no opportunity for change to occur. Cell 2 has potential because the
interventions have failed? How will things be different when the
members describe a system that realizes that change is needed even
problem is solved? What will happen if the problem is not solved? How
will you know if the problem is solved? How did you happen to call me?
though at the moment the forces for and against change seem to be
Have you used outside help in the past? If yes, how would you describe balanced, suggesting hope but slow movement. For Cell 3 it is important
that experience? How long will it take to reach the level of satisfaction to note that often the forces for change are external to the members who
you are looking for? What resources do you view as necessary to solve would prefer not to change, but the system is requiring change. With
the problem (i.e., time for consultees to work on the project, knowledge, this combination it is easy to see why conflict is likely. Sometimes a
and skills needed by consultees to solve the problem, comfortable paradigm shift toward the system paradigm is needed by the members
working space for consultation sessions, budget to support the project)? before progress can be made. Cell 4 is ideal; all want to improve but
When would you like to begin and finish the project? Will I be need help to reach the goal.
contracting with you?

TWO MODELS TO ASSIST CONTRACTING

System is Closed to System is Open to
Although the previous questions aid the entry process, the two models Change Change
that follow are also helpful in gaining a better understanding of the
problem and the culture surrounding the problem. The first deals with 1. Do Not Accept 2. Accept
cycles of change, and the second deals with forces for change. Asking Equilibrium Contract - Little Contract But Inform
the consultee to describe the problem stage will help the consultant to Chance For Helping Members That
formulate and ask better questions about the need for help. The four Change May Be
Slower
stages of change to be aware of at entry are (a) development, (b)
maintenance, (c) decline, and (d) crisis, defined as follows: 3. Accept 4. Best Chance For
Disequilibrium Contract But Expect Successful Helping
1. Development—one is needing help at an early stage of a new High Conflict And
problem or program. Early intervention of a consultant shows signs of Slow Change
consultee insightfulness and openness.
2. Maintenance—things are becoming stagnant and falling behind,
needing help to improve. This shows signs of consultee desire and FIGURE 1
motivation to improve. System Openness & Balance of Forces

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 The Consulting Process

The two models are easy to use and can provide additional, and and Phase 2 addressing the interventions to be implemented and
sometimes critical, information for deciding on the type of contract or evaluated.
the feasibility of a contract. Both consultant and consultee can profit
greatly from knowing where the problem exists in the change cycle and INFORMATION GATHERING, PROBLEM
knowing the degree of system readiness for change. CONFIRMATION, AND GOAL SETTING
THE CONTRACTING PROCESS Considerable data are often required when developing a written con-
Should a planning and contracting meeting be scheduled? If a planning tract. Regardless of when the data-gathering process occurs or what data
meeting is necessary to clarify consultee needs and expectations, and it are gathered, it is essential that good data are used to define the problem
usually is, agreement with the consultee should be reached on the and to determine the selection of an intervention(s) for solving the
following: purpose of the meeting; agenda for the meeting; membership problem. The literature is clear that one of the best predictors of a
at the meeting; outcomes expected for the meeting; chairperson for the successful consultation outcome is to have an accurate problem defini-
meeting; length, time and place of meeting; materials needed by con- tion that both the consultant and consultee agree on (Bergan & Tombari,
sultant and consultee for the meeting; and costs for the meeting, if any. 1976; Fuqua & Gibson, 1980; Kratochwill & Bergan, 1990).
Recording or note taking at a meeting and information about who will The traditional statement about good data is that they should be valid
receive copies of the meeting notes are also important to clarify in and reliable. In consultation this usually requires both qualitative data
advance. (participant observation and in-depth interviewing) and quantitative
What about setting fees? Internal consultants are usually more time data (things that can be measured or counted). That is, are we measuring
conscious than fee conscious; however, for the external consultant, what we say we are measuring (valid data), and are we measuring it
suggesting a fee schedule to the consultee can present a problem if he accurately and consistently (reliable data)? Essentially, we want the data
or she wants a response early in the first contact. If the question comes that we gather to be useful and dependable. According to Gay (1987),
up early, I like to say, “My fee schedule ranges from ‘no charge’ to ‘X’ both qualities are indispensable within the context of the data-gathering
(state a fee here) depending on the situation. Let’s talk a little more and process. So often in consultation we rely on consensus to determine if
then discuss fees.” As the inquiring process continues, it will become our data are valid and reliable. To do this we must remember to reach
more clear if this is a short-term project of a few hours or a day or an consensus with all who will be affected by the interpretation and usage
extended project contract. In any case, the consultant should be ready of the data. Ultimately, the quality of the consultation will be no more
to describe a fee schedule. Internal consultants should also be specific successful than is the quality of the information used to define the
about the resources needed to complete the contract. Common issues problem and determine the outcome.
are time, space, materials, and priorities and who should be involved. Usually the consultant and consultee share the responsibility of
Also vital to the success of the consultation, although less concrete at gathering, analyzing, and synthesizing the data. The consultant should
the outset, is the establishment of trust among the consultant, consultee, not rush this process, making sure to involve the right people in the
and consultee system. According to Weisbord (1990), trusting each interpretation of the data. Without an accurate understanding of the data,
other becomes the most essential aspect of the psychological contract, even good data are of little value. Often the consultant will need to be
although interpersonal trust alone is not enough to ensure success. active in helping consultees to understand the meaning of the data.
Different operational models of consultation also help to clarify the Unintentional misinterpretations (as well as intentional biases) are
contract? As indicated under Modes of Consultation in the preceding powerful barriers to the future success of a project. Sometimes it is
article (this special issue), “Fundamental Issues in Defining Consulta- necessary to gather data using two different procedures to assess accu-
tion,” it is not uncommon for the consultant to conceptually draw on racy (e.g., selecting a representative random sample of questionnaire
certain modes or models of consultation as a resource for clarifying entry respondents, some of whom will also be interviewed, or assembling
and contracting. For example, consultees may implicitly or explicitly interview data into a format that can be developed into a questionnaire
state that they want the consultant to do the following: “Solve the for broader sampling). If time allows, small groups can also help with
problem for us” (the expert model); “tell us how to solve the problem” either generating new data or confirming data that have already been
(the prescriptive model); or, “we don’t know exactly what we need but gathered.
we know we need help.” (Because it is too early to know what model Once the problem is defined, the next important step is to reach
may be most helpful, you would need to start with the collaboration agreement on ownership of the problem. At this point it is often helpful
model. See pages 607–618 [this special issue] for more definition on to describe attribution theory as an aid to clarify problem ownership.
models.) One of the findings in the attribution theory research is referred to as
How are individual, department, or organization contracts different? “errors in attribution” or to whom do we attribute the problem cause
Individual contracts such as one that a school counselor would have with and who is responsible for the problem solution? One general finding
a classroom teacher or a mental health worker would have with a is that (as humans) we tend to attribute our personal problems as being
clinician are different from contracting with a school corporation, caused by “the system,” but we view problems that others have to be
mental health center, or a large department within a larger organization. caused by “the person” (Brickman et al., 1982). Following the error in
Individual contracts are less likely to be formally written contracts, attribution concept, it is easy to see how problem ownership can be
although some form of written agreement should be developed for every ignored and disowned by all who are involved. For example, in a school
contract even if it is just a brief memo. In general, any work done outside situation, if the teacher attributes the problem and solution to the student
of individual consultation should have a written agreement framing the and the student attributes the problem and solution to the teacher, it is
contract so that all parties know the purpose, objectives, ground rules, unlikely that the counselor-consultant’s help will be effective, because
expectations, resources needed, and time lines. If an organization-wide no one claims ownership of the problem or solution.
contract is developed, probably a consulting team will be necessary to Information usage forms the foundation for any consultation and is
develop and carry out the contract. Usually these contracts require two an ongoing part of the total consultation process. Once it has been
phases with Phase 1 focusing on the assessment and problem definition decided what information will be gathered, from whom and by whom,

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Kurpius, Fuqua, and Rozecki

and after procedures for data collection have been decided, one needs the process where the consultant, consultee, and often the client as well
to explicate how the data will be analyzed, synthesized, interpreted, and need to decide the best possible intervention treatment that was pre-
used and decide who will use them. A few common errors are to gather dicted to be the best solution to the problem.
more data than are used, to gather data that are used by too few, or not There are many criteria to consider when searching for the best
to gather data at critical points after the initial consultation data have intervention. One of the first sets of criteria developed for classifying
been collected. Here are some check points to follow: interventions that should be tested before selecting an intervention is to
How confidential are the data? Do forms of defensiveness confuse the decide if the focus is on primary, secondary, or tertiary helping. Caplan
meaning of confidentiality? Will the data harm anyone or be used to (1970) referred to these as stages of prevention with primary interven-
punish someone? Who definitely needs to see all the data? Who will tions used to reduce the incidence of the problem occurring again in the
present and interpret the data? Does the consultant need a liaison person future; secondary interventions used to treat an already-existing prob-
for this purpose? What does the consultant do with information that no lem and to also shorten the duration of the existing problem; and tertiary
one wants to own? What if the consultee wants to withhold certain data
interventions used to comfort the client or prevent a relapse, because
from selected others? Where are the data filed and for how long? What
problem resolution was unlikely.
does the consultant do with unexpected findings that may cause embar-
rassment, denial, or defensiveness? Beer (1980) established a different set of criteria for classifying
interventions. His approach suggested the following four categories to
All of these questions and others are important to the success of most
consider when selecting an intervention: (a) Diagnostic interventions—
consultation projects. Many of these types of questions, however, are
these are interventions used mostly for learning more about individuals,
often skipped over and are seldom asked. Consultants need to be sure
groups, or systems. Survey feedback is the common method used here.
to reflect on each question and decide how to proceed with the total data
(b) Individual interventions—these types of interventions are focused
base for the consultation from preentry to termination.
directly on helping humans develop to a higher level of functioning and
Helping consultees realize that the problem statement is about the
are usually in the form of workshops, seminars, and other educational
past and that the proposed solution is about the future is an important
approaches. These interventions can also involve working individually
point to clarify. Therefore, once the problem is defined, it is important
with consultees to help them learn how to understand and handle a
for the consultant to help consultees to change their thinking and to begin
particular client or situation. (c) Process interventions—these interven-
to view the problem as a goal to be reached sometime in the future. The
tions follow the assumptions set out by Schein (1978, 1990) where he
problem becomes the goal from then on.
found that in many cases the people experiencing the problem had the
SOLUTION SEARCHING AND innate ability to solve the problem but needed help to examine the
INTERVENTION SELECTION problem and understand it more clearly. He referred to this type of
intervention as “process consultation.” (d) Structural interventions—
There is a natural tendency for consultees to desire a quick and early
this is one of the areas where considerable confusion seems to exist. The
intervention. Consultees often have been dealing with the problem for
overriding dilemma that the consultant and consultee must resolve is
some time, and once they have decided to get outside help they want a
whether it is better to focus on changing human factors, such as selecting
quick solution. Solution searching and intervention selection become as
interventions to change human behavior, beliefs, and feelings, or to
important as good data and an accurate problem definition. If we have
focus on changing the structure of the organization, which will in turn
not allowed our own favorite paradigm to define all problems (I believe
change the people.
in behavioral consultation; therefore I see all problems and solutions
from the behavioral perspective), chances are we will also not err by Kurpius (1985) and Kurpius, Fuqua, and Rozecki (1991) have
selecting our favorite intervention as the best choice for solving a given presented a model to help consultants to sort out this question. They
problem. suggested that human services organizations such as schools, mental
In the field of consultation and planned change, one of the first to health centers, and other social service agencies tend to err by defining
offer an operational definition of an intervention was Argyris (1970) in most problems in their organizations as being caused by human factors.
which he stated, “To intervene is to enter into an ongoing system of Therefore, most of the interventions are directed toward improving
relationships, to come between or among persons, groups, or objects for human development by focusing on changing knowledge, beliefs, feel-
the purpose of helping them” (p. 15). D’Angelli (cited in Iscoe & Harris, ings, motivation, or behavior. On the other hand, organizations such as
1984) defined an intervention from the mental health consultation and those found in business and industry often err on the structural sides by
education framework and described it as “an intervention at a specific changing policies, procedures, technology, and job definitions when
level of analysis pursuing a goal or intent using a technique or strategy” they should be looking at more human-focused interventions. The ideal
(pp. 333-360). A summary as well as an extension of the Argyris and approach is always to consider both approaches, human and structural,
D’Angelli position was offered by Carkhuff (1983). and then decide which is more likely to produce the outcome desired.
Most of the time both types of interventions are needed because at the
An intervention is both a response and an initiative. It is a response to a
problem definition stage of the consulting process, some problems are
situation that defines a need. It is a response to a deficit or to what is not defined as human problems and some are defined as structural problems.
present. At the same time, it is an initiative to influence that situation to Why do interventions succeed or fail? The best predictor of success
fill in what is not present, to transform the deficits into assets. In short, for any intervention is to have an accurate problem definition that is
an intervention is an attempt to make a difference. (p. 163) owned by the consultee and the consultee’s client. The next best
predictor is to have selected the correct intervention that is also owned
As is highlighted by the aforementioned definitions, an intervention by the consultee and consultee’s client. In McClelland’s (1978, 1989)
begins early in the consultation and may continue beyond termination. lifelong work in motivation analysis, he found that for change to take
This means that everything the consultant does has the potential to place, it is necessary for both the consultee and the client to understand
influence the consultee person and system in some way. Although this and accept the problem definition and the proposed solution. Other
is an important factor for consultants to be aware of, there is a stage in factors that hinder success are the following: diagnosing too much

604 Journal of Counseling & Development l July/August 1993 l Volume 71

 The Consulting Process

(which tends to instill unrealistic hope) and not diagnosing enough integrated with the consultation process. At each step in the consultation
(which allows for important data to be missing); setting goals that are process, objectives related to evaluation must be addressed. Certainly,
impossible to reach; misunderstanding the problem context and culture responsibilities related to evaluation should be considered, for example,
(lack of commitment by leaders and others who are needed to support during entry and contracting. Information gathering and problem defi-
the project); selecting interventions that are not within the larger organ- nition should include an exploration of the measures and methods to be
izational goals; moving too rapidly or too slowly; or moving ahead while used in evaluation. Solution searching and intervention selection should
lacking the resources necessary to succeed. include delineation of the standards, criteria, and measures being ap-
Last, sometimes consultees and consultee groups provide cues to plied in evaluating specific interventions. The key role of evaluation in
suggest that resistance against the intervention is building. Examples decisions relating to termination is substantial and obvious.
are when the consultee (a) attacks the intervention as impractical, (b) Not only should evaluation be fully integrated with the consultation
acts confused, (c) intellectualizes, (c) moralizes, (d) requests more data process but evaluation should provide both the consultant and con-
and details, (e) uses lack of time as the culprit, (f) presses for easy or sultees with a continual stream of information regarding how the process
instant solutions, (g) suggests that the problem is no longer relevant, or is progressing.
(h) attempts passive-aggressive behavior, such as arriving late, leaving
Does the problem definition continue to have validity? Are the objec-
early, or acting bored. tives that have been developed adequate? Are the interventions selected
being implemented as planned? If so, is implementation producing
EVALUATION desired results? Is the decision-making process adequate to support
implementation?
Evaluation, in a general sense, is a form of systematic inquiry (Worthen
& Sanders, 1987), is a more applied form of inquiry, and is targeted Process evaluation is often required to provide answers to these
more on understanding a specific case of observations than on producing kinds of questions, and to realize its full potential, process evaluation
knowledge that can be generalized (Stake, 1991). Caplan (1970) sug- must be planned and implemented early in the consultation relationship.
gested that evaluation should help the consultant determine “to what Evaluation, particularly as it relates to design and measurement, can
extent his particular technical response to the consultee’s behavior become a highly technical enterprise. We hope that either the consultant
achieved the desired result” and should aid the consultant in under- or consultee system would have the expertise to address the technical
standing “the differential effectiveness of various techniques that he requirements of evaluation. If not, it may prove to be wise to purchase
uses in particular situations” (p. 294). More recently, the roles and the outside expertise required in any given setting. Equally important,
functions of evaluation activities within the consultation process have though, are the human factors that will bear heavily on the effectiveness
been extended substantially (Brown & Schulte, 1987). For example, of evaluation. For example, as stated earlier by McClelland (1978),
Schwandt (1989, 1992) has argued for expanding the vision and role of evaluation activities should include those decision makers and partici-
evaluation to include moral concerns (i.e., discussion surrounding the pants affected by the change effort. Responsibility for designing evalu-
issues of goods or ends served by social programs). ations, selecting criteria, and gathering data should be shared to increase
Evaluation is typically identified as a distinct stage of the consulta- the ownership of participants, reduce resistance to strategies and de-
tion process. Evaluation recognizes the importance of evaluating inter- mands, and improve the probability that evaluation data will be effec-
ventions following their implementation. In this context, evaluation tively used. In fact, most of the human factors issues that would affect
leads to judgments regarding the product or outcome of evaluation, and the consultation process in general should be addressed while one is
one key characteristic of this application is to support the decision- designing and conducting evaluation components.
making process. Certain questions regarding the intervention(s) need to
be answered:
TERMINATION
Have the interventions achieved the desired change? How well have they
worked? Is continuing intervention required? Are there unexpected
Very little is written about termination even though it is an essential step
effects of the selected interventions? How might we respond to those?
in the consulting process. First, it is the time when the consultant and
It is critical to emphasize that product-outcome evaluation may not consultee agree that the consultation should be terminated either be-
lead to termination of the change effort. Instead, evaluation data may cause of successful completion of the project or because it is becoming
lead to decisions to recycle to an earlier stage of the consultation process. more clear that success is unlikely. If failure to meet the goal is eminent,
Several possibilities exist in this regard. Evaluation may indicate that it is important and useful for all involved to understand as many of the
the selected interventions are working, perhaps more slowly than antic- variables as possible regarding why the consultation failed. Both parties
ipated, in which case one option is to recycle to implementation stages. should independently go through all of the steps from preentry to
Sometimes evaluation may indicate that the interventions are working, termination and should try to figure out why there was failure. There
but fundamental problems continue to persist, in which case recycling may be some elements from each of the phases that contributed to the
to review and revise objectives for the interventions might prove more failure, but chances are that a few factors will contribute much more
appropriate. Another possibility is that unanticipated effects of interven- than all of the others together. That is, if the consultant and consultee
tions might justify secondary or supplementary interventions. In any go back over the essential conditions for successful consultation, the
case, evaluation can lead to termination, but really must be viewed as a statements will suggest the importance of (a) an open system, (b)
pivotal, decision-making event. Of course, the quality of decisions made effective working relationship, (c) good data, (d) supportive change
will depend heavily on the quality of the evaluation data and process. culture, (e) accurate consultee- and client-owned problem definition, (f)
If evaluation in the consultation process is to serve its maximum joint intervention selection and accurate intervention implementation,
utility and be effectively implemented, however, the consultant’s con- and (g) good process and outcome evaluation practice to ensure recycl-
ceptualization of evaluation must be greatly expanded beyond the ing when and where needed and then determine if the project has, in
product-outcome focus. Evaluation, to be fully effective, must be fully fact, failed.

Journal of Counseling & Development l July/August 1993 l Volume 71

Kurpius, Fuqua, and Rozecki

Remember, perceived failure may not be failure, but instead may be Bergan, J. R., & Tombari, J. L. (1976). Consultant skill and efficiency and the
an important finding offering a statement about what is lacking in the implementation and outcomes of consultation. Journal of School Psychology,
contract and what is needed to recycle and move ahead. Too often a 14, 3-14.
premature decision is made to terminate because the heat has been Brickman, P., Rabinowitz, V. C., Karuza, J., Jr., Coates, D., Cohn, E., & Kidder,
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to those mentioned earlier for a failed consultation. The difference is Resource Development.
that there is less stress on the parties involved, because success is Fuqua, D. R., & Gibson, G. (1980). An investigation of factors related to the
overvalued and failure is undervalued. As one can understand, if new durability of organizational innovations in human service systems. Paper
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occurs under both success and failure conditions, but we cognitively and tion, Montreal, Canada.
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Iscoe, I., & Harris, L. C. (1984). Social and community intervention. In Annual
should be considered: Inform all appropriate members that termination
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is forthcoming and say when and why; explain the effect of the inter- Kratochwill, T. R., & Bergan, J. R. (1990). Behavioral consultation in applied
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CONCLUSION
conceptual thinking: Paradigms, models and processes. Consulting Psycholo-
The process stages that consultants and consultees engage in are pre- gist Bulletin, 43, 2-12.
sented in linear form, but under most circumstances, the process is more McClelland, D. C. (1978). Managing motivation to expand human freedom.
circular than linear. For example, some forms of contracting may begin American Psychologist, 33, 201-210.
as early as entry and occur again during intervention. How one defines McClelland, D. C. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ?
consultation as well as the different models used to help consultees Psychological Review, 96, 690-702.
conceptualize their situation are also influential elements that recycle Newman, J. L., & Robinson, S. E. (1992). In the best interests of the consultee:
throughout the consulting process. Certainly how one defines one’s self Ethical issues in consultation. Consulting Psychology Bulletin, 43, 23-29.
Robinson, S. E., & Gross, D. R. (1985). Ethics of consultation: The Centerville
at preentry has a significant and long-lasting affect on how the consult-
ghost. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 444-465.
ing process unfolds and develops over time.
Schein, E. H. (1978). The role of the consultant: Content expert or process
The consulting process seems to work similarly regardless of facilitator? The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 56, 22-26.
whether the consultant is internal or external or is doing individual or Schein, E. H. (1990). Organizational culture. American Psychologist, 45,
group consultation. Some differences may occur depending on whether 109-119.
the consultant is a process helper or a content helper, although good Schwandt, T. A. (1989). Recapturing moral discourse in evaluation. Educational
content-focused consultants often possess excellent process skills and Researcher, 18(8), 11-16, 34.
use them as a regular part of the consulting process. Schwandt, T. A. (1992). Better living through evaluation? Images of progress
Because the process activities that consultants engage in are so shaping evaluation. Evaluation Practice, 13(2), 135-144.
central to reaching the outcomes desired in consultation, it is important Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline. New York: Doubleday.
for consultants to monitor their work and take advantage of objective Stake, R. (1991). Retrospective on “The countenance of educational evalua-
feedback opportunities whenever possible. In this regard there is no one tion.” In M. M. McLaughlin & D. C. Philips (Eds.), Evaluation and education
at quarter century (Ninetieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study
particular step that is necessarily more critical than are the others; it is
of Education, pp. 67-68). Chicago, IL: National Society for the Study of
unlikely, however, that the solved problem will remain solved if only
Education.
the symptoms to the problem are defined and addressed. Weisbord, M. R. (1990). Productive workplaces: Organizing and managing for
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American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical principles of psychologists DeWayne J. Kurpius is a professor in the Department of Counseling and
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