TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Unit 2
Outline
Application Layer Protocols
HTTP/FTP
Transport Layer Protocols
TCP/UDP
Network Layer Protocols
IP
• IP Addressing
• IP Routing
Application Layer Protocols
Data Transfer
Remote applications exchange messages over the network.
Applications must implement the same protocol.
Example – a web browser asking for a web page from a web server.
Request Web browser:
GET: www.nvidia.com address: www.nvidia.com
Response
Webpage
Application Layer Protocols
The application layer provides network services to data generated by applications.
Whenever an application layer protocol wishes to communicate with a remote application, it hands
over the data to the transport layer.
HTTP FTP
Telnet SSH Application
Transport
Internet
Network Access
HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTTP is an application layer protocol.
HTTP is the protocol to exchange text and logical links (hyperlinks) between nodes.
HTTPS is the secured variant of HTTP.
HTTP Operation
HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model.
The client submits an HTTP request message to the server.
The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content types, returns a response message to
the client.
The response contains the request’s completion status information and may also contain requested content in its
message body.
HTTP request Web browser:
www.nvidia.com? address: www.nvidia.com
HTTP response
<HTML>
FTP – File Transfer Protocol
FTP is an application layer protocol used to transfer files between hosts.
FTP users may connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it or may authenticate
themselves with a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and a password.
FTPS can be used for secure transmission that protects the username and the password and
encrypts the content.
Transport Layer Protocols
Transport Layer Protocols
Transport layer protocols establish end-to-end logical communication channels between
applications.
The transport layer functions are:
Facilitating the communicating hosts to carry on a conversation
Asking for layer 3 protocols to carry data to the destination
Providing a reliable connection.
It can also carry out error checking, flow control and verification
Application
TCP and UDP operate at the transport layer.
TCP UDP Transport
Internet
Network Access
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented transport protocol.
Connection oriented - a connection is established between the peer entities prior to transmission.
Reliable - TCP uses sequence numbers and acknowledgments (ACKs) to recover from damaged or lost data.
Flow control - TCP allows the receiver to govern the amount of data sent by the sender.
TCP uses a “window” size to indicate the allowed number of bytes the sender may transit before receiving further
permission.
Ordered delivery - Sequence numbers are used to order segments.
Applications that require reliability use TCP as their transport layer protocol.
TCP reliability mechanisms create overhead that slows down data transfer.
Applications that require fast light-weight transport service, TCP is not the best choice.
TCP Sessions
When two application processes wish to communicate over TCP:
1. A connection must first be established.
2. Once a connection is established , data can be transferred.
TCP uses a keep-alive feature to keep connections open and manage them.
3. After data transmission is completed, the connection is terminated, and all allocated resources are released.
Client Server
1 Connection establishment
2 Data transfer
3 Connection Termination
Three-Way Handshake
TCP connections are established using the “three-way handshake” process
To establish a connection, each peer must send a SYN and receive an ACK for it from the other peer
SYN and ACK are flags in the TCP header (aka control bits)
Client 1 SYN Server
SYN, ACK 2
3 ACK
TCP Reliability
TCP reliability:
Recover from damaged, lost or duplicated data
Ensure ordered delivery
TCP achieves this reliability by assigning a sequence number to each octet it transmits and
requiring a positive acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiving peer.
If the ACK is not received within the time-out interval, the data is retransmitted.
At the receiver, the sequence numbers are used to correctly order segments that may be received out
of order, and to eliminate duplicates.
TCP Reliability Example
Sender - the segment sequence number (SEQ#) is the number of the first byte in the segment.
Receiver – the acknowledgment number (ACK#) is the number of the next byte it expects to
receive.
Sender Receiver
SEQ# SEQ# SEQ#
0 10 20
ACK#
30
TCP Retransmit Example
Damaged or lost segments are re-transmitted.
Sender Receiver
SEQ# SEQ# SEQ#
0 10 20
ACK#
10
17
Flow Control
The sender sends data in a faster rate than the receiver is capable to process
Excess data is dropped
TCP will retransmit dropped data
Flow control mechanisms allow to adjust transmission rate
Prevent a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver
The receiver controls the transmission rate by sending feedback
to the sender
SLOW DOWN
SLOW DOWN
Sender Receiver
17
TCP Flow Control
TCP implements a flow control mechanism.
Window size – The receiver reports to the sender what is the number of bytes it is prepared to receive before an
ACK is sent.
Sender Receiver
ACK# WIN
30 30
SEQ# SEQ# SEQ#
30 40 50
ACK# WIN
60 20
TCP Summary
TCP mechanisms:
Connection oriented 3-way handshake
Retransmit lost or corrupted data
Ordered delivery
Flow control
TCP overhead:
More resources
More bandwidth
Slower transfer
UDP – User Datagram Protocol
UDP provides a procedure for applications to communicate with each other with a minimum
protocol overhead.
UDP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol.
Connectionless - no session establishment
Unreliable - no ACKs and no re-transmissions
No flow control
No ordered delivery
UDP performance :
Less resources
Less bandwidth
Faster transfer
Port Numbers
Transport layer protocols, such as TCP and UDP, use source and destination port numbers to
identify the specific process within the local and remote nodes.
The destination port is a well-known number, identifying the service requested on the remote server
The Source port is a dynamically allocated number identifying the process that sends the data
Client Source port: 2000 Server
Destination port: 80
HTTP
FTP
Source port: 80
Destination port: 2000
Port Numbers Example
The client generates an HTTP request for a webpage
Destination port: 80
Source port: 2000
The server responses to the request:
Destination port: 2000
Client requests an HTTP service
Source port: 80
Client Source port: 2000 Server
Destination port: 80
HTTP
FTP
Server responses to client’s request
Source port: 80
Destination port: 2000
Well Known Port Numbers
Port numbers are 16-bit, ranging 1-65,535 (0 is reserved)
Port numbers in the range of 0-1023 are the well-known ports that are used by common TCP/IP
applications.
Client Destination Port Services Server
80 HTTP HTTP
21 FTP FTP
22 SSH DNS
53 DNS
110 POP3
Internet Layer Protocols
IP – Internet Protocol
IP operates in the network layer
IP provides services to layer 4 protocols
IP asks for layer 2 protocols to carry the IP packets
IP is a best-effort protocol, as such, it DOES NOT include mechanisms for:
Reliability
Flow-control
Sequencing
Application
Transport
IPv4 IPv6 Internet
Network Access
IP Services
IP provides the functions necessary to deliver a packet from a source to a destination over an
interconnected system of networks.
In order to fulfill these functions, IP provides the following:
Layer 3 addressing
Layer 3 packet format
Routing functionalities
IP Network
IP
IP
TCP/UDP
IPv4 Addressing
An IP address is assigned to a network interface of a node.
An IPv4 address is a sequence of 32 bits (4 octets).
11000000101010000000000100000101
For a more readable representation, the four octets are separated with dots.
11000000 . 10101000 . 00000001 . 00000101
In a dotted-decimal notation, every octet is represented by its decimal equivalent.
192 . 168 . 1 . 5
IP Subnets
An IP address contain two parts:
Network address - identifies the network portion of the address
Host address - identifies a specific host within a network Subnet C
All hosts in the same subnet share a common subnet address 172.16.103.0
Every router interface defines an IP subnet
192.168.1.22
Subnet A Subnet B
Network Host
192.168.1.0 192.168.5.0
Address Address
192.168.5.203
192.168.1.58 192.168.5.47
IP Routers
Routing is the process of choosing the best path to reach a destination.
A router is a computer that has been dedicated to the task of forwarding IP packets between
networks.
A router makes forwarding decisions based on its routing table.
IP Network
10.2.2.2
Router # show ip route
-----------------------------
Destination next-hop interface
10.2.2.0/24 192.168.4.47 eth1/1
192.168.7.0/24 10.5.5.55 eth1/2
172.16.53.0/24 10.5.5.55 eth1/2
Summary
The application layer protocol formats the message and requests transport services from the
transport layer
The transport layer (TCP/UDP) adds a layer 4 header and requests network services from network
layer
The network layer (IP) add a layer 3 header
The IP packet is ready to be carried
over the physical medium
IP is a medium independent protocol, HTTP FTP
meaning it can be carried over different Message
Telnet SSH Application
media types
Ethernet is most commonly used
physical medium Segment/ TCP/UDP
Datagram Transport
Packet IP Internet
Ethernet Network Access
Unit Summary
Application Layer Protocols
• HTTP/FTP
Transport layer protocols
• TCP/UDP
Network Layer Protocols
• IP
• IP Addressing
• IP Routing
Quiz Questions
Examine Your Knowledge 1
A company has a teleconferencing system that uses VOIP technology. This system uses UDP as the
transport. If UDP datagrams arrive at their destination out of sequence, what will happen?
A. UDP will send ICMP information request to the sending host.
B. UDP will pass the information in the datagrams up to the next layer in the order they arrived.
C. UDP will drop the datagrams.
D. UDP will not acknowledge the datagrams but will wait for retransmission of the datagrams.
Examine Your Knowledge 2
Window size of 3 and segment size of one-byte have been negotiated for this transfer. If only the
two first segments were received by Receiver, which message will be returned from the Receiver to
the Sender as part of this TCP/IP transport?
A. ACK 1-3
B. ACK 3
C. ACK 4
D. ACK 2
E. ACK 2-3
Examine Your Knowledge 3
What is one purpose of the TCP three-way handshake?
A. Sending echo requests from the source to the destination host to establish the presence of the
destination.
B. Determining the IP address of the destination host in preparation for data transfer.
C. Requesting the destination to transfer a binary file to the source.
D. Synchronizing between source and destination in preparation for data transfer.
Examine Your Knowledge 4
What is the purpose of a router in the network?
A. To serve as the end point in the network, sending and receiving data.
B. To provide the means by which the signals are transmitted from one networked device to
another.
C. To provide the connection points for the media.
D. To interconnects networks and choose the best path between them.
Examine Your Knowledge 5
What is the difference between HTTP and HTTP?
A. HTTP uses TCP as the transport layer protocol while HTTP uses UDP
B. HTTPs uses encryption
C. HTTP is an application layer protocol while HTTPs provides the transport service
D. HTTP runs on the client while HTTPs runs on the server
Summary Exam
Examine Your Knowledge 1
Which three statements characterize the transport layer protocols? Select three answers:
A. TCP uses windowing and sequencing to provide reliable transfer of data.
B. TCP and UDP port numbers are used to identify application layer protocols.
C. TCP uses port numbers to provide reliable transportation of IP packets.
D. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, UDP is a connectionless protocol.
E. UDP uses windowing and acknowledgements for reliable transfer of data.
Examine Your Knowledge 4
What are two ways that TCP uses the sequence numbers in a segment? (Select two)
A. To identify missing segments at the destination.
B. To reassemble the segments at the remote location.
C. To specify the order in which the segments travel from source to destination.
D. To limit the number of segments that can be sent out of an interface at one time.
E. To determine if the packet changed during transit.
