Chapter one

Computer
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory
that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, produce information (output),
and store the information for future use1.
Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

Computer Peripherals
Any kind of computers consists of HARDWARE, SOFTWARE and STORAGE DEVICES. Computer
peripherals are any of various devices (including sensors) used to enter information and instructions into
a computer for storage or processing and to deliver the processed data to a human operator or, in some
cases, a machine controlled by the computer. Such devices make up the peripheral equipment of
modern digital computer systems.
Peripherals are commonly divided into three kinds: input devices, output devices, and storage devices
(which partake of the characteristics of the first two). An input device converts incoming data and
instructions into a pattern of electrical signals in binary code that are comprehensible to a digital
computer. An output device reverses the process, translating the digitized signals into a form intelligible to
the user. At one time punched-card and paper-tape readers were extensively used for inputting, but these
have now been supplanted by more efficient devices.
Hardware devices:
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system. Computer
hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as the monitor, mouse,
keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound cards,
memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that can be touched.
Input Devices
Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to provide data and control
signals to an information processing system such as a computer or other information appliance.
Input device Translate data from form that humans understand to one that the computer can work with.
Most common are keyboard and mouse
Example of Input Devices:-
1. Keyboard 2. Mouse (pointing device) 3. Microphone
4. Touch screen 5. Scanner 6. Webcam
7. Touchpads 8. MIDI keyboard 9.
10.Graphics Tablets 11.Cameras 12.Pen Input
13.Video Capture Hardware 14.Microphone 15.Trackballs
16.Barcode reader 17.Digital camera 18.Joystick
19.Gamepad 20.Electronic Whiteboard 21.
Note: The most common use keyboard is the QWERTY keyboard. Generally standard Keyboard
has 104 keys.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A CPU is brain of a computer. It is responsible for all functions and processes. Regarding
computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system.
The CPU is comprised of three main parts :
* Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical operations. Arithmetic
calculations like as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operation like
compare numbers, letters, or special characters
* Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates computer components.
1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.
2. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
3. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the
hardware to perform the requested operation.
* Registers : Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage area".
Primary Memory:-
1. RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is a memory scheme within the computer system
responsible for storing data on a temporary basis, so that it can be promptly accessed by the
processor as and when needed. It is volatile in nature, which means that data will be erased once
supply to the storage device is turned off. RAM stores data randomly and the processor accesses
these data randomly from the RAM storage. RAM is considered "random access" because you
can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that cell.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a permanent form of storage. ROM stays active
regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on or off. ROM devices do not allow data
stored on them to be modified.
Secondary Memory:-
Stores data and programs permanently: its retained after the power is turned off
1. Hard drive (HD): A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk drive," "hard drive," or "hard
disk drive," that store and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an
electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces.
2. Optical Disk: an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser light as part of the
process of reading or writing data to or from optical discs. Some drives can only read from discs,
but recent drives are commonly both readers and recorders, also called burners or writers.
Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are common types of optical media which can be read
and recorded by such drives. Optical drive is the generic name; drives are usually described as
"CD" "DVD", or "Bluray", followed by "drive", "writer", etc. There are three main types of
optical media: CD, DVD, and Blu-ray disc. CDs can store up to 700 megabytes (MB) of data
and DVDs can store up to 8.4 GB of data. Blu-ray discs, which are the newest type of optical
media, can store up to 50 GB of data. This storage capacity is a clear advantage over the floppy
disk storage media (a magnetic media), which only has a capacity of 1.44 MB.
3. Flash Disk
A storage module made of flash memory chips. A Flash disks have no mechanical platters or access
arms, but the term "disk" is used because the data are accessed as if they were on a hard drive. The
disk storage structure is emulated.

Output devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of
data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) which
converts the electronically generated information into human- readable form.
 Example on Output Devices:
1. Monitor 2. LCD Projection Panels
3. Printers (all types) 4. Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
5. Plotters 6. Speaker(s)
7. Projector
Note Basic types of monitors are a.Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). B. Liquid Crystal Displays
(LCD). c.light-emitting diode (LED).
Printer types: 1-Laser Printer. 2-Ink Jet Printer. 3-Dot Matrix Printer
Software
Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and instructions, often broken
into two major categories: system software that provides the basic non- task-specific functions of
the computer, and application software which is used by users to accomplish specific tasks.
Software Types
A. System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system so that other software and the users of the system
see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-level details such as
transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display. Generally, system
software consists of an operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk
formatters, file managers, display managers, text editors, user authentication (login) and
management tools, and networking and device control software.
B. Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just running the computer
system. Application software may consist of a single program, such as an image viewer; a
small collection of programs (often called a software package) that work closely together to
accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet or text processing system; a larger collection (often
called a software suite) of related but independent programs and packages that have a common
user interface or shared data format, such as Microsoft Office, which consists of closely
integrated word processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.; or a software system, such as a database
management system, which is a collection of fundamental programs that may provide some
service to a variety of other independent applications.
Comparison Application Software and System Software

System Software Application Software

Computer software, or just software is Application software, also known as an
a general term primarily used for application or an "app", is computer
digitally stored data such as computer software designed to help the user to
programs and other kinds of perform specific tasks.
 information read and written by
computers. App comes under
computer software though it has a
wide scope now.
Example: 1) Microsoft Windows 1) Opera (Web Browser)
2) Linux 2) Microsoft Word (Word Processing)
3) Unix 3) Microsoft Excel (Spreadsheet software)
4) Mac OSX 4) MySQL (Database Software)
5) DOS 5) Microsoft PowerPoint (Presentation
Software)
6) Adobe Photoshop (Graphics Software)
Interaction: Generally, users do not interact with Users always interact with application
system software as it works in the software while doing different activities.
background.

Unit of Measurements
Storage measurements: The basic unit used in computer data storage is called a bit (binary digit).
Computers use these little bits, which are composed of ones and zeros, to do things
and talk to other computers. All your files, for instance, are kept in the computer as
binary files and translated into words and pictures by the software (which is also ones
and zeros). This two number system is called a “binary number system” since it has
only two numbers in it. The decimal number system in contrast has ten unique digits,
zero through nine.
Computer Storage units

Bit BIT 0 or 1
Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 kilobytes
Gigabyte GB 1024 megabytes
Terabyte TB 1024 gigabytes
Size example
• 1 bit - answer to an yes/no question
• 1 byte - a number from 0 to 255.
• 90 bytes: enough to store a typical line of text from a book.
• 4 KB: about one page of text.
• 120 KB: the text of a typical pocket book.
• 3 MB - a three minute song (128k bitrate)
• 650-900 MB - an CD-ROM
• 1 GB -114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s
• 8-16 GB - size of a normal flash drive
Speed measurement: The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is measured by Hertz (Hz),
which represent a CPU cycle. The speed of CPU is known as Computer Speed.

CPU SPEED MEASURES

1 hertz or Hz 1 cycle per second
 1 MHz 1 million cycles per second or 1000 Hz
1 GHz 1 billion cycles per second or 1000 MHz

Computers classification
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is Considerable
overlap:
• Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition to the
microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for
displaying information, and a storage device for saving data.
• Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it
has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor.
• Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users
simultaneously.
• Mainframe computer: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
• Super computer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.
Laptop and Smartphone Computers
LAPTOP: A laptop is a battery or AC-powered personal computer that can be easily carried and
used in a variety of locations. Many laptops are designed to have all of the
functionality of a desktop computer, whichmeans they can generally run the same
software and open the same types of files. However, some laptops, such as netbooks,
sacrifice some functionality in order to be even more portable.
Netbook: A netbook is a type of laptop that is designed to be even more portable. Netbooks are
often cheaper than laptops or desktops. They are generally less powerful than other
types of computers, but they provide enough power for email and internet access, which
is where the name "netbook" comes from.
Mobile Device: A mobile device is basically any handheld computer. It is designed to be extremely
portable, often fitting in the palm of your hand or in your pocket. Some mobile devices
are more powerful, and they allow you to do many of the same things you can do with a
desktop or laptop computer. These include tablet computers, e-readers, and smartphones.
Tablet Computers: Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be portable. However, they
provide a very different computing experience. The most obvious difference is that tablet
computers don't have keyboards or touchpads. Instead, the entire screen is touch-
sensitive, allowing you to type on a virtual keyboard and use your finger as a mouse
pointer. Tablet computers are mostly designed for consuming media, and they are
optimized for tasks like web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, and playing
games. For many people, a "regular" computer like a desktop or laptop is still needed in
order to use some programs. However, the convenience of a tablet computer means that it
may be ideal as a second computer.
Smartphones: A smartphone is a powerful mobile phone that is designed to run a variety of
applications in addition to phone service. They are basically small tablet computers, and
they can be used for web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, playing games and
more.
Data, Information and Knowledge
Data: Facts and figures which relay something specific, but which are not organized in any way and
 which provide no further information regarding patterns, context, etc. So data means "unstructured
facts and figures that have the least impact on the typical manager."
Information: For data to become information, it must be contextualized, categorized, calculated
and condensed. Information thus paints a bigger picture; it is data with relevance and purpose. It
may convey a trend in the environment, or perhaps indicate a pattern of sales for a given period of
time. Essentially information is found "in answers to questions that begin with such words as who,
what, where, when, and how many".
Knowledge: Knowledge is closely linked to doing and implies know-how and understanding. The
knowledge possessed by each individual is a product of his experience, and encompasses the norms
by which he evaluates new inputs from his surroundings.
The content of the human mind can be classified into four categories:
1. Data: symbols
2. Information: data that are processed to be useful; provides answers to "who", "what", "where",
and "when" questions
3. Knowledge: application of data and information; answers "how" questions
4. Wisdom: evaluated understanding.
We need to understand that processing data produced Information and process Information
produces Knowledge and so on
Characteristics of Computer
Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key characteristics of a
computer. Brief overviews of these characteristics are
• Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per second.
Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise, can be
completed in a few seconds using the computer. For example, calculation and generation of
salary slips of thousands of employees of an organization, weather forecasting that requires
analysis of a large amount of data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various
places, etc.
• Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer can
accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.
• Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or fatigued. It
can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the
start till the end.
• Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and also
retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the
primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and compact disk can store a
large amount of data permanently.
• Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the same
ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the next
moment you may play music or print a document. Computers have several limitations too.
Computer can only perform tasks that it has been programmed to do.
Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It executes instructions as
specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.
Computer Viruses
Viruses: A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs. For example, a virus
might attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet program. Each time the spreadsheet
 program runs, the virus runs, too, and it has the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other
programs) or wreak havoc.
•E-mail viruses: An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-mail messages, and usually replicates
itself by automatically mailing itself to dozens of people in the victim's e-mail address
book. Some e-mail viruses don't even require a double-click -- they launch when you
view the infected message in the preview pane of your e-mail software [source:
Johnson].
•Trojan horses: A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The program claims to do one thing
(it may claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you run it (it may erase your
hard disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate automatically.
•Worms: A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer networks and security holes to
replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another machine that has a
specific security hole. It copies itself to the new machine using the security hole, and
then starts replicating from there, as well.
What are some tips to avoid viruses and lessen their impact?*
 Install anti-virus software from a reputable vendor. Update it and use it regularly.
 In addition to scanning for viruses on a regular basis, install an "on access" scanner
(included in most anti-virus software packages) and configure it to start each time you start
up your computer. This will protect your system by checking for viruses each time you run
an executable file.
 Use a virus scan before you open any new programs or files that may contain executable
code. This includes packaged software that you buy from the store as well as any program
you might download from the Internet.
 If you are a member of an online community or chat room, be very careful about
accepting files or clicking links that you find or that people send you within the
community.
 Make sure you back up your data (documents, bookmark files, important email messages,
etc.) on disc so that in the event of a virus infection, you do not lose valuable work.
COMPUTER TROUBLESHOOTING
Troubleshooting is a systematic approach to problem-solving that is often used to find and correct issues
with complex machines, electronics, computers and software systems. The first step in most
troubleshooting methods is gathering information on the issue, such as an undesired behavior or a lack of
expected functionality.Once the issue and how to reproduce it are understood, the next step is to eliminate
unnecessary components to determine if the issue persists. This can help identify component
incompatibility issues and problems caused by third-party products. Troubleshooting methodologies
usually try to isolate a problem so that it can be examined. The initial goal is to diagnose the problem and
try obvious solutions, such as performing a system reboot, powering down and up, and checking that the
power cord is connected.

Troubleshooters initially look for common, known causes. For example, when a laptop won't boot up, an
obvious first step is to check whether the power cable is working. Once common issues are ruled out,
troubleshooters must run through a checklist of components to identify where the failure is happening.
The primary objectives of troubleshooting are to figure out why something doesn't work as intended and
provide a solution to resolve the issue.
How does troubleshooting work?
Computer problems that troubleshooters address can show up in any number of places. Examples of places
troubleshooters find themselves working include the following:
 operating systems
 applications
 central processing units or CPUs
 firewalls
 hard drives
 solid-state drives
 servers
SEVEN STEPS OF TROUBLESHOOTING
Step 1. Gather information
The first troubleshooting step for just about any problem is gathering information about it. This can be
information about why something unexpected is happening or a missing capability.
Other important information includes related symptoms and unique circumstances that must happen to
reproduce the issue. The goal is to identify the problem and understand how to reproduce it.
Step 2. Describe the problem
By comprehensively describing the issue, troubleshooters will know where to look for the root cause. It
can help to ask the following questions:
 What are the symptoms?
 When does the problem occur?
 Where does the problem occur?
 What are the conditions when the problem occurs?
 Is the problem reproducible?
Answers to these questions will expose which components aren't part of the problem. They will also help
identify possible compatibility issues among components and third-party products that might cause issues.
If the issue remains, a specialist might check other common causes, consult product documentation, and
conduct research on a support database or through a search engine.
Step 3. Determine the most probable cause
Sometimes a problem can have many possible causes. A trial-and-error method is used to eliminate
various options. The best approach is to look for the most straightforward cause first, even when working
with a complex system.
One common testing method is the split-half troubleshooting approach. This technique isolates the source
of a problem through a process of elimination. This method works best when the system involved has a
number of parts in series. Troubleshooters first test halfway down the line of components. If the middle
component works, they know everything before it works. At this point, they move on to the middle of the
remaining untested section toward the end of the series. If the test of this second section works, they go on
to the midpoint of the remaining section.
If the problem occurs at any point in this testing, then the troubleshooters do a split back toward the start
of the series until the problem part is found. The split-half process can save time in systems that depend on
many components.
Step 4. Create a plan of action and test a solution
Once the problem is understood, troubleshooters develop a plan to tackle the issue. They test their
hypothesis and keep testing it until they identify a solution. When all tests fail, go back to Step 3 and start
over.
Step 5. Implement the solution
Once troubleshooters have identified and understood the problem, they must adjust, repair or replace
whatever is causing the issue. When that is done, they should test the solution to be sure the problem is
fixed.
The goal is to return the system to the way it was before the problem occurred. Successful troubleshooting
is indicated when the problem is no longer reproducible and functionality is restored. The success of the
troubleshooting process often depends on the technicians' thoroughness and experience.
Step 6. Analyze the results
Sometimes the solution to a problem creates another issue. Troubleshooters must monitor the system to
ensure the changes made don't adversely affect other parts of it or other systems connected to it.
Step 7. Document the process
The final step is to document all steps taken. This ensures other troubleshooters will know what to do if
the problem happens again. It's critical to document both the solution and the fixes that didn't work to
provide a comprehensive record of the incident. Documentation will also help in creating troubleshooting
checklists to quickly identify and fix potential problems.