Data Mining

Data Preprocessing

Prepared By
Dr. G.N.V.G. Sirisha
Assistant Professor

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

SRKR Engineering College, Bhimavaram, AP-534204
Objectives

❑ To understand the significance of data preprocessing

❑ To apply data cleaning, data integration, data transformation and data

reduction techniques on given datasets

❑ To demonstrate data discretization for continuous (numerical) data

❑ To explore concept hierarchy generation for categorical data

Outline

❑ Data Preprocessing: An Overview

❑ Data Quality
❑ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
❑ Data Cleaning
❑ Data Integration
❑ Data Reduction
❑ Data Transformation and Data Discretization
❑ Summary
Data Quality: Why Preprocess the Data?
Measures for data quality: A multidimensional view

❑ Accuracy: correct or wrong, accurate or not

❑ Completeness: not recorded, unavailable, …

❑ Consistency: some modified but some not, dangling, …

❑ Timeliness: timely update?

❑ Believability: how trustable the data are correct?

❑ Interpretability: how easily the data can be understood?

Major Tasks in Machine Learning
❑ Data cleaning
❑ Fill in missing values,
❑ smooth noisy data,
❑ identify or remove outliers
❑ resolve inconsistencies
❑ Data integration
❑ Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
❑ Data reduction
❑ Dimensionality reduction
❑ Numerosity reduction
❑ Data compression
❑ Data transformation and data discretization
❑ Normalization
❑ Concept hierarchy generation
Data Preprocessing
◼ Data Preprocessing: An Overview
◼ Data Quality

◼ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

◼ Data Cleaning
◼ Data Integration
◼ Data Reduction
◼ Data Transformation and Data Discretization
◼ Summary
Data Cleaning
◼ Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect data, e.g.,
instrument faulty, human or computer error, transmission error
◼ incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of

interest, or containing only aggregate data

◼ e.g., Occupation=“ ” (missing data)

◼ noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers

◼ e.g., Salary=“−10” (an error)

Data Cleaning contd.
◼ inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names, e.g.,
◼ Age=“42”, Birthday=“03/07/2010”

◼ Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”

◼ discrepancy between duplicate records

◼ Intentional (e.g., disguised missing data)

◼ Jan. 1 as everyone’s birthday

Incomplete (Missing) Data
◼ Data is not always available
◼ E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several attributes, such as
customer income in sales data
◼ Missing data may be due to
◼ equipment malfunction
◼ inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
◼ data not entered due to misunderstanding
◼ certain data may not be considered important at the time of entry
◼ not register history or changes of the data
◼ Missing data may need to be inferred
 How to Handle Missing Data?
◼ Ignore the tuple : usually done when class label is missing (when doing
classification)—not effective when the % of missing values per attribute varies
considerably
◼ Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
◼ Fill in it automatically with
◼ a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!
◼ the attribute mean
◼ the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class: smarter
◼ the most probable value: inference-based such as Bayesian formula or
decision tree
Example for Missing Data: Ignore the tuple
Customer Id Salary Occupation
(Classifying Attribute)
1 10000 Engineer
3 12000 Doctor
4 12000
5 13000 Lawyer
5 14000 Engineer
 Noisy Data
◼ Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
◼ Incorrect attribute values may be due to
◼ faulty data collection instruments

◼ data entry problems

◼ data transmission problems

◼ technology limitation

◼ inconsistency in naming convention

◼ Other data problems which require data cleaning

◼ duplicate records

◼ incomplete data

◼ inconsistent data
 How to Handle Noisy Data?
◼ Binning
◼ first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins

◼ then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median, smooth by bin

boundaries, etc.
◼ Regression
◼ smooth by fitting the data into regression functions

◼ Clustering
◼ detect and remove outliers

◼ Combined computer and human inspection

◼ detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g., deal with possible

outliers)
Binning
Clustering
Regression
Data Cleaning as a Process
◼ Data discrepancy detection
◼ Use metadata (e.g., domain, range, dependency, distribution)

◼ Check field overloading

◼ Check uniqueness rule, consecutive rule and null rule

◼ Use commercial tools

◼ Data scrubbing: use simple domain knowledge (e.g., postal code, spell-check) to detect

errors and make corrections

◼ Data auditing: by analyzing data to discover rules and relationship to detect violators

(e.g., correlation and clustering to find outliers)

◼ Data migration and integration
◼ Data migration tools: allow transformations to be specified

◼ ETL (Extraction/Transformation/Loading) tools: allow users to specify transformations

through a graphical user interface
◼ Integration of the two processes
◼ Iterative and interactive (e.g., Potter’s Wheels)
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing
◼ Data Preprocessing: An Overview

◼ Data Quality

◼ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

◼ Data Cleaning

◼ Data Integration

◼ Data Reduction

◼ Data Transformation and Data Discretization

◼ Summary
Data Integration
Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
◼ Schema integration: e.g., A.cust-id  B.cust-#
◼ Integrate metadata from different sources
◼ Entity identification problem
◼ Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., Bill Clinton = William
Clinton
◼ Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
◼ For the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources are
different
◼ Possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric vs. British
units
Handling Redundancy in Data Integration
◼ Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple databases
◼ Object identification: The same attribute or object may have different
names in different databases
◼ Derivable data: One attribute may be a “derived” attribute in another
table, e.g., annual revenue
◼ Redundant attributes may be able to be detected by correlation analysis and
covariance analysis
◼ Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may help reduce/avoid
redundancies and inconsistencies and improve mining speed and quality
Correlation Analysis (Nominal Data)
◼ Χ2 (chi-square) test
(Observed − Expected ) 2
 =
2

Expected

◼ The larger the Χ2 value, the more likely the variables are related
◼ The cells that contribute the most to the Χ2 value are those whose actual count is
very different from the expected count
◼ Correlation does not imply causality
◼ # of hospitals and # of car-theft in a city are correlated
◼ Both are causally linked to the third variable: population
Chi-Square Calculation: An Example
Play chess Not play Sum
chess (row)
Like science 250(90) 200(360) 450
◼ Χ2 (chi-square) calculation (numbers in fiction

parenthesis are expected counts Not like science 50(210) 1000(840 1050
fiction )
calculated based on the data distribution Sum(col.) 300 1200 1500

in the two categories

( 250 − 90) 2
(50 − 210) 2
( 200 − 360) 2
(1000 − 840) 2
2 = + + + = 507.93
90 210 360 840
◼ By comparing calculated chi-square value with tabulated chi-square value at 1
df and 0.001 significance level (tabulated value =10.828), the calculated
value lies outside the critical region
◼ It shows that like_science_fiction and play_chess are correlated in the group
Correlation Analysis (Numeric Data)
◼ Correlation coefficient (also called Pearson’s product moment coefficient)

i =1 (ai − A)(bi − B) 
n n
(ai bi ) − n AB
rA, B = = i =1
(n − 1) A B (n − 1) A B

▪ where n is the number of tuples, 𝐴ҧ , and 𝐵ത are the respective means of A

and B, σA and σB are the respective standard deviation of A and B, and
Σ(aibi) is the sum of the AB cross-product.
◼ If rA,B > 0, A and B are positively correlated (A’s values increase as B’s). The
higher, the stronger correlation.
◼ rA,B = 0: independent; rAB < 0: negatively correlated
Example for Negatively Correlated Attributes

A B
10 20
12 18
14 16
16 14
18 12
Correlation (viewed as linear relationship)
◼ Correlation measures the linear relationship between objects
◼ To compute correlation, we standardize data objects, A and B, and
then take their dot product

a'k = (ak − mean( A)) / std ( A)

b'k = (bk − mean( B)) / std ( B)

correlation( A, B) = A'•B'
Visually Evaluating Correlation

Scatter plots showing the

similarity from –1 to 1.
Covariance (Numeric Data)
◼ Covariance is similar to correlation

◼ Correlation Coefficient =

▪ where n is the number of tuples 𝐴ҧ , and 𝐵ത are the respective mean or expected values of
A and B, σA and σB are the respective standard deviation of A and B.
◼ Positive covariance: If CovA,B > 0, then A and B both tend to be larger than their expected
values.
◼ Negative covariance: If CovA,B < 0 then if A is larger than its expected value, B is likely to be
smaller than its expected value.
◼ Independence: CovA,B = 0 but the converse is not true:
◼ Some pairs of random variables may have a covariance of 0 but are not independent. Only under
some additional assumptions (e.g., the data follow multivariate normal distributions) does a
covariance of 0 imply independence
Covariance Example
◼ It can be simplified in computation as

◼ Suppose two stocks A and B have the following values in one week: (2, 5), (3, 8),
(5, 10), (4, 11), (6, 14).

◼ Question: If the stocks are affected by the same industry trends, will their prices rise
or fall together?

◼ E(A) = (2 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6)/ 5 = 20/5 = 4

◼ E(B) = (5 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 14) /5 = 48/5 = 9.6

◼ Cov(A,B) = (2×5+3×8+5×10+4×11+6×14)/5 − 4 × 9.6 = 4

◼ Thus, A and B rise together since Cov(A, B) > 0.

Data Preprocessing
◼ Data Preprocessing: An Overview
◼ Data Quality
◼ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
◼ Data Cleaning
◼ Data Integration
◼ Data Reduction
◼ Data Transformation and Data Discretization
◼ Summary
Data Reduction Strategies
◼ Data reduction: Obtain a reduced representation of the data set that is much
smaller in volume but yet produces the same (or almost the same) analytical
results
◼ Why data reduction? — A database/data warehouse may store terabytes of
data. Complex data analysis may take a very long time to run on the
complete data set.
Data Reduction Strategies contd.
◼ Data reduction strategies
◼ Dimensionality reduction, e.g., remove unimportant attributes

◼ Wavelet transforms

◼ Principal Components Analysis (PCA)

◼ Feature subset selection, feature creation

◼ Numerosity reduction (some simply call it: Data Reduction)

◼ Regression and Log-Linear Models

◼ Histograms, clustering, sampling

◼ Data cube aggregation

◼ Data compression
Data Reduction 1: Dimensionality Reduction
◼ Curse of dimensionality
◼ When dimensionality increases, data becomes increasingly sparse
◼ Density and distance between points, which is critical to clustering, outlier analysis,
becomes less meaningful
◼ The possible combinations of subspaces will grow exponentially
◼ Dimensionality reduction
◼ Avoid the curse of dimensionality
◼ Help eliminate irrelevant features and reduce noise
◼ Reduce time and space required in data mining
◼ Allow easier visualization
◼ Dimensionality reduction techniques
◼ Wavelet transforms
◼ Principal Component Analysis
◼ Supervised and nonlinear techniques (e.g., feature selection)
Wavelet Transformation
◼ Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for linear signal processing, multi-resolution
analysis
◼ Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of the strongest of the
wavelet coefficients
◼ Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy compression,
localized in space
◼ Method:
◼ Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0’s, when necessary)
◼ Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
◼ Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
◼ Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length
Haar2 Daubechie4
Wavelet Decomposition
◼ Wavelets: A math tool for space-efficient hierarchical decomposition of
functions
◼ S = [2, 2, 0, 2, 3, 5, 4, 4] can be transformed to S^ = [2 3/4, -1 1/4, 1/2, 0,
0, -1, -1, 0]
◼ Compression: many small detail coefficients can be replaced by 0’s, and only
the significant coefficients are retained
Why Wavelet Transform?
◼ Use hat-shape filters
◼ Emphasize region where points cluster

◼ Suppress weaker information in their boundaries

◼ Effective removal of outliers

◼ Insensitive to noise, insensitive to input order

◼ Multi-resolution
◼ Detect arbitrary shaped clusters at different scales

◼ Efficient
◼ Complexity O(N)

◼ Only applicable to low dimensional data

Principal Component Analysis
• An exploratory technique used to reduce the dimensionality of the data set to
2D or 3D
• Can be used to:
• Reduce number of dimensions in data
• Find patterns in high-dimensional data
• Visualize data of high dimensionality
• Example applications:
• Face recognition
• Image compression
• Gene expression analysis
Principal Component Analysis
Principal Component Analysis
Curse of Dimensionality
◼ Increasing the number of features will not
always improve classification accuracy.

◼ In practice, the inclusion of more features might

actually lead to worse performance. 31 bins

◼ The number of training examples required

increases exponentially with dimensionality d
(i.e., kd).
32 bins
k: number of bins per feature
33 bins
Dimensionality Reduction
◼ What is the objective?
◼ Choose an optimum set of features of lower
dimensionality to improve classification
accuracy.
Dimensionality Reduction (cont’d)
◼ Feature selection: chooses a
◼ Feature extraction: finds a set of new features subset of the original
features.
(i.e., through some mapping f()) from the
existing features.
The mapping f()
could be linear or 𝑥1
𝑥2 𝑥𝑖1
non-linear . 𝑥𝑖2
𝑥1 .
𝑥2 𝑦1 𝐱= →𝐲= .
. . .
𝑦2 ..
. 𝑓(𝐱) 𝑥𝑖𝐾
𝐱= 𝐲= .
. 𝑥𝑁
.
.. 𝑦𝐾
𝑥𝑁
Feature Extraction (cont’d)
❑ From a mathematical point of view, finding an optimum mapping y=𝑓(x) is
equivalent to optimizing an objective function.
❑ Different methods use different objective functions, e.g.,
❑ Information Loss: The goal is to represent the data as accurately as possible
(i.e., no loss of information) in the lower-dimensional space.
❑ Discriminatory Information: The goal is to enhance the class-discriminatory
information in the lower-dimensional space.
Principal Component Analysis
• Does the data set ‘span’ the whole of d dimensional space?
• For a matrix of m samples x n genes, create a new covariance matrix of size n
x n.
• Transform some large number of variables into a smaller number of
uncorrelated variables called principal components (PCs).
• Developed to capture as much of the variation in data as possible
Principal Component Analysis: one attribute first Temperature
42
◼ Question: how much spread is in the data along the axis? 40
24
(distance to the mean) 30
◼ Variance=Standard deviation^2 15
18
15
2
σ𝑛𝑖=1(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋)
ሜ 2 30
𝑠 =
(𝑛 − 1) 15
30
35
30
40
30
Now consider two dimensions X=Temperature Y=Humidity
40 90
◼ Covariance: measures the 40 90
correlation between X and Y 40 90
◼ Cov(X,Y)=0: independent 30 90
15 70
◼ Cov(X,Y)>0: move same direction
15 70
◼ Cov(X,Y)<0: move opposite direction 15 70
30 90
15 70
σ𝑛𝑖=1 ሜ 𝑖 − 𝑌)
(𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋)(𝑌 ሜ
cov( 𝑋, 𝑌) = 30 70
(𝑛 − 1)
30 70
30 90
40 70
30 90
More than two attributes: Covariance Matrix X=Temperature Y=Humidity
40 90
Contains covariance values between all possible dimensions 40 90
(=attributes): 40 90
30 90
15 70
𝐶 𝑛𝑥𝑛 = (𝑐𝑖𝑗 |𝑐𝑖𝑗 = cov( 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑖 , 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑗 ))
15 70
15 70
30 90
Example for three attributes (x,y,z):
15 70
30 70
30 70
cov( 𝑥, 𝑥) cov( 𝑥, 𝑦) cov( 𝑥, 𝑧) 30 90
𝐶= cov( 𝑦, 𝑥) cov( 𝑦, 𝑦) cov( 𝑦, 𝑧) 40 70
cov( 𝑧, 𝑥) cov( 𝑧, 𝑦) cov( 𝑧, 𝑧) 30 90
Eigen Values & Eigen Vectors
• Vectors x having same direction as Ax are called
eigenvectors of A (A is an n by n matrix).
• In the equation Ax=x,  is called an eigenvalue of A
2 3 3 12 3
× = =4×
2 1 2 8 2

• Ax =  x  (A-  I) x=0
• How to calculate x and  :
• Calculate det(A-  I), yields a polynomial (degree n)
• Determine roots to det(A-  I)=0, roots are eigenvalues 
• Solve (A-  I) x=0 for each  to obtain eigenvectors x
Principal Components
1. principal component (PC1)
• The eigenvalue with the largest absolute value will indicate that the data have the
largest variance along its eigenvector, the direction along which there is greatest
variation
2. principal component (PC2)
• The direction with maximum variation left in data, orthogonal to the PC1
• In general, only few directions manage to capture most of the variability in the data.
Principal Component Analysis
• Compute the covariance matrix C of adjusted X
• Let 𝑋ሜ be the mean vector (taking the
• Find the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of C.
mean of all rows) • For matrix C, vectors e (=column vector) having same
• Adjust the original data by the mean direction as Ce :
• X’ = X –𝑋ሜ • eigenvectors of C is e such that Ce=  e,
• Subtract the mean •  is called an eigenvalue of C.

• Subtracting the mean makes variance and • Ce=  e  (C-  I)e=0

covariance calculation easier by

simplifying their equations.
• Most data mining packages do this for you.

• The variance and co-variance values are

not affected by the mean value.
Eigen Values
• Calculate eigenvalues  and eigenvectors x for covariance matrix:
• Eigenvalues j are used for calculation of [% of total variance] (Vj) for each component j:
•
𝜆𝑗
𝑉𝑗 = 100 ⋅
σ𝑛𝑥=1 𝜆𝑥
Principal Components - Variance

25

20

Variance (%) 15

10

0
PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5 PC6 PC7 PC8 PC9 PC10
Transformed Data
Eigenvalues j corresponds to variance on each component j

Thus, sort by j

Take the first p eigenvectors ei; where p is the number of top eigenvalues

These are the directions with the largest variances

𝑦𝑖1 𝑒1 𝑥𝑖1 − 𝑥1
𝑦𝑖2 𝑒2 𝑥𝑖2 − 𝑥2
... = ... ...
𝑦𝑖𝑝 𝑒𝑝 𝑥𝑖𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛
An Example Mean1=24.1
X1 X2 X1' X2' Mean2=53.8

19 63 -5.1 9.25

39 74
100
14.9 20.25 90
80
70
60
30 87 5.9 33.25 50 Series1
40
30
20
30 23 5.9 -30.75 10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50

15 35 -9.1 -18.75
40

30
15 43 -9.1 -10.75 20

10

15 32 -9.1 -21.75 -15 -10 -5

0
0 5 10 15 20
Series1

-10

-20

30 73 5.9 19.25 -30

-40
Covariance Matrix
C=

• Using MATLAB, we find out:

• Eigenvectors:
• e1=(-0.97,-0.24), 1=49.04
• e2=(0.24,-0.97), 2=507.95
• Thus the second eigenvector is more important!
Reference: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors (swarthmore.edu)
If we only keep One Dimension e2
❑ We keep the dimension of e2=(0.24,-0.97)
❑ We can obtain the final data as
𝑥𝑖1
𝑦𝑖 = 0.24 −0.97 𝑥𝑖2 = 0.24 ∗ 𝑥𝑖1 − 0.97 ∗ 𝑥𝑖2

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-40 -20 -0.1 0 20 40
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
Attribute Subset Selection
◼ Another way to reduce dimensionality of data
◼ Redundant attributes
◼ Duplicate much or all of the information contained in one or more other
attributes
◼ E.g., purchase price of a product and the amount of sales tax paid
◼ Irrelevant attributes
◼ Contain no information that is useful for the data mining task at hand
◼ E.g., students' ID is often irrelevant to the task of predicting students' GPA
Heuristic Search in Attribute Selection
◼ There are 2d possible attribute combinations of d attributes
◼ Typical heuristic attribute selection methods:
◼ Best single attribute under the attribute independence assumption: choose by

significance tests
◼ Best step-wise feature selection:

◼ The best single-attribute is picked first

◼ Then next best attribute condition to the first, ...

◼ Step-wise attribute elimination:

◼ Repeatedly eliminate the worst attribute

◼ Best combined attribute selection and elimination

◼ Optimal branch and bound:

◼ Use attribute elimination and backtracking

Attribute Creation (Feature Generation)
◼ Create new attributes (features) that can capture the important information in a data
set more effectively than the original ones
◼ Three general methodologies
◼ Attribute extraction

◼ Domain-specific

◼ Mapping data to new space (see: data reduction)

◼ E.g., Fourier transformation, wavelet transformation, manifold approaches (not

covered)
◼ Attribute construction

◼ Combining features: Example creating a new feature called area from height

and width
◼ Data discretization
Data Reduction 2: Numerosity Reduction
◼ Reduce data volume by choosing alternative, smaller forms of data
representation
◼ Parametric methods (e.g., regression)
◼ Assume the data fits some model, estimate model parameters, store

only the parameters, and discard the data (except possible outliers)
◼ Ex. Log-linear models—obtain value at a point in m-D space as the

product on appropriate marginal subspaces

◼ Non-parametric methods
◼ Do not assume models

◼ Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling, …

Parametric Data Reduction: Regression and Log-Linear Models
◼ Linear regression
◼ Data modeled to fit a straight line
◼ Often uses the least-square method to fit the line
◼ Multiple regression
◼ Allows a response variable Y to be modeled as a linear function of
multidimensional feature vector
◼ Log-linear model
◼ Approximates discrete multidimensional probability distributions
Regression Analysis
◼ Regression analysis: A collective name for techniques for
the modeling and analysis of numerical data consisting of
values of a dependent variable (also called response
variable or measurement) and of one or more independent
variables (aka. explanatory variables or predictors)
◼ The parameters are estimated so as to give a "best fit" of
the data ▪ Used for prediction (including
forecasting of time-series data),
◼ Most commonly the best fit is evaluated by using the inference, hypothesis testing,
and modeling of causal
least squares method
relationships
Regress Analysis and Log-Linear Models
◼ Linear regression: Y = w X + b
◼ Two regression coefficients, w and b, specify the line and are to be estimated by

using the data at hand

◼ Using the least squares criterion to the known values of Y1, Y2, …, X1, X2, ….

◼ Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2
◼ Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the above

◼ Log-linear models:
◼ Approximate discrete multidimensional probability distributions

◼ Estimate the probability of each point (tuple) in a multi-dimensional space for a

set of discretized attributes, based on a smaller subset of dimensional

combinations
◼ Useful for dimensionality reduction and data smoothing
Simple Linear Regression
Simple Linear Regression Example

Y= 23.6+ 3.5 *X
Example (2-D) Dataset that can be fit using Linear Regression Model
Example (2-D) Dataset that cannot be fit using Linear Regression Model
Histogram Analysis
◼ Divide data into buckets and store average (sum) for each bucket
◼ Partitioning rules: 40
35
◼ Equal-width: equal bucket range 30

◼ Equal-frequency (or equal-depth) 25

20
15
10
5
0

100000
10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

90000
Clustering
◼ Partition data set into clusters based on similarity, and store cluster representation
(e.g., centroid and diameter) only
◼ Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if data is “smeared”
◼ Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in multi-dimensional index tree
structures
◼ There are many choices of clustering definitions and clustering algorithms
◼ Cluster analysis will be studied in depth in Chapter 10
Sampling
◼ Sampling: obtaining a small sample s to represent the whole data set N
◼ Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is potentially sub-linear to the size
of the data
◼ Key principle: Choose a representative subset of the data
◼ Simple random sampling may have very poor performance in the presence of skew
◼ Develop adaptive sampling methods, e.g., stratified sampling:
◼ Note: Sampling may not reduce database I/O s (page at a time)
Types of Sampling
◼ Simple random sampling
◼ There is an equal probability of selecting any particular item

◼ Sampling without replacement

◼ Once an object is selected, it is removed from the population

◼ Sampling with replacement

◼ A selected object is not removed from the population

◼ Stratified sampling:
◼ Partition the data set, and draw samples from each partition (proportionally, i.e.,
approximately the same percentage of the data)
◼ Used in conjunction with skewed data
Sampling: With or without Replacement

Raw Data
Sampling: Stratified Sampling
Sampling: Cluster Sampling
Data Cube Aggregation
◼ The lowest level of a data cube (base cuboid)
◼ The aggregated data for an individual entity of interest
◼ E.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse
◼ Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes
◼ Further reduce the size of data to deal with
◼ Reference appropriate levels
◼ Use the smallest representation which is enough to solve the task
◼ Queries regarding aggregated information should be answered using data cube,
when possible
Data Reduction 3: Data Compression
◼ String compression
◼ There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms

◼ Typically lossless, but only limited manipulation is possible without expansion

◼ Audio/video compression
◼ Typically lossy compression, with progressive refinement

◼ Sometimes small fragments of signal can be reconstructed without reconstructing the

whole
◼ Time sequence is not audio
◼ Typically short and vary slowly with time

◼ Dimensionality and numerosity reduction may also be considered as forms of data

compression
Data Compression Illustration

Original Data Compressed

Data
lossless

Original Data
Approximated
Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing
◼ Data Preprocessing: An Overview

◼ Data Quality

◼ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

◼ Data Cleaning

◼ Data Integration

◼ Data Reduction

◼ Data Transformation and Data Discretization

◼ Summary
Data Transformation
◼ A function that maps the entire set of values of a given attribute to a new set of replacement values s.t.
each old value can be identified with one of the new values
◼ Methods
◼ Smoothing: Remove noise from data
◼ Attribute/feature construction
◼ New attributes constructed from the given ones
◼ Aggregation: Summarization, data cube construction
◼ Normalization: Scaled to fall within a smaller, specified range
◼ min-max normalization
◼ z-score normalization
◼ normalization by decimal scaling
◼ Discretization: Concept hierarchy climbing
Normalization
◼ Min-max normalization: to [new_minA, new_maxA]

v − minA
v' = (new _ maxA − new _ minA) + new _ minA
maxA − minA
◼ Ex. Let income range $12,000 to $98,000 normalized to [0.0, 1.0].
73,600 − 12,000
Then $73,600 is mapped to (1.0 − 0) + 0 = 0.716
98,000 − 12,000
◼ Z-score normalization (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation):
v − A
v' =
 A

73,600 − 54,000
◼ Ex. Let μ = 54,000, σ = 16,000. Then = 1.225
16,000
◼ Normalization by decimal scaling
v
v'= j Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(|ν’|) < 1
10
Normalization by Decimal Scaling Example
◼ 100,12000,13500,1200

◼ Divide by 10 -> 10,1200,1350,120

◼ Divide by 100 -> 1, 120,135,12

◼ Divide by100000 -> 0.001,0.12,0.135,0.012

Discretization
◼ Three types of attributes
◼ Nominal—values from an unordered set, e.g., color, profession
◼ Ordinal—values from an ordered set, e.g., military or academic rank
◼ Numeric—real numbers, e.g., integer or real numbers
◼ Discretization: Divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals
◼ Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data values
◼ Reduce data size by discretization
◼ Supervised vs. unsupervised
◼ Split (top-down) vs. merge (bottom-up)
◼ Discretization can be performed recursively on an attribute
◼ Prepare for further analysis, e.g., classification
Data Discretization Methods
◼ Typical methods: All the methods can be applied recursively
◼ Binning
◼ Top-down split, unsupervised
◼ Histogram analysis
◼ Top-down split, unsupervised
◼ Clustering analysis (unsupervised, top-down split or bottom-up merge)
◼ Decision-tree analysis (supervised, top-down split)
◼ Correlation (e.g., 2) analysis (unsupervised, bottom-up merge)
Simple Discretization: Binning
◼ Equal-width (distance) partitioning
◼ Divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid
◼ if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the width of intervals
will be: W = (B –A)/N.
◼ The most straightforward, but outliers may dominate presentation
◼ Skewed data is not handled well
◼ Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning
◼ Divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately same number of
samples
◼ Good data scaling
◼ Managing categorical attributes can be tricky
Binning Methods for Data Smoothing
❑ Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34
* Partition into equal-frequency (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34
Discretization Without Using Class Labels (Binning vs. Clustering)

Data
K-means clustering leads to better results

Equal frequency (binning)

Discretization by Classification & Correlation Analysis
◼ Classification (e.g., decision tree analysis)
◼ Supervised: Given class labels, e.g., cancerous vs. benign

◼ Using entropy to determine split point (discretization point)

◼ Top-down, recursive split

◼ Details to be covered in Chapter 7

◼ Correlation analysis (e.g., Chi-merge: χ2-based discretization)

◼ Supervised: use class information

◼ Bottom-up merge: find the best neighboring intervals (those having similar

distributions of classes, i.e., low χ2 values) to merge

◼ Merge performed recursively, until a predefined stopping condition
Concept Hierarchy Generation
◼ Concept hierarchy organizes concepts (i.e., attribute values) hierarchically and is
usually associated with each dimension in a data warehouse
◼ Concept hierarchies facilitate drilling and rolling in data warehouses to view data
in multiple granularity
◼ Concept hierarchy formation: Recursively reduce the data by collecting and
replacing low level concepts (such as numeric values for age) by higher level
concepts (such as youth, adult, or senior)
◼ Concept hierarchies can be explicitly specified by domain experts and/or data
warehouse designers
◼ Concept hierarchy can be automatically formed for both numeric and nominal
data. For numeric data, use discretization methods shown.
Concept Hierarchy for Numeric Attributes
Concept Hierarchy Generation for Nominal Data
◼ Specification of a partial/total ordering of attributes explicitly at the schema level
by users or experts
◼ street < city < state < country
◼ Specification of a hierarchy for a set of values by explicit data grouping
◼ {Urbana, Champaign, Chicago} < Illinois
◼ Specification of only a partial set of attributes
◼ E.g., only street < city, not others
◼ Automatic generation of hierarchies (or attribute levels) by the analysis of the
number of distinct values
◼ E.g., for a set of attributes: {street, city, state, country}
Concept Hierarchy for Nominal Attribute
Automatic Concept Hierarchy Generation
◼ Some hierarchies can be automatically generated based on the analysis of the
number of distinct values per attribute in the data set
◼ The attribute with the most distinct values is placed at the lowest level of the
hierarchy
◼ Exceptions, e.g., weekday, month, quarter, year
country 15 distinct values

province_or_ state 365 distinct values

city 3567 distinct values

street 674,339 distinct values

91
Summary
◼ Data quality: accuracy, completeness, consistency, timeliness, believability,
interpretability
◼ Data cleaning: e.g. missing/noisy values, outliers
◼ Data integration from multiple sources:
◼ Entity identification problem

◼ Remove redundancies

◼ Detect inconsistencies

◼ Data reduction
◼ Dimensionality reduction

◼ Numerosity reduction

◼ Data compression

◼ Data transformation and data discretization

◼ Normalization

◼ Concept hierarchy generation

92
Thank You