I n h e r i t e d Th ro m b o p h i l i a s an d

A d v e r s e Preg n a n c y O u t c o m e s
A Review of Screening Patterns and
Recommendations

a b,
William B. Davenport, MD , William H. Kutteh, MD, PhD, HCLD *

KEYWORDS
 Pregnancy  Inherited thrombophilias  Recurrent pregnancy loss  Preeclampsia
 Intrauterine growth restriction  Placental abruption  OB/GYN

KEY POINTS
 Historically, much controversy has existed regarding the association of inherited thrombo-
philias with adverse pregnancy outcomes.
 The current guidelines do not recommend screening unless a personal or strong family
history of venous thromboembolism is present, but the authors’ survey of physician
screening patterns has suggested that up to 40% of physicians may screen contrary to
the current guidelines.
 Over 90% of both general Obstetrician/Gynecologists and Reproductive Endocrinologists
are appropriately testing patients with recurrent pregnancy loss for anticardiolipin anti-
bodies and the lupus anticoagulant with the overwhelming majority using indicated treat-
ment during pregnancy.
 This article summarizes the existing evidence for each inherited thrombophilia and
reviews the current guidelines.

INTRODUCTION

Three decades ago, antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) were proposed to have a

causal association with recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL), suspected because of
placental clots that were observed after pregnancy loss with subsequent positive
serum aPLs. Following the hypothesis-inducing investigations, an association was
found between aPL and RPL. However, it was not until 1996 that Kutteh and

The authors have nothing to disclose.

a
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Vermont, 89 Beaumont Avenue,
Given C262, Burlington, VT 05406, USA; b Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vander-
bilt University Medical Center, Fertility Associates of Memphis, 80 Humphreys Center, Suite
307, Memphis, TN 38120, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wkutteh@fertilitymemphis.com

Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am 41 (2014) 133–144

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ogc.2013.10.005 obgyn.theclinics.com
0889-8545/14/$ – see front matter Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
134 Davenport & Kutteh

colleagues1 found that treatment of pregnant women who have aPL syndrome with
heparin and aspirin increased the live birth rate to 80%.2
With a causal role of aPL established, research was driven by further hypotheses
that inherited thrombophilias may cause pregnancy losses via their resulting hyper-
coagulability and expanded to also include other adverse pregnancy outcomes,
including the effects on preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR),
placental abruption, and stillbirth. The various case control trials that resulted have
yielded conflicting conclusions regarding inherited thrombophilias and adverse preg-
nancy outcomes, and randomized controlled trials are lacking. No causal role has
been established to date.3 The authors’ group performed a survey of the screening
and treatment patterns for thrombophilia in pregnancy among obstetricians (OBs)
and reproductive endocrinologists (REIs) regarding thrombophilias in pregnancy.
The authors found that many physicians may still screen and treat for inherited
thrombophilias beyond the recommendations. This article provides an overview of
the pathophysiology of the most common inherited thrombophilias and historical
findings of their relationships to adverse pregnancy outcomes. It also summarizes
the current recommendations for screening and treatment of inherited thrombo-
philias and presents recent practice patterns of physicians in response to this
evidence.

OVERVIEW

Inherited thrombophilia is defined as a genetic predisposition to venous thromboem-

bolism (VTE), usually a genetic deletion or alteration of a functional protein in the coag-
ulation cascade. The most common inherited thrombophilias include factor V Leiden
(FVL G1691A) mutation, prothrombin gene mutation (prothrombin G20210A), protein
C deficiency (PCD), protein S deficiency (PSD), methyltetrahydrofolate reductase
(MTHFR) mutation, and antithrombin III (AT) deficiency. Each of these has a common
role in inducing a hypercoagulable state via direct or indirect augmentation of pro-
thrombin to thrombin, its active clot-inducing form (Fig. 1). Because hypercoagulabil-
ity with inherited thrombophilias has been well established, screening of pregnant
women with a personal history of VTE has been generally well accepted in practice,
with the purpose of providing thromboembolic prophylaxis if needed. This practice
is supported by the most recent guidelines, and its acceptance is confirmed in the au-
thors’ survey findings of physicians’ practices.4 Screening in the presence of a family
history of VTE has also been historically accepted but has recently been challenged as
not being founded on evidence.4–9 Subsequently, the practice is currently being reas-
sessed, with some evidence against screening in women with a positive family history
of VTE.9
A larger controversy has existed in the recent past around the utility of screening for
inherited thrombophilias in women with a history of adverse pregnancy outcome or
loss. Several strong arguments exist against screening in this population. Perhaps
most importantly, only weak associations have been found between hypercoagulabil-
ity and pregnancy outcomes; no causative relationship has been established.3 Even
more, many inherited thrombophilias are common in the general population, and
most of these women have normal pregnancy outcomes.10 From the standpoint of
thromboembolism prevention, some argue that inherited genetic aberrations in clot-
ting proteins are less likely to be significant in the absence of a thromboembolic event
history and that screening this population is akin to screening the general population,
which has shown to be cost-ineffective.11 Because of these positions, recommenda-
tions are against screening women in this group.
 Inherited Thrombophilias and Adverse Pregnancy 135

Fig. 1. Cascade of thrombus formation.

Despite the aforementioned arguments and published recommendations regarding

the utility of screening in pregnant women with a history of loss or adverse outcomes,
the authors’ findings have suggested that many physicians continue to screen this
population. These convictions are not unfounded, and several historical studies sup-
port this stance. Most studies in support of this practice hypothesize microthrombi,
thrombosis, and infarction of the placenta as contributing causes of pregnancy com-
plications or loss.1,11,12 In addition, an argument exists that women with any type of
thromboembolic defect have a higher prevalence of pregnancy complications.13
Following is a summary of the available evidence regarding each inherited thrombo-
philia in relation to adverse pregnancy outcomes and the risk of VTE. All data reported
here are assuming an absence of personal or family history of VTE.

Factor V Leiden
Activated factor V is a clotting protein that works in conjunction with activated factor X
to directly convert prothrombin to thrombin. A specific mutant form of this protein, fac-
tor V Leiden (F5 c.1691G>A and p.Arg506Gln), is resistant to inactivation, leading to
higher amounts of activated factor V, more thrombin formation, and, thus, a hyperco-
agulable state (see Fig. 1). Although its heterozygous form is the most common
inherited thrombophilia, its prevalence is still low in the general population.4 Less
than 0.3% of these heterozygotes will have a VTE in pregnancy.4
Concerning adverse fetal outcomes, 2 recent comprehensive reviews of the litera-
ture have determined that carriers of FVL G1691A have an increased relative risk for
RPL (odds ratio [OR] 1.52, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.06–2.19 and OR 2.02,
95% CI 1.60–2.55).14,15 However, the maternal-fetal medicine (MFM) network also
emphasized a low absolute risk (4.2%) of pregnancy loss in women with FVL
G1691A.15 No significant association exists between FVL G1691A and preeclampsia
136 Davenport & Kutteh

or small gestational age.15,16 Associations between placental abruption and FVL

G1691A are also lacking.17–19 However, a more recent MFM network case control
study, although confirming a lack of association with placental abruption, did find
an increase in fetal hypoxia-inducing factors in the placentas of mothers with FVL
G1691A compared with age-matched controls.20 The current guidelines agree that ev-
idence is inadequate to recommend screening for factor V Leiden in women with
adverse pregnancy outcomes of any kind.4,9,11,14

Prothrombin
Prothrombin G20210A substitution mutation (F2 c.20210G>A) is the second most
common inherited thrombophilia, second only to heterozygous factor V Leiden. A
mutated form causes a deficiency in thrombin, with a resulting increase in the concen-
tration of prothrombin in the plasma (see Fig. 1). VTE incidence with prothrombin
G20210A is low, with one early study suggesting prothrombin G20210A heterozygotes
to have an absolute risk of less than 0.5% and homozygotes to only reach 2% to 3%.
Concerning RPL, Bradley’s14 comprehensive literature review suggested that women
with this mutation were overall twice as likely to have RPL as those without the pro-
thrombin G20210A mutation (OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.59–2.7), but the MFM network deter-
mined no association in their case control study and meta analysis.14,15,21 Both
literature reviews stated that no definitive conclusion could be made about RPL and
prothrombin G20210A because of a paucity of studies. There is consensus among
all published reviews of literature that no association exists between prothrombin
G20210A and preeclampsia or small for gestational age (SGA).15,16,22 One study
has suggested a correlation with placental abruption, but most have found no corre-
lation between prothrombin G20210A and placental abruption.16,21,23 Accordingly, the
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends against
screening for prothrombin G20210A in women with any history of adverse pregnancy
outcomes.4

Protein C Deficiency and Protein S Deficiency

Protein S and activated protein C, in combination, are necessary for the activation of
factors V and VIII, as summarized in Fig. 1. Therefore, a deficiency in either of these
proteins can result in a hypercoagulable state. Although the risk of VTE during preg-
nancy with either protein deficiency is up to 7% in the presence of a personal or family
history of VTE, the absolute risk of VTE in the absence of such history is 0.1% and
0.1% to 0.8%, respectively.4 Further, the prevalence of the disorders is only 0.2%
to 0.3% in the general population. No studies have found an association between pro-
tein C Deficiency (PCD) or Protein S Deficiency (PSD) and early pregnancy loss, IUGR,
or placental abruption. A review of literature from 2002 that included only 3 to 5 perti-
nent studies found an increased risk of preeclampsia with PCD (OR 21.5, CI 4.4–414.4)
and PSD (OR 12.7, CI 4.0–39.7), with an absolute risk of 1.4% and 12.3%, respec-
tively. The same study suggested an increase in stillbirth among those with PSD
(OR 16.2, CI 5.0–52.3), with an absolute risk of 6%.23 However, because of the small
number of studies with relatively few participants, the ACOG currently does not
recommend screening for PSD or PCD in women with any history of adverse preg-
nancy outcomes.4

Antithrombin Deficiency
Antithrombin is a small protein that inactivates both factor Xa and thrombin, and
serves as a regulator of clot formation (see Fig. 1). A rare deficiency in this protein
results in severe coagulopathy, increasing the risk up to 25 times those with normal
 Inherited Thrombophilias and Adverse Pregnancy 137

antithrombin levels. Women with antithrombin III deficiency do indeed have an

increased risk of embryonic demise and fetal death compared with the general
population.24–27 However, because of the low prevalence (1 out of 2500), screening
is not recommended in those with a prior pregnancy loss. Studies observing its
effects on other adverse pregnancy outcomes are lacking, also due to low
prevalence.

Methylene Tetrahydrofolate Reductase

Methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) is one of 3 enzymes that is essential
for the metabolism of folic acid and is responsible for directly converting homocyste-
ine to methionine. A mutation in this enzyme can cause increased levels of substrate
homocysteine. Hyperhomocysteinemia debatably can result in a hypercoagulable
state at the endothelium and has historically been associated with RPL28; but its rela-
tionship to thrombosis is only theoretical.29 Two predominant mutations exist, MTHFR
C677T and A1298C. Most recently, however, evidence has suggested that homocys-
teine is only a marker for thrombosis rather than a cause and that it must be combined
with other thrombophilias to present any significant risk of VTE.29–33 The existing data
suggest an absence of any correlation with preeclampsia, IUGR, or placental abrup-
tion. However, the ACOG and the MFM network have determined that data are insuf-
ficient to determine the correlation.20,22,34 Accordingly, the ACOG does not
recommend screening women for MTHFR with any history of adverse fetal outcomes
or with a history of VTE.4
MTHFR polymorphisms are also associated with an increased risk of neural tube
defects (NTDs) because of low serum folic acid.35 Women delivering a baby with an
NTD have more than twice the incidence of having an MTHFR C677T polymorphism.36
In addition, the combination of MTHFR C677T polymorphism with MTHFR A1298C
polymorphism may further increase the risk of NTDs.37 Therefore, the authors think
it is prudent to treat these patients with amounts of folic acid similar to those used
to treat patients who had a prior infant with an NTD.36–38

Combined Defects
Most studies have only observed VTE risks on pregnancy outcomes with individual
thrombophilias. However, a few have assessed combinations of these disorders,
such as FVL G1691A/prothrombin G20210A double heterozygosity and FVL
G1691A in the presence of an MTHFR mutation, concluding that an additive or syner-
gistic effect is present.26,39–44 This distinction should be made, although further explo-
ration of this topic is beyond the scope of this review.

Acquired Thrombophilias
Because of their nongenetic preponderance, acquired thrombophilias are classified
separately from inherited thrombophilias and are summarized only briefly for the pur-
pose of contrast because these disorders are also beyond the scope of this review.
The most common acquired thrombophilia involves the presence of aPL. The pres-
ence of these antibodies has been associated with second-trimester as well as first-
trimester pregnancy loss.45,46 Therefore, it is recommended to screen for the most
common of these antibodies (lupus anticoagulant, anticardiolipin, and anti-beta2
glycoprotein) in women with a history of more than 2 or 3 first-trimester losses and
in women with one or more loss after 20 weeks with no alternative explanation.4,11
It is also well established that treating these thrombophilias with heparin and aspirin
improves pregnancy outcomes.1,2
138 Davenport & Kutteh

TREATMENT OF INHERITED THROMBOPHILIAS

Given the current lack of evidence to support an association between adverse preg-
nancy outcomes and inherited thrombophilias, it is currently not recommended to
treat inherited thrombophilias with adverse pregnancy outcomes alone in mind.4 How-
ever, treatment is justifiable in some patients with known thrombophilias who are at an
increased risk of VTE during pregnancy.47 The ACOG’s treatment recommendations
have been abbreviated and summarized in Table 1. They specifically address thresh-
olds at which to begin anticoagulants, which can be used to treat all known inherited
thrombophilias except MTHFR mutations. The guidelines do not address the treat-
ment of known MTHFR mutations for VTE prevention, but the traditional treatment
has been vitamin B and folate. However, evidence now suggests that vitamin B sup-
plementation does not reduce VTE incidence.32,48 Therefore, if one decides to treat
these mutations, folate alone may be the best choice.

Table 1
Recommended thromboprophylaxis for pregnancies complicated by inherited thrombophilias

Clinical Scenario Antepartum Management Postpartum Management

Low-risk thrombophiliaa Surveillance only or Surveillance only if no risk
without previous VTE prophylactic heparin factors; postpartum
anticoagulation if risks
factorsb
Low-risk thrombophiliaa Surveillance only or Postpartum anticoagulation
with a single previous prophylactic heparin therapeutic or intermediate-
episode of VTE; not dose heparin
receiving long-term
anticoagulation therapy
High-risk thrombophiliac Prophylactic heparin Postpartum anticoagulation
without previous VTE therapy
High-risk thrombophiliac Prophylactic, intermediate- Postpartum anticoagulation
with a single previous dose or adjusted-dose therapy or intermediate- or
episode of VTE; not heparin adjusted-dose heparin
receiving long-term
anticoagulation therapy
Thrombophilia or no Prophylactic or therapeutic- Postpartum anticoagulation
thrombophilia with 2 or dose heparin therapy or therapeutic-dose
more episodes of VTE; heparin for 6 wk
not receiving long-term
anticoagulation therapy
Thrombophilia or no Therapeutic-dose heparin Resumption of long-term
thrombophilia with 2 or anticoagulation therapy
more episodes of VTE;
receiving long-term
anticoagulation therapy
a
Low-risk thrombophilia: factor V Leiden heterozygous; prothrombin G20210A heterozygous;
PCD or PSD.
b
First-degree relative with a history of a thrombotic episode before 50 years of age or other major
thrombotic risk factors (eg, obesity, prolonged immobility).
c
High-risk thrombophilia: antithrombin deficiency; double heterozygous for prothrombin
G20210A mutation and factor V Leiden; factor V Leiden homozygous or prothrombin G20210A
mutation homozygous.
Adapted from James A. Practice bulletin no. 123: thromboembolism in pregnancy. Obstet Gyne-
col 2011;118(3):718–29; with permission.
 Inherited Thrombophilias and Adverse Pregnancy 139

PHYSICIAN PRACTICE PATTERNS

The authors’ group distributed questionnaires regarding screening patterns of physi-

cians for thrombophilia in pregnant women. Surveys were given to physicians only and
were distributed at the beginning of 4 national meetings to OBs and REIs. The survey
explored the clinical scenarios in which each physician would screen for thrombo-
philias, which tests they routinely ordered once the decision to order an evaluation
had been made, and the treatment modalities used after an abnormal test result. Par-
ticipants were given the survey before the meeting and were asked to respond to the
survey based on their current practice pattern. Response rates at individual meetings
ranged from 76% to 87% and were not considered significantly different between
meetings. A total of 186 surveys were evaluated.

Thrombophilia Testing Criteria

Almost all physicians (97%) reported that a personal history of thrombosis warranted
screening, and slightly fewer reported screening in patients with a family history of
thrombosis (82%) (Table 2). Most physicians (90%) reported testing a patient with
an unexplained fetal death at more than 20 weeks’ gestation, but still 46% said they
would screen a patient with a single loss at less than 20 weeks’ gestation. Most phy-
sicians (94%) considered women with a history of 3 or more recurrent first-trimester
miscarriages to be candidates for a thrombophilia evaluation, and 76% indicated
that they offered testing after 2 early losses. Several physicians reported screening pa-
tients based on the fetal outcome of a prior abruption, with 62% screening patients if
the abruption resulted in fetal demise compared with 37% if it resulted in a live birth;
42% screened a patient with a prior IUGR baby. Only a minority of REIs reported
screening for assisted reproductive technology, whether it was a new patient (2%)

Table 2
Candidates for thrombophilia evaluation

ALL MDsa (%) OB/GYN (%) REI (%) P

3 RPL 173/185 (94) 72/77 (94) 101/108 (94) .57
2 RPL 141/185 (76) 55/77 (71) 86/108 (80) .13
ART failed attempt 29/104 (28) N/A 29/104 (28) —
ART new attempt 2/102 (2) N/A 2/102 (2) —
Personal history thrombosis 181/186 (97) 75/78 (96) 106/108 (98) .44
Family history thrombosis 150/183 (82) 61/77 (79) 89/106 (84) .59
Stillbirth or IUFD >20 wk 164/183 (90) 66/78 (85) 98/105 (93) .35
Spontaneous pregnancy lossb 81/176 (46) 31/76 (41) 50/100 (50) .72
Prior IUGR 76/181 (42) 33/77 (43) 43/104 (41) .64
Abruption, demise 112/181 (62) 50/75 (67) 62/106 (58) .69
Abruption, live birth 65/177 (37) 27/73 (37) 38/104 (37) .59
Personal history thrombophilia 161/183 (88) 63/77 (82) 98/106 (92) .06
Prior baby with NTD 32/182 (18) 7/76 (9) 25/106 (24) .01c
Sister with baby with NTD 23/181 (13) 5/76 (7) 18/105 (17) .03c

Abbreviations: ART, assisted reproductive technology; GYN, gynecologist; IUFD, intrauterine fetal
demise; N/A, not applicable.
a
Not all participants answered all survey questions, so the numbers are not equal to the total
number of respondents.
b
Spontaneous pregnancy loss defined as less than 20 weeks.
c
Significantly different results between OB/GYNs and REIs.
140 Davenport & Kutteh

or a previously failed cycle (28%) (see Table 2). There were no significant differences
among specialties in testing criteria except that significantly more REIs offered
screening for a personal or family history of NTDs than did OBs.

Thrombophilia Tests Used

When assessing which thrombophilia tests were routinely ordered in each physician’s
thrombophilia evaluation, almost all participants reported ordering anticardiolipin an-
tibodies (98%) and lupus anticoagulant (97%) (Table 3). Most physicians included
DNA testing for prothrombin G20210A (76%) and FVL G1691A mutations (90%)
with no difference between specialties. Significantly more REIs reported screening
for PCD (75% vs 53%; P<.01), PSD (73% vs 55%; P<.01), and AT deficiency (60%
vs 42%; P 5 .01) (data not shown). More than a third of all physicians reported testing
for polymorphisms on MTHFR (see Table 3).

Thrombophilia Treatment Patterns

The final section of the authors’ survey examined which thrombophilias each physician
treated and the treatment modality of each. Most REIs and generalists (80%–90%) re-
ported treating patients who had an acquired thrombophilia, homozygous factor V Lei-
den, PCD, or PSD and treated homozygous and heterozygous disorders with equal
frequency between specialties. However, more REIs treated an abnormal random ho-
mocysteine level in pregnancy than did OB/GYNs (80% vs 45%, P<.01) (data not
shown). Concerning treatment modalities, most treated aPL, prothrombin G20210A,
PCD, PSD, and AT with heparin, either alone or in combination with aspirin (Table 4).

DISCUSSION

The authors assessed how actual reported treatment patterns compared with the cur-
rent guidelines by the ACOG. As expected, most of the practice patterns need no
modification in order to remain in compliance with the most recent recommenda-
tions.4,11 However, several practice patterns varied from the most recent guidelines.
As detailed earlier, the ACOG’s most recent recommendations hold that evidence is
insufficient to screen for thrombophilias based on previous adverse pregnancy out-
comes (IUGR, stillbirth, abruption, or pregnancy loss) alone in the absence of addi-
tional risk factors for thrombosis.4 However, around 40% of physicians treated
these women, suggesting that many are still following older literature, which suggests
that inherited thrombophilias are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Table 3
Thrombophilia testing routinely being ordered by physicians

ALL MDsa (%) OB/GYN (%) REI (%) P

Anticardiolipin antibody 181/185 (98) 75/78 (96) 106/107 (99) .72
Lupus anticoagulant antibody 180/186 (97) 74/78 (95) 106/108 (98) .25
Antiphospholipid panel 147/183 (80) 67/78 (86) 80/105 (76) .02b
Factor V Leiden G1691A 166/185 (90) 71/78 (91) 95/107 (89) .41
Activated protein C resistance 98/182 (54) 33/77 (43) 65/105 (62) .04b
Prothrombin G20210A 140/184 (76) 53/77 (69) 87/107 (81) .07
MTHFR 75/178 (42) 20/73 (27) 56/105 (53) <.01b
a
Not all participants answered all survey questions, so the numbers are not equal to the total num-
ber of respondents.
b
Significantly different results between OB/GYNs and REIs.
 Inherited Thrombophilias and Adverse Pregnancy 141

Table 4
Treatment patterns for thrombophilias (all physicians)a

Heparinc Vitamin B
and/or Aspirin and/or Folic
nb Aspirin Only Acid
Anticardiolipin antibody 135 109 81% 19 14% 8 6%
Lupus anticoagulant antibody 128 107 84% 16 13% 7 5%
Antiphospholipid panel 107 86 81% 14 13% 8 7%
Factor V Leiden 121 108 89% 3 2% 8 7%
Activated protein C resistance 52 41 79% 5 10% 7 13%
Prothrombin mutation 78 70 90% 5 6% 4 5%
MTHFR C677T 61 12 20% 1 2% 59 97%
PCD 71 59 83% 8 11% 6 8%
PSD 67 54 81% 7 10% 7 10%
Antithrombin deficiency 47 41 87% 1 2% 4 9%
Anti-B2 glycoprotein 18 13 72% 2 11% 3 18%
Hyperhomocysteinemia 51 5 10% 1 2% 37 73%
a
The numerator is equal to the number of physicians who treated the patient with the indicated
treatment modality, and the denominator is equal to the number of physicians who both treated
the indicated thrombophilia and answered the question concerning treatment modality. Not all
participants answered all survey questions, so the numbers are not equal to the total number of
respondents.
b
Not all participants answered all survey questions, so the numbers are not equal to total number
of respondents.
c
Heparin includes both low-molecular-weight heparin and unfractionated heparin in either pro-
phylactic or therapeutic doses.

Nevertheless, the authors agree that evidence is not adequate to make a definitive as-
sociation between these pregnancy outcomes and inherited thrombophilias.
For those who meet the appropriate criteria for inherited thrombophilia screening,
the ACOG recommends that the following tests be ordered: factor V Leiden, prothrom-
bin G20210A, protein C and S, and antithrombin III.4 Most physicians currently order
all of the aforementioned tests; but greater than 40% of physicians reported also
ordering MTHFR and homocysteine levels in their thrombophilia screen, both of which
are not considered part of the recommended thrombophilia evaluation according to
the ACOG. However, some of these decisions may have been based on the well-
supported association of MTHFR polymorphisms with NTDs.36–38
Concerning treatment, the ACOG recommends that only acquired thrombophilias
be treated for RPL and then with heparin and aspirin. Although more than half of the
physicians appropriately treat these antibodies, a large percentage still only use hep-
arin or aspirin, which has been shown to be inferior to combination therapy.1,2 Most of
the physicians who treat inherited thrombophilias appropriately use heparin with or
without aspirin (see Table 4).

SUMMARY OF CURRENT STATE OF RESEARCH AND FUTURE DIRECTION

Overall, discrepancies in the literature do still exist concerning appropriate screening

and management of those with prior adverse pregnancy outcomes. Large prospec-
tive, multicentered trials and evaluation of national databases, which are currently be-
ing conducted, will be required to clearly determine the risks associated with inherited
142 Davenport & Kutteh

thrombophilias in this regard. Until these data are available, physicians should
compare their current practice patterns for thrombophilia screening with the guide-
lines in the ACOG practice bulletin, with an emphasis on individualizing their manage-
ment when the data are not sufficient.

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