JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

Experiment No. 1

Aim: Study of Material Selection and relevant Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) Nomenclature.

Introduction to Materials Selection

Design of an engineering component involves three interrelated problems:

(i) Selecting a material,
(ii) Specifying a shape, and
(iii) Choosing a manufacturing process.

Getting this selection right the first time by selecting the optimal combination your design has
enormous benefits to any engineering-based business. It leads to lower product costs, faster
time-to-market, and reduction in the number of in-service failures and, sometimes, significant
advantages relative to your competition.

But to realize these benefits, engineers have to deal with an extremely complex problem. There
are literally tens of thousands of materials and hundreds of manufacturing processes. No
engineer can expect to know more than a small subset of this ever-growing body of information.
Furthermore, there are demanding and shifting design requirements such as cost, performance,
safety, risk and aesthetics, as well as environmental impact and recycle-ability. This study is
meant to provide an introduction to the material selection process.

Material Selection

The basic question is how to select a material for a given part. This may seem like a very
complicated process until we realize than we are often restrained by choices we have already
made. For example, if different parts have to interact then material choice becomes limited.
When we talk about choosing materials for a component, we take into account many different
factors. These factors can be broken down into the following areas.

Material Properties
As mechanical engineers we are most concerned with characteristics such as:

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Mechanical Properties
 Strength
 Yield Strength
 Ultimate Tensile Strength
 Shear Strength
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Fatigue
 Hardness
 Creep
 High or low temperature behavior
 Density
 AnisotropyFatigue streng
Thermal Properties
Magnetic Properties
Fabrication Properties
 Ease of machining
 Ease of welding, casting, etc
 Hardening ability
 Formability
 Availability
 Joining techniques

Environmental Properties
 Corrosion properties
 Toxic effects
 Out-gassing properties
 Gas and Liquids
 Viscosity

Material Cost and Availability

Material must be priced appropriately (not cheap but right)

Material must be available (better to have multiple sources)

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Processing
Must consider how to make the part, for example:
Casting
Machining
Welding

Environment
The effect that the service environment has on the part
The effect the part has on the environment
The effect that processing has on the environment

Now clearly these issues are inter-linked in some fashion. For example, cost is a direct result of
how difficult a material is to obtain and to machine. And the effect of the environment on the
material is clearly related to the material properties.

So if we really want to use a novel or unusual material, the choice must be made early in the
design process. Then we can do the detailed design work using the correct material properties.

Consider the example of wooden airplanes and metal-framed airplanes. If we were to design
an airplane of either material we will have to make the choice early. The end designs are quite
different. So, the material choice can radically alter the final design. But the possibility also
exists that it may not. After all what are the real difference between a 1045 and 1035 carbon
steel?

Kinds of Materials (What kind of materials can we use?)

Metals
Iron
Aluminium
Copper
Magnesium
Composites
Ceramics
Glass
Semi-conductors
Structural ceramics (SiN, SiC)
Refractory Composites
Polymers

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Rubber
Plastics
Liquids
Gases

As mechanical engineers we deal mostly with metals. Metal properties tend to be well
understood and metals are somewhat forgiving materials. We can make small mistakes
(sometimes big ones) and get away with a poor design as a result of metal’s forgiving nature. We
see ceramics and composites all around us, but they tend to be used in special applications
because of fabrication costs. This however, is changing. Plastics are among the most common
modern material choices. In large volume production, plastics are inexpensive. In small volume
productions, plastics can be an extremely expensive choice due to high tooling costs.

BIS designation of steel:

It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content is up to a maximum of 1.5%. The carbon
occurs in the form of iron carbide, because of its ability to increase the hardness and strength of
the steel. Other elements e.g. silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are also present to
greater or lesser amount to impart certain desired properties to it. Most of the steel produced
now-a-days is plain carbon steel or simply carbon steel. Carbon steel is defined as steel which
has its properties mainly due to its carbon content and does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon
and 1.5% of manganese.

The plain carbon steels varying from 0.06% carbon to 1.5% carbon are divided into the
following types depending upon the carbon content.
1. Dead mild steel — up to 0.15% carbon
2. Low carbon or mild steel — 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
3. Medium carbon steel — 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
4. High carbon steel — 0.8% to 1.5% carbon
According to Indian standard [IS: 1762 (Part-I)–1974], a new system of designating the steel is
recommended. According to this standard, steels are designated on the following two basis:
(a) On the basis of mechanical properties, and
(b) On the basis of chemical composition.

Steels Designated on the Basis of Mechanical Properties:

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These steels are carbon and low alloy steels where the main criterion in the selection and
inspection of steel is the tensile strength or yield stress. According to Indian standard IS: 1570
(Part–I)-1978 (Reaffirmed 1993), these steels are designated by a symbol ‘Fe’ or ‘Fe E’
depending on whether the steel has been specified on the basis of minimum tensile strength or
yield strength, followed by the figure indicating the minimum tensile strength or yield stress in
N/mm2. For example ‘Fe 290’ means steel having minimum tensile strength of 290 N/mm2 and
‘Fe E 220’ means steel having yield strength of 220 N/mm 2 .
Notes: 1. The steels from grades Fe 290 to Fe 490 are general structural steels and are available
in the form of bars, sections, tubes, plates, sheets and strips.
2. The steels of grades Fe 540 and Fe 620 are medium tensile structural steels.
3. The steels of grades Fe 690, Fe 770 and Fe 870 are high tensile steels.

Steels Designated on the Basis of Chemical Composition:

According to Indian standard, IS: 1570 (Part II/Sec I)-1979 (Reaffirmed 1991), the carbon steels
are designated in the following order:
(a) Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon content,
(b) Letter ‘C’, and
(c) Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese content. The figure after
multiplying shall be rounded off to the nearest integer.
For example 20C8 means a carbon steel containing 0.15 to 0.25 per cent (0.2 per cent on an
average) carbon and 0.60 to 0.90 per cent (0.75 per cent rounded off to 0.8 per cent on an
average) manganese.

Free Cutting Steels:

The free cutting steels contain sulphur and phosphorus. These steels have higher sulphur content
than other carbon steels. In general, the carbon content of such steels varies from 0.1 to 0.45 per
cent and sulphur from 0.08 to 0.3 per cent. These steels are used where rapid machining is the
prime requirement. It may be noted that the presence of sulphur and phosphorus causes long
chips in machining to be easily broken and thus prevent clogging of machines. Now a day, lead
is used from 0.05 to 0.2 per cent instead of sulphur, because lead also greatly improves the mach
inability of steel without the loss of toughness.
According to Indian standard, IS: 1570 (Part III)-1979 (Reaffirmed 1993), carbon and carbon
manganese free cutting steels are designated in the following order:

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1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon,

2. Letter ‘C’,
3. Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese, and
4. Symbol ‘S’ followed by the figure indicating the 100 times the average content of sulphur. If
instead of sulphur, lead (Pb) is added to make the steel free cutting, then symbol ‘Pb’ may be
used.

Indian Standard Designation of Low and Medium Alloy Steels:

According to Indian standard, IS: 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993), low and medium alloy
steels shall be designated in the following order :
1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage carbon.
2. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its average
Percentage content multiplied by a factor as given below:

Element Multiplying Factor

Cr, Co, Ni, Mn, Si and W 4

Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu, Nb, Ti, Ta, Zr 10

and Mo

P, S and N 100

For example 40 Cr 4 Mo 2 means alloy steel having average 0.4% carbon, 1% chromium and
0.25% molybdenum.

Indian Standard Designation of High Alloy Steels (Stainless Steel and

Heat Resisting Steel):
According to Indian standard, IS: 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993), the high alloy steels
(i.e. stainless steel and heat resisting steel) are designated in the following order:
1. Letter ‘X’.

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2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.

3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by a figure for its average percentage
content rounded off to the nearest integer.
4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to allow the desired properties.
For example, X 10 Cr 18 Ni 9 means alloy steel with average carbon 0.10 per cent,
chromiumn18 per cent and nickel 9 per cent.

Indian Standard Designation of High Speed Tool Steel:

According to Indian standard, IS: 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993), the high speed tool
steels are designated in the following order:
1. Letter ‘XT’.
2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.
3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its average percentage
content rounded off to the nearest integer, and
4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to attain the desired properties.
For example, XT 75 W 18 Cr 4 V 1 means a tool steel with average carbon content 0.75 percent,
tungsten 18 per cent, chromium 4 per cent and vanadium 1 per cent

Expected Outcome – Study of material selection and IS designation of steel is done

successfully.

VIVA VOCE
1. Why are metals in their pure form unsuitable for industrial use?
2. Give the composition of 35 Mn 2 Mo 45 steel. List its main uses.

3. Define the following properties of a material :

(i) Ductility, (ii) Toughness, (iii) Hardness, and (iv) Creep.
4. How is grey cast iron designated in Indian standards?

5. Discuss the effect of silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus on cast iron.

6. Give the composition of 35 Mn 2 Mo 45 steel.

7. How cast iron is obtained?

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8. Define plain carbon steel.

9. State the alloying elements added to steel to get alloy steels and the effect they produce.

10. Discuss the effects of nickel, chromium, and manganese on steel.

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JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

Experiment No. 2
Aim: Study of different fits and assigning tolerance.

Fits and their Classification: When two parts are to be assembled, the relation resulting from
the difference between their sizes before assembly is called a fit. A fit may be defined as the
degree of tightness and looseness between the two mating parts. The nature of fit is characterized
by the presence and size of clearance and interference.
Clearance: The clearance is the amount by which the actual size of the shaft is less than the
actual size of the mating hole in an assembly. In other words, the clearance is the difference
between the sizes of the hole and the shaft before assembly. The difference must be positive.
Interference: The interference is the amount by which the actual size of a shaft is larger than
the actual finished size of the mating hole. In other words, the interference is the arithmetical
difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft, before assembly. The difference must be
negative.
Types of Fits
According to Indian standards, the fits are classified into the following three groups:
(A)Clearance Fit: In clearance fit, an air space or clearance exists between the shaft and hole as
shown in Figure 2.1. Such fits give loose joint. A clearance fit has positive allowance, i.e. there
is minimum positive clearance between high limit of the shaft and low limit of the hole. It may
be noted that in a clearance fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above the tolerance zone
of the shaft. In a clearance fit, the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the
maximum size of the shaft is known as minimum clearance whereas the difference between the
maximum size of the hole and minimum size of the shaft is called maximum clearance

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Figure 2.1: Clearance Fit

Clearance fit can be sub-classified as follows:

Loose Fit: It is used between those mating parts where no precision is required. It provides
minimum allowance and is used on loose pulleys, agricultural machineries etc.
Running Fit: For a running fit, the dimension of shaft should be smaller enough to maintain a
film of oil for lubrication. It is used in bearing pair etc. An allowance 0.025 mm per 25 mm of
diameter of boring may be used.

(B)Interference Fit: In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so selected that
interference between them always occur, as shown in figure 2.2. It may be noted that in an
interference fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely below the tolerance zone of the shaft.
The shaft is assembled by pressure or heat expansion .In an interference fit, the difference
between the maximum size of the hole and the minimum size of the shaft is known as minimum
interference, whereas the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the maximum
size of the shaft is called maximum interference.

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Figure 2.2: Interference Fit

The interference fit can be sub-classified as follows:
Shrink Fit or Heavy Force Fit: It refers to maximum negative allowance. In assembly of the
hole and the shaft, the hole is expanded by heating and then rapidly cooled in its position. It is
used in fitting of rims etc.
Medium Force Fit: These fits have medium negative allowance. Considerable pressure is
required to assemble the hole and the shaft. It is used in car wheels, armature of dynamos etc.
Tight Fit or Press Fit: One part can be assembled into the other with a hand hammer or by light
pressure. A slight negative allowance exists between two mating parts (more than wringing fit).
It gives a semi-permanent fit and is used on a keyed pulley and shaft, rocker arm, etc.
(C)Transition Fit
It may result in either clearance fit or interference fit depending on the actual value of the
individual tolerances of the mating components. Transition fits are a compromise between
clearance and interference fits. They are used for applications where accurate location is
important but either a small amount of clearance or interference is permissible. As shown in
Figure 2.3, there is overlapping of tolerance zones of the hole and shaft.

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Figure 2.3: Transition Fit

Transition fit can be sub-classified as follows:

Push Fit: It refers to zero allowance and a light pressure is required in assembling the hole and
the shaft. The moving parts show least vibration with this type of fit. It is also known as snug fit.
Force Fit or Shrink Fit: A force fit is used when the two mating parts are to be rigidly fixed so
that one cannot move without the other. It either requires high pressure to force the shaft into the
hole or the hole to be expanded by heating. It is used in railway wheels, etc.
Wringing Fit: A slight negative allowance exists between two mating parts in wringing fit. It
requires pressure to force the shaft into the hole and gives a light assembly. It is used in fixing
keys, pins, etc.

System of fit: A fit system is the systems of standard allowance to suit specific range of basic
size. If these standard allowances are selected properly and assigned in mating parts ensures
specific classes of fit.
There are two systems of fit for obtaining clearance, interference or transition fit. These are:
(i) Hole basis system (Figure 2.4)
(ii) Shaft basis system (Figure 2.5)

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Clearance fit Transition fit Interference fit

Figure 2.4: Hole Basis System

Clearance Transition Interference

Figure 2.5: Shaft basis System

Hole Basis System: In the hole basis system, the size of the hole is kept constant and shaft sizes
are varied to obtain various types of fits. In this system, lower deviation of hole is zero, i.e. the
low limit of hole is same as basic size. The high limit of the hole and the two limits of size for
the shaft are then varied to give desired type of fit.
The hole basis system is commonly used because it is more convenient to make correct holes of

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fixed sizes, since the standard drills, taps, reamers and branches etc. are available for producing
holes and their sizes are not adjustable. On the other hand, size of the shaft produced by turning,
grinding, etc. can be very easily varied

Shaft Basis System: In the shaft basis system, the size of the shaft is kept constant and different
fits are obtained by varying the size of the hole. Shaft basis system is used when the ground bars
or drawn bars are readily available. These bars do not require further machining and fits are
obtained by varying the sizes of the hole.
In this system, the upper deviation (fundamental deviation) of shaft is zero, i.e. the high limit of
the shaft is same as basic size and the various fits are obtained by varying the low limit of shaft
and both the limits of the hole.

Tolerance and its Classification: The permissible variation in size or dimension is tolerance.
Thus, the word tolerance indicates that a worker is not expected to produce the part of the exact
size, but definite a small size error is permitted. The difference between the upper limit (high
limit) and the lower limit of a dimension represents the margin for variation to workmanship, and
is called a tolerance zone.
Tolerances have two types:
Unilateral Tolerance
In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of the basic size, i.e.
tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below it

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Tolerance

Basic Size
Tolerance

Figure 2.6: Unilateral Tolerance

Examples of unilateral tolerance are:

0.2 0.1 0.00

20  0.1
, 20 0.2
, 25  0.2
,etc.

Unilateral system is preferred in interchangeable manufacturing, especially when precision fits

are required, because
(a) It is easy and simple to determine deviations,
(b) Another advantage of this system is that „Go‟ Gauge ends can be standardized as the holes
of different tolerance grades have the same lower limit and all the shafts have same upper limit,
and
(c) This form of tolerance greatly assists the operator, when machining of mating parts. The
operator machines to the upper limit of shaft (lower limit for hole) knowing fully well that he
still has some margin left for machining before the parts are rejected.

Bilateral Tolerance
In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides of the basic size,
i.e. the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size, but may not be necessarily equally
dispose about it .

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Tolerance Basic Size

Bilateral Tolerance

Examples of bilateral tolerance are:

0.2 0.2
25  0.2
, 20  0.1
, etc.

In this system, it is not possible to retain the same fit when tolerance is varied and the basic size
of one or both of the mating parts are to be varied. This system is used in mass production when
machine setting is done for the basic size.

Expected Outcome – Study of different types of fits and tolerances is done successfully.

VIVA VOCE
1. Discuss the Indian Standard system of limits and fits.
2. What is meant by ‘hole basis system’ and ‘shaft basis system’? Which one is preferred
and why?
3. What are the commonly used fits according to Indian standards?
4. State briefly unilateral system of tolerance covering the points of definition application
and advantages over the bilateral system.
5. What are fits and tolerances? How are they designated?
6. What do you understand by the nominal size and basic size?
7. Explain interchangeability.
8. What is the difference in the type of assembly generally used in running fits and
interference fits?

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9. What do you understand by preferred numbers?

10. What are the commonly used fits according to Indian standards?

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Experiment No. 3
Aim: Study of Production Consideration in Design with examples.

Theory: The knowledge of manufacturing processes is of great importance for a design

engineer. The following are the various manufacturing processes used in Mechanical
Engineering.
1. Primary shaping processes. The processes used for the preliminary shaping of the machine
component are known as primary shaping processes. The common operations used for this
process are casting, forging, extruding, rolling, drawing, bending, shearing, spinning, powder
metal forming, squeezing, etc.
2. Machining processes. The processes used for giving final shape to the machine component,
according to planned dimensions are known as machining processes. The common operations
used for this process are turning, planning, shaping, drilling, boring, reaming, sawing, broaching,
milling, grinding, hobbing, etc.
3. Surface finishing processes. The processes used to provide a good surface finish for the
machine component are known as surface finishing processes. The common operations used for
this process are polishing, buffing, honing, lapping, abrasive belt grinding, barrel tumbling,
electroplating, super finishing, sheradizing, etc.
4. Joining processes. The processes used for joining machine components are known as joining
processes. The common operations used for this process are welding, riveting, soldering,
brazing, screw fastening, pressing, sintering, etc.
5. Processes effecting change in properties. These processes are used to impart certain specific
properties to the machine components so as to make them suitable for particular operations or
uses. Such processes are heat treatment, hot-working, cold-working and shot peening. To discuss
in detail all these processes is beyond the scope of this book, but a few of them which are
important from the subject point of view will be discussed in the following pages.

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Casting Design
An engineer must know how to design the castings so that they can effectively and efficiently
render the desired service and can be produced easily and economically. In order to design a
casting, the following factors must be taken into consideration:
1. The function to be performed by the casting,
2. Soundness of the casting,
3. Strength of the casting,
4. Ease in its production,
5. Consideration for safety, and
6. Economy in production.
In order to meet these requirements, a design engineer should have a thorough knowledge of
production methods including pattern making, moulding, core making, melting and pouring, etc.
The best designs will be achieved only when one is able to make a proper selection out of the
various available methods. However, a few rules for designing castings are given below to serve
as a guide:
1. The sharp corners and frequent use of fillets should be avoided in order to avoid concentration
of stresses.
2. All sections in a casting should be designed of uniform thickness, as far as possible. If,
however, variation is unavoidable, it should be done gradually.
3. An abrupt change of an extremely thick section into a very thin section should always be
avoided.
4. The casting should be designed as simple as possible, but with a good appearance.
5. Large flat surfaces on the casting should be avoided because it is difficult to obtain true
surfaces on large castings.
6. In designing a casting, the various allowances must be provided in making a pattern.

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7. The ability to withstand contraction stresses of some members of the casting may be improved
by providing the curved shapes e.g., the arms of pulleys and wheels.
8. The stiffening members such as webs and ribs used on a casting should be minimum possible
in number, as they may give rise to various defects like hot tears and shrinkage, etc.
9. The casting should be designed in such a way that it will require a simpler pattern and its
moulding is easier.
10. In order to design cores for casting, due consideration should be given to provide them
adequate support in the mould.
11. The deep and narrow pockets in the casting should invariably be avoided to reduce cleaning
costs.
12. The use of metal inserts in the casting should be kept minimum.
13. The markings such as names or numbers, etc., should never be provided on vertical surfaces
because they provide a hindrance in the withdrawal of pattern.
14. A tolerance of ± 1.6 mm on small castings (below 300 mm) should be provided. In case more
dimensional accuracy is desired, a tolerance of ± 0.8 mm may be provided.

Forging Design
In designing a forging, the following points should always be considered.
1. The forged components should ultimately be able to achieve a radial flow of grains or fibres.
2. The forgings which are likely to carry flash, such as drop and press forgings, should preferably
have the parting line in such a way that the same will divide them in two equal halves.
3. The parting line of a forging should lie, as far as possible, in one plane.
4. Sufficient draft on surfaces should be provided to facilitate easy removal of forgings from
dies.
5. The sharp corners should always be avoided in order to prevent concentration of stress and to
facilitate ease in forging.

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6. The pockets and recesses in forgings should be minimum in order to avoid increased die wear.
7. The ribs should not be high and thin.
8. Too thin sections should be avoided to facilitate easy flow of metal.

Expected Outcome – Study of production consideration in design is done successfully.

VIVA VOCE
1. Enumerate the various manufacturing methods of machine parts which a designer should
know.
2. Explain briefly the different casting processes.
3. State and illustrate two principal design rules for casting design.
4. State the advantages and disadvantages of hot working of metals. Discuss any two hot
working processes.
5. What are the salient features used in the design of forgings? Explain.
6. State and illustrate two principal design rules for casting design
7. List the main advantages of forged components.
8. Describe briefly the various cold working processes.
9. Explain design of castings.
10. Distinguish between hot working process and cold working process.

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Experiment No. 4
Aim: To solve numerical problems on Knuckle and Cotter and Joint

Q1. Design and draw a cotter joint to support a load varying from 30 kN in compression to 30
kN in tension. The material used is carbon steel for which the following allowable stresses may
be used. The load is applied statically.
Tensile stress = compressive stress = 50 MPa; shear stress = 35 MPa and crushing stress = 90
MPa.

Q2. Two rods are connected by means of a cotter joint .The inside diameter of socket and outside
diameter of the socket collar are 50 and 100 mm respectively. The rods are subjected to a tensile
force of 50 kN. The cotter is made of steel 30C8 (S yt = 400 N/mm 2 ) and the factor of safety is
4.The width of the cotter is five times of thickness. Calculate:
(i) Width and thickness of the cotter on the basis of shear failure; and
(ii) Width and thickness of the cotter on the basis of bending failure.

Q3.Two rods, made of plain carbon steel 40C8 (S yt = 380 N/mm 2 ) are to be connected by means
of a cotter joint. The diameter of each rod is 50 mm and the cotter is made from a steel plate of
15 mm thickness .Calculate the dimensions of the socket end making the following assumptions:
(i)the yield strength in compression is twice of the tensile yield strength; and
(ii)the yield strength in shear is 50% of the tensile yield strength.
The factor of safety is 6.

Q4.It is required to design a knuckle joint to connect two circular rods subjected to an axial force
of 50 kN. The rods are co axial and a small amount of angular movement between their axes is
permissible. Design the joint and specify the dimensions of its components .Select suitable
materials for the parts.

Expected Outcome – Solved the problems on cotter and knuckle joint.

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