Lectures

on
MATH 123
Vectors and Geometry

Module 1
(Vector Algebra)
Dr. Thomas Katsekpor

January 18, 2021

Department of Mathematics, University of Ghana, Legon
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 1 / 19
Collinear Points

Definition
Points that lie on a straight line are said to be collinear.

Figure: Points A, B and C on a straight line.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 2 / 19
Collinear Points (Cont.)

Theorem
The points A(a), B(b ) and C (c ) are collinear if and only if there exist
scalars λ, µ, ν,e at least
e two of ethem not zero, such that

λa + µb + νc = 0 and λ + µ + ν = 0.
e e e e
Proof Suppose A(a), B(b ) and C (c ) are collinear. Then there exists
e thate
scalars α and β such e

−→
|AB| α βa + αc
−→ = β ⇒ b = βe + αe .
|BC | e

Therefore

(β + α)b = βa + αc ⇒ −βa + (β + α)b − αc = 0

e e e e e e e
and if λ = −β, µ = β + α and ν = −α then
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 3 / 19
Collinear Points (Cont.)

λa + µb + νc = 0 and λ + µ + ν = −β + (β + α) − α = 0.
e e e e
Conversely, suppose there exist scalars λ, µ, ν, not all zero, such that

λa + µb + νc = 0 and λ + µ + ν = 0.
e e e e
Then eliminating µ from these two equations, we have

λa + νc = −µb = (λ + ν)b .
e e e e
Now, since not all the scalars are zero, assume µ 6= 0, i.e., λ + ν 6= 0. Then
λa + νc
b= e e.
e λ+ν
Thus A, B and C are collinear with B dividing AC internally in the ratio
ν : λ.
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 4 / 19
Example 4
Example
In △ABC , P divides BC in a ratio −2 : 1, Q divides CA in the ratio 3 : 4
and R divides AB in the ratio 2 : 3. Show that P, Q and R are collinear.
Solution 1
A

B C P

Figure: △ABC

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 5 / 19
Example 4 (Cont.)
Let a, b , c , p , q and r be the position vectors of A, B, C , P, Q and R
e e e e
respectively. eThene
p = 2c − b ,
e e e
7q = 4c + 3a,
e e e
5r = 3a + 2b .
e e e
Eliminating c from the first two equations, we have
e
7q − 2p = 3a + 2b
e e e e
and using the last equation, we have

7q − 2p = 3a + 2b = 5r ⇒ 7q − 2p − 5r = 0
e e e e e e e e e
and
7−2−5=0
and so P, Q and R are collinear.
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 6 / 19
Example 4 (Cont.)
Solution 2 Let a, b , c , p , q and r be the position vectors of A, B, C , P,
e e e e e e
Q and R respectively. Then
p = 2c − b ,
e e e
7q = 4c + 3a,
e e e
5r = 3a + 2b .
e e e
Therefore
−→ 3a + 2b 3a + 7b − 10c
PR = r − p = e e − 2c + b = e e e (1)
e e 5 e e 5
and
−→ 4c + 3a 3a + 7b − 10c
PQ = q − p = e e − 2c + b = e e e. (2)
e e 7 e e 7
Thus, from (1) and (2), we have
−→ 5 −→
PQ = PR.
7
Hence P, Q, R are collinear.
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 7 / 19
Linear Dependence/Independence of Two Vectors
Parallel/Non-parallel Vectors

Consider two non-zero vectors a and b which are such that

e e
λa + µb = 0, (3)
e e e
where λ and µ are scalars. If both λ and µ are non-zero then b in (3) is
e
 
λ
b=− a
e µ e

meaning that b is parallel to a.

e e
Therefore, if there exist scalars λ and µ, not both zero, such that

λa + µb = 0
e e e
then b and a are parallel and are said to be linearly dependent.
e e
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 8 / 19
Linear Dependence/Independence of Vectors
Parallel/Non-parallel Vectors (Cont.)

On the other hand, suppose a and b are two non-zero vectors such that
e e
λa + µb = 0 (4)
e e e
implies the scalars λ and µ are zero, and that a and b are parallel. Then
from (4), e e
 
λ
b=− a
e µ e
which does not imply both λ and µ are zero otherwise either a = 0 or
b = 0, a contradiction. Therefore if e e
e e
λa + µb = 0
e e e
implies λ = µ = 0 then a and b are non-parallel. In this case, we say a and
e
b are linearly independent. e e
e
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 9 / 19
Linear Dependence/Independence of Three Vectors
Coplanar/Non-coplanar Vectors

Similarly, three non-zero vectors a, b and c are said to be linearly

e e e
dependent or coplanar if there exist scalars λ, µ and ν, not all zero, such
that
λa + µb + νc = 0.
e e e e
On the other hand, they are said to linearly independent if

λa + µb + νc = 0 ⇒ λ = µ = ν = 0.
e e e e
Note: Three vectors a, b and c are said to be coplanar if they are parallel
e e e
to or lie in the same plane. Vectors that are not coplanar are said to be
non-coplanar.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 10 / 19
Point, Collinear, Coplanar and Space

A
A

A Q C
B

B
B

Figure: Point, Collinear, Coplanar (0, 1 and 2 dimensional geometric objects)

−→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→ −→
AB = AA = BB = 0, QB = λAB, QC = λQB + µQA.
e

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 11 / 19
Point, Collinear, Coplanar and Space (Cont.)
R
D −→ −→ −→
QE = QC + CE
E −→ −→ −→
= λQB + µQA + γ QD

Therefore
A
e = λb + µa + γd
e e e e
= µa + λb + γd .
e e e

Figure: Space (3 dimensional object)

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 12 / 19
The Condition for Four Points to Lie on a Plane

Theorem
Four points A(a), B(b ), C (c ) and D(d ) are coplanar if and only if there
exist scalars α,eβ, γ, eδ, not eall zero, such
e that

αa + βb + γc + δd = 0 and α + β + γ + δ = 0.
e e e e e
Proof If A, B, C and D lie on a plane then the three displacement vectors
−→ −→ −→
AB, AC and AD are coplanar. Therefore there exist scalars λ and µ such
that
−→ −→ −→
AC = λAB + µAD ⇒ c − a = λ(b − a) + µ(d − a).
e e e e e e
Therefore
(λ + µ − 1)a − λb + c − µd = 0
e e e e e
and if α = λ + µ − 1, β = −λ, γ = 1 and δ = −µ then

αa + βb + γc + δd = 0 and α + β + γ + δ = (λ + µ − 1) − λ + 1 − µ = 0.
e e e e e
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 13 / 19
The Condition for Four Points to Lie on a Plane
(Cont.)

Conversely, suppose there exist scalars α, β, γ, δ, not all zero, such that

αa + βb + γc + δd = 0 and α + β + γ + δ = 0.
e e e e e
Then eliminating α from the two equations, we have

−(β + γ + δ)a + βb + γc + δd = 0 ⇒ γ(c − a) + β(b − a) + δ(d − a) = 0.

e e e e e e e e e e e e
Now, suppose, without loss of generality, that γ 6= 0. Then
β δ −→ −→ −→
(c − a) = − (b − a) − (d − a) ⇒ AC = λAB + µAD
e e γ e e γ e e
−→ −→
if λ = −β/γ and µ = −δ/γ. Hence AC lies in the plane defined by AB
−→
and AD and so the four points A, B, C and D are coplanar.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 14 / 19
Example 5
Example
In a △ABC , the median AE intersects the line joining B to a point D in
−→ −→ −→ −→
AC at F such that |BF | : |FD| = 3 : 1. Find the ratios |AD| : |DC | and
−→ −→
|AF | : |FE |.

Solution 1 (Use of Position Vectors)

A

B E C
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 15 / 19
Example 5 (Cont.)

Let a, b , c , d , e and f be the position vectors of the points A, B, C , D, E

e e e e e e
and F respectively. Then
b+c b + 3d
e = e e, f = e e.
e 2 e 4
Eliminating b from these two equations, we have
e
4f − 2e 3d − c
4f − 2e = 3d − c ⇒ e e = e e = a,
e e e e 4−2 3−1 e
since the point A is common to the lines EF and CD.
Thus A divides EF externally in the ratio 4 : 2 and CD externally in the
−→ −→ −→ −→
ratio 3 : 1. Hence |AD| : |DC | = 1 : 2 and |AF | : |FE | = 1 : 1.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 16 / 19
Example 5 (Cont.)
Solution 2 (Use of the Points (Vertices), i.e., the directed line segments
or the displacement vectors)
−→
Since AE is a median,
−→ 1 −→ −→
AE = (AB + AC ). (5)
2
Also, since F divides BD internally in the ratio 3 : 1,
−→ 1 −→ −→
AF = (3AD + AB). (6)
4
−→ −→ −→ −→
But since AD k AC and AF k AE , there exist scalars λ and µ such that
−→ −→ −→ −→
AD = λAC and AF = µAE . Therefore (6) becomes
−→ 1 −→ −→
µAE = (3λAC + AB). (7)
4
−→
Thus, eliminating AE from (5) and (7), we have
µ −→ −→ 1 −→ −→
(AB + AC ) = (3λAC + AB).
2 4
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 17 / 19
Example 5 (Cont.)

Solution 2 (Cont.)
Therefore
−→ −→
(2µ − 1)AB + (2µ − 3λ)AC = 0.
e
−→ −→
Now, since AB and AC are not parallel, they are linearly independent and
so 2µ − 1 = 0 ⇒ µ = 1/2 and 2µ − 3λ = 0 ⇒ λ = 2µ/3 = 1/3.
Hence
−→ 1 −→ −→ 1 −→
AD = AC and AF = AE
3 2
and so
−→ −→ −→ −→
|AD| : |DC | = 1 : 2; |AF | : |FE | = 1 : 1.

T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 18 / 19
Example 6
Example
If the points A(a), B(b ) and C (c ) are linearly independent and if
d = 4a + b − 2ce is thee position evector of the point D, determine whether
e B, eC and
A, e D eare coplanar.

Solution
Suppose there exist scalars α, β, γ and δ, not all zero, such that
αa + βb + γc + δd = 0.
e e e e e
But d = 4a + b − 2c and so
e e e e
(α + 4δ)a + (β + δ)b + (γ − 2δ)c = 0
e e e e
and since a, b and c linearly independent, α + 4δ = 0, β + δ = 0 and
e e
γ − 2δ = 0. Addinge these last three equations, we have
α + β + γ + 3δ = 0 ⇒ α + β + γ + δ = −2δ 6= 0.
Therefore, A, B, C and D are not coplanar.
T. Katsekpor Lectures on MATH 123 Vectors and Geometry January 18, 2021 19 / 19