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CONTROL SYSTEM

1 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

Control system is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that deals with the behaviour of
dynamical systems.
1.1 System: A system is an arrangement, set, or collection of things connected or related in
such a manner as to form an entirety or whole.
1.2 Control: The word control is usually taken to mean regulate, direct, or command.
Combining the above definitions, Control system can be defined as below:
A control system is defined as a system or set of devices & processes to manage, command,
direct or regulate the behaviour of other devices or systems or to maintain a desired output
ensure desired stability & accuracy. A control system is that means by which any quantity of
input is maintained or altered according to desired manner.
A control system is defined as a system or set of devices & processes to manage, command,
direct or regulate the behaviour of other device or systems or to maintain a desired output
ensure desired stability & accuracy

Fig 1(a). Block diagram a control system.

r(t) → Input or Reference
c(t) → Output.
1.3. Schematic representation of control system:

Figure 1(b): Block Diagram of Control System

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R(s) → Reference input
C(s) → Controlled output
E(s) → Error signal
B(s) → Feedback signal
H(s) → Feedback path transfer function
G(s)H(s) → Open loop transfer function (OLTF)
T(s) = C(s)/R(s) → Closed loop transfer function

2. TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Figure 2(a)
2.1. Open loop control system.
An open loop control system also called a non-feedback control system is a type of
system.

Figure 2(b)
In open loop-controlled system is output is controlled. By input system, or accuracy of
open loop control system depends on the accuracy of input calibration.
2.1.1. Block Diagram Representation of Open Loop System:

Figure 2(c)
C (s)
G (s) =
R (s)

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2.2. Block Diagram Representation of Closed Loop System:

Figure 2(d)
C (s) G( s)
=
R( s) 1 G ( s ) H ( s )
2.3. Comparison Between Open Loop & Closed Loop Control System

S.No. Open loop control system Closed loop control system

The changes in output of system The change in output of system is
1.
cannot be corrected. corrected.
2. No sensor is available. Sensor is available.

3. It is non feedback control system. It is feedback control system.

The close loop system works more
The accuracy of an open-loop system
accurately since the error between the
depends on the calibration of the input.
4. reference input and the output is
Any departure from pre- determined
continuously measured through
calibration affects the output.
feedback.
Generally stable but cannot be stabilize Due to feedback, system can become
5.
if become unstable. stable and can be stabilized.
6. More sensitive for parameter variation. Less sensitive for parameter variation.

7. Simple & Economic Complex & Costly

3. EFFECT OF FEEDBACK

The effects of feedback in systems on working parameters/ system performance characteristics

of the system can be analysed. The parameters considered for analysis are gain, sensitivity
and stability.
3.1. Effects of feedback on overall gain:
The transfer function is given by the equation:
C (s) G( s)
=
R( s) 1 G ( s ) H ( s )
• Negative feedback decreases the gain of the feedback.
• Positive feedback increases the gain of the feedback.

3.2. Effects of feedback on stability:

• Stability of a system describes whether the system will be able to follow the input
command.

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• A system is said to be unstable, if its output is out of control or increases without
bound.
• Negative feedback in a control improves stability and vice-versa.
3.3. Effects of feedback on Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is the extent to which the system responds to changes in parameters like gain,
impedance, etc. Sensitivity is also said to be the ratio of the extent of change of one of
the above-mentioned parameters to a small change of the determining parameters.
Consider G as a parameter that can vary. The sensitivity of the gain of the overall
system T to the variation in G is defined as,
T T / T % change in T
S = =
G G / G % change in G
Where,
•  T denotes the incremental change in T due to the incremental change in G.
•  T/T and  G/G denotes the percentage change in T and G, respectively.
T T G 1
Therefore, S = . =
G G T 1 + GH
T T H −GH
Similarly, S = . = −1
H H T 1 + GH
• Feedback may reduce sensitivity with respect to certain parameters. Negative
feedback makes the system less sensitive to the parameter variation.
• Feedback does not affect variations of elements in the feedback path.
• Feedback reduces the sensitivity of the system based on variation of parameter in the
forward path of the loop. Larger the loop gain, more effective is the feedback in
reducing sensitivity.

4. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF CONTROL SYSTEM

To understand the control system, one must obtain quantitative mathematical models of these
systems. It is necessary therefore to analyse the relationship between the system variables
and to obtain a mathematical model. mathematical models of most physical systems are
characterized by differential equations.
4.1. Linear Model: A mathematical model is linear, if the differential equation describing has
coefficients which are either function of the independent variable or constant.
4.2. Linear Time Varying Model: If the coefficients of the describing differential equation
are functions of time (the independent variable), then the mathematical model is Linear
Time Varying Model.
4.3. Linear Time Invariant Model: If the coefficients of the describing equations are
constant, the model is linear time- invariant. The classical way of modelling linear time-
invariant system is to use transfer functions to represent input-output relations between
variables.

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5. TRANSFER FUNCTION

The transfer function of control system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable assuming all initial condition is
as zero.

Figure 5(a)
L[c(t )] C ( s)
T .F = G ( s) = =
L[r (t )] R( s)
Transfer function of any control system can be written as in terms of poles and zeroes,
C ( s)
T .F =
R( s )
K ( s − s1 )( s − s2 ) ...........
=
( s − sa )( s − sb ) ...............
Where, s1, s2, ………………..are zeros (Z)
sa, sb, …………………are poles (P)
When P = Z (Proper Transfer Function)
P > Z (Strictly Proper Transfer Function)
P < Z (Improper Transfer Function)
Note:
• In control system, we never deal with improper transfer function.
• If for any control system, number of poles, P = 3 and number of zeroes, Z=2. Then for
making proper transfer function, it was assuming that one zero at infinity so that no of pole
will be equal to the no of zeroes.
Example 1
A T.F has 2 zeros at infinity. Then the relation between numerator degree N & denominator
degree (M) of transfer function is?
Solution:
Given two zeroes at infinity.
Therefore, for proper transfer function, N + 2 = M
N=M-2
5.1. Properties of Transfer function:
• The transfer function is defined only for a linear time-invariant system. It is not defined
for nonlinear systems.
• All the initial conditions of the system are set to zero.
• The transfer function is independent of the input of the system.

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• The transfer function of a continuous-data system is expressed only as a function of
the complex variable ‘s’. It is not a function of a real variable, time, or any other
variable that is used as the independent variable.
• For discrete data systems, the transfer function is a function is a function of ‘z’ and
here z-transform is used.
• If the transfer function of a system has zero & pole with negative real part, then the
system is known as Minimum Phase System and if it has zero & pole with positive
real part then it is known as Non-Minimum Phase System.
5.2. Method of Analysis:
• Transfer Function Approach
• State variable Approach
5.3. Advantage of Transfer Function:
• Transfer function gives simple mathematical equation.
• Transfer function gives poles & zeros of the system directly.
5.4. Disadvantage of Transfer Function:
• Transfer function is only applicable for LTI systems.
• Transfer function does not take any initial condition.
5.5. Conversion of Open Loop Transfer Function (OLTF)to Closed Loop Transfer
Function (CLTF) & Closed Loop Transfer Function (CLTF) to Open Loop Transfer
Function (OLTF):
A. OLTF TO CLTF
Let the open loop control system transfer function is,
N
OLTF =
D
Now, Closed loop control system transfer function can be found as,
N/D
CLTF =
N
1 + 1
D
N
CLTF =
N+D

B. CLTF TO OLTF
Let the Closed loop control system transfer function is,
N
CLTF =
D
N
Now, Open loop control system transfer function can be found as, OLTF =
D−N

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Example 2:
Find the open loop DC gain of a unity feedback system with closed loop transfer function
s+4
given as, TF =
s + 7 s + 13
2

Solution:
Closed loop transfer function is given as,
s+4
CLTF =
s + 7 s + 13
2

Open loop transfer function of given system is,

N s+4
OLTF = = 2
D − N s + 7 s + 13 − s − 4
s+4 s+4
= =
s + 6 s + 9 ( s + 3) 2
2

0+4 4
Open loop DC gain = = ( For DC, ω =0, S= j ω =0 )
( 0 + 3) 2
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Example 3:
What is the unit step response of a continuous system whose Transfer function has a zero
at -1, pole at -2 and gain factor of 2?
Solution:
From the information given in the question, transfer function can be written as,
C ( s) 2 ( s + 1)
T.F = =
R( s ) ( s + 2 )
C ( s ) = T .F  R ( s )
2 ( s + 1)  1
=  R(s) = 
s ( s + 2)  s

1 1 
= 2 + 
 2s 2 ( s + 2 ) 
1 1 
= + 
 s ( s + 2) 
Taking inverse Laplace transform both sides,
C(t)= t + e-2t
Example 4:
What is the Transfer function of a system whose input u(t) and output y(t) are related by
the following differential equation?
d2 y dy du
2
+ 3 + 2y = u +
dt dt dt
Solution:
d2 y dy du
2
+ 3 + 2y = u +
dt dt dt

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Taking Laplace transform both sides,
s2 Y(s) + 3sY(s) + 2 Y(s) = U(s) + s U(s)
Y ( s) 1+ s
= 2
U ( s) s + 3s + 2
Note: When all the initial condition is zero, Laplace transform of following is given as,
L [y(t)] → Y(s)
 dy 
L   → sY ( s)
 dt 
d2y 
L  2  → s 2Y ( s )
 dt 
Example 5:
Relation b/w x(t) & y(t), where x(t) is input and y(t) is output of a system is given as
d2y dx 2
= x ( t − 2 ) + 2 , Find the transfer function of this system.
dt 2 dt
Solution:
In question, differential equation is given as,
d2y dx 2
= x (t − 2) + 2
dt 2 dt
Taking Laplace transform both sides,
s2 Y(s) = X(s) e-2s + s2 X(s)
Y ( s) s 2 + e−2 s
=
X (s) s2
e −2 s
= 1+
s2
Example 6:
The impulse response of a system is
C(t) = –te–t + 2e–t when (t > 0) what will be the transfer function of the system.
Solution: For Impulse response, the output C(s) of the system is equal to transfer
function of the system.
C(t) = –te–t + 2e–t when t > 0
−1 2 −1 + 2s + 2 2s + 1
∴ C(s) = EC(t) = 2
+ = 2
=
(1 + s) 1 + s (1 + s) (1 + s)2
Example 7:
5s + 1
For the given transfer function T .F = , find the differential equation.
s + 2s + 1
2

Solution:
Let for the given system Y(s) is output and X(s) is the input. Therefor transfer function is
written as,
Y (s) 5s + 1
T .F = = 2
X ( s ) s + 2s + 1
(s2 + 2s + 1) Y(s) = (5s + 1) X(s)

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s2 Y(s) + 2s Y(s) + Y(s) = 5s X(s) + X(s)
Taking inverse Laplace transform both sides,

d2y dy dx
2
+2 + y =5 +x
dt dt dt

6. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

6.1. Resistance:

Figure 6(a)
By ohm’s law
VR (t) = R i(t)
Taking Laplace transform both sides,
VR (s) = R I(s)
6.2. Inductor:

Figure 6(b)
Voltage across inductor is given as,
di(t )
VL (t ) = L.
dt
Taking Laplace transform both sides,
VL (s) = L sI(s)

6.3. Capacitor:

Figure 6(c)
Voltage across capacitor is given as,
1
C
vc (t ) = i (t )dt

Taking Laplace transform both sides,

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1 I ( s)
Vc (s) =
C s

7. R-C, R-L & R-L-C ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

7.1. R-C Circuit

Figure 7(a)
Apply KVL to the loop of input side,
t
1
C 0
Vi (t ) = R i (t ) + i (t )dt ………….(i)

Output voltage across the capacitor is

t
1
Vo (t ) =  i(t )dt …………….(ii)
C0
Taking Laplace transform of equation (i) & (ii),
1
Vi ( s) = RI ( s) + I ( s) ………….(iii)
sC
1
Vo ( s ) = I ( s) …………….(iv)
sC
By dividing Equation (iv) by equation (iii),
Vo ( s) (1/ sC ) I ( s)
=
Vi ( s) R I (s) + (1/ sC ) I ( s)
Therefore, transfer function can be written as,
1
T .F =
1 + sRC
Now, the R-C Circuit can be represented as,

1
Vi ( s) → → V0 ( s)
1 + sRC

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7.2. R-L circuit:

Figure 7(b)
Apply KVL to the loop of input side,
di (t )
Vi (t ) = R i (t ) + L …………(v)
dt
Output voltage across inductor,
di(t )
Vo (t ) = L ………..(vi)
dt
Taking Laplace transform of equation (v) & (vi)
Vi (s) = R I(s) + Ls I(s) …………(vii)
Vo (s) = Ls I(s) ………(viii)
By dividing Equation (viii) by equation (vii),
Vo ( s) Ls I (s )
=
Vi ( s) R I ( s) + Ls I (s )
Therefore, transfer function can be written as,
Ls 1
T .F = =
R + Ls 1 + R
Ls
Now, the R-L Circuit can be represented as,

1
Vi ( s ) → → V0 ( s )
R
1+
Ls
7.3. RLC circuit

Figure 7(c)
Apply KVL to the input loop,

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t
di (t ) 1
Vi (t ) = R i( s) + L +  i (t )dt ………(ix)
dt C0
Output voltage can be written as,
t
1
C 0
Vo (t ) = i(t )dt ………….(x) Taking Laplace transform of equation (ix) & (x)

1
Vi ( s) = R I ( s) + Ls I ( s) + I ( s) …….(xi)
Cs
1
Vo ( s ) = I ( s) ……….(xii)
Cs
By dividing Equation (xii) by equation (xi),
Vo ( s) [1/ Cs] I ( s)
=
Vi ( s) [ R + Ls + 1/ Cs] I ( s)
Therefore, transfer function can be written as,
1
T .F =
1 + RCs + LCs 2
Now, the R-L-C Circuit can be represented as,

1
Vi ( s) → → V0 ( s)
1 + RCs + LCs 2

8. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PHYSICAL SYSTEM

8.1 The mass elements

Figure 8(a)
Mdv Md2x
F= =
dt dt2
8.2 The spring element.

Figure 8(b)

t t
F = k(x1 –x2) = kx = −  (v1 − v2 ) = k –  Vdt

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8.3. The damper element

Figure 8(c)
F = (v1 – v2) = Fv = f(x1 – x2) = Fx

9. ROTATIONAL ELEMENTS

9.1. The inertia element

Figure 9(a)
Jdw Jd2
T= =
dt dt2
9.2. The torsional spring element

Figure 9(b)
T = K(θ1 – θ2) = Kθ
9.3. The damper element

Figure 9(c)
T = f(ω1 – ω2) = fω = f(θ1 – θ2) = f.θ

10. ANALOGOUS SYSTEM

The electrical equivalent of mechanical Elements are known as analogous systems.

(1) Mechanical Translational systems:

Figure 10(a)

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F = F 1 + F2 + F3

dv
F=m + Bv + k  v dt
dt

d2 x dx
F=m +B + kx ...(i)
dt2 dt

(2) Mechanical Rotational systems:

Figure 10(b)

T = T1 + T2 + T3

d
T =J
dt
+ B + k  dt
d2  Bd
T=J 2
+ + k ...(ii)
dt dt

(3) Electrical system:

Figure 10(c)

V = V1 + V2 + V 3

di 1
V =L + i.R +  i dt
dt C

 dq 
i = dt , q = charge
 

d2q dq q
V =L 2
+R + ...(iii)
dt dt c

(4) Electrical System:

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Figure 10(d)

I = I1 + I2 + I3

dv V 1
I=C + +
dt R L  v dt
 d 
 V = dt ;  = flux 
 

d2  1 d 
I=C + + ...(iv)
dt2 R dt L

Table 1- Analogous quantities in force (Torque) voltage analogy.

Mechanical-translation Mechanical rotational
Electrical system
system system
Force F Torque (T) Voltage

Mass m Moment of (J) Inertia Inductance L

Viscous friction coefficient (f) Viscous friction coefficient K Resistance R

Reciprocal of capacitance
Spring stiffness Torsional spring stiffness
L/C
Displacement x Angular displacement Q Charge q

Velocity x Regular velocity Q Current i

Table -2 Analogous quantities in force (Torque)-current Analogy

Mechanical translational Mechanical rotational
Electrical system
system system
Force F Torque T Current i
Mass m Moment of inertia J Capacitance C
Reciprocal of resistance
Viscous friction co-efficient F Viscous friction coefficient F 1
R
Reciprocal of inductance
Spring stiffness Torsional spring stiffness K 1
L
Displacement x Regular distance Q. Magnetic flux linkage x
Velocity x Angular velocity Q Voltage e

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11. GEARS

• These are mech. Devices which are used as intermediate elements b/n electrical motor and
load.
• They are used for stepping up (or) stepping down either torque (or) speed.
• They are analogous to electrical TF.

Figure 11(a)

11.1 Dynamics of gear train

N1 T r   
= 1 = 1 = 2 = 2 = 2
N2 T2 r2 1 1 1

Nx T r y y y
= x = x = = =
Ny Ty ry x x x

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