COMPUTER SOFTWARE

What is Software?

Software is a collection of instructions that enable the user to interact

with a computer, its hardware, or perform tasks. Without software,
most computers would be useless.

For example, without your Internet browser software, you could not
surf the Internet or read this page. Without an operating system, the
browser could not run on your computer. TheMicrosoft Excel box, an
example of a spreadsheet software program.
Types of Software:

1.System Software
:

Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to

managing the computer itself, such as the operating system, file
management utilities, and disk operating system (or DOS).
The operating system manages the computer hardware resources
in addition to applications and data. Without systems software
installed in our computers we would have to type the instructions for
everything we wanted the computer to do!
Most prominent features of a System
Software

•Close to the system

•Fast in speed
•Difficult to design
•Difficult to understand
•Less interactive
•Smaller in size
•Difficult to manipulate
•Generally written in low-level language
2. Application Software

•Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular

need of a particular environment.

• All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come

under the category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as

Microsoft’s notepad for writing and editing a simple text.
It may also consist of a collection of programs, often
called a software package, which work together to accomplish
a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the
following:

•Payroll Software
•Student Record Software
•Inventory Management Software
•Income Tax Software
•Railways Reservation Software
•Microsoft Office Suite Software
•Microsoft Word
•Microsoft Excel
•Microsoft PowerPoint
Features of application software are as follows:

∙ Close to the user

∙ Easy to design
∙ More interactive
∙ Slow in speed
∙ Generally written in high-level language
∙ Easy to understand
∙ Easy to manipulate and use
∙ Bigger in size and requires large storage space
Operating System
An operating system acts as an intermediary between
the user of a computer and computer hardware.
The purpose of an operating system is to provide an
environment in which a user can execute programs in
a convenient and efficient manner.
An operating system is software that manages
the computer hardware. The hardware must provide
appropriate mechanisms to ensure the correct operation
of the computer system and to prevent user programs
from interfering with the proper operation of the system.
 The Operating system must support
the following tasks:-

(i) Provides the facilities to create, modification of programs and

data files using an editor.

(ii) Access to the compiler for translating the user program from high
level language to machine language.

(iii) Provide a loader program to move the compiled program code

to the computer’s memory for execution.

(iv) Provide routines that handle the details of I/O programming.

Examples of Operating System

∙ Windows (GUI based, PC)

∙ GNU/Linux (Personal, Workstations, ISP, File and print server,
Three-tier client/Server)
∙ macOS (Macintosh), used for Apple’s personal computers and
work stations (MacBook, iMac).
∙ Android (Google’s Operating System for
smartphones/tablets/smartwatches)
∙ iOS (Apple’s OS for iPhone, iPad and iPod Touch)
Functions of Operating System

1. Booting
►Booting is a process of starting the computer operating system starts the
computer to work. It checks the computer and makes it ready to work.

2. Memory Management
►Itis also an important function of operating system. The memory cannot
be managed without operating system. Different programs and data
execute in memory at one time. if there is no operating system, the
programs may mix with each other. The system will not work properly.
3. Loading and Execution
►A program is loaded in the memory before it can be executed. Operating system
provides the facility to load programs in memory easily and then execute it.

4. Data Security
►Data is an important part of computer system. The operating system protects the
data stored on the computer from illegal use, modification or deletion.

5. Disk Management
►Operating system manages the disk space. It manages the stored files and
folders in a proper way.
6. Process Management
CPU can perform one task at one time. if there are many
tasks, operating system decides which task should get the CPU.

7. Device Controlling
Operating system also controls all devices attached to computer.
The hardware devices are controlled with the help of small software
called device drivers.
 8. Printing Controlling
Operating system also controls printing function.
If a user issues two print commands at a time,
it does not mix data of these files and prints them separately.
9. Providing Interface
It is used in order that user interface acts with a computer mutually.
User interface controls how you input data and instruction and
how information is displayed on screen.
The operating system offers two types of the interface to the user;
(i) Graphical-line interface: It interacts with of visual environment
to communicate with the computer. It uses windows, icons,
menus and other graphical objects to issues commands.
(ii) Command-line interface: It provides an interface to communicate
with the computer by typing commands.
Types of Operating Systems:
1. Batch Operating System
►This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an
operator which takes similar jobs having same requirement and group them into batches.
It is the responsibility of operator to sort the jobs with similar needs.
► Advantages of Batch Operating System:
∙ Multiple users can share the batch systems
∙ The idle time for batch system is very less
∙ It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
► Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
∙ The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
∙ Batch systems are hard to debug
∙ It is sometime costly
∙ Examples of Batch based Operating System:- Payroll System, Bank Statements etc.
2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems
►Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly.
Each user gets time of CPU as they use single system. These systems are also
known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from single user or from
different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum.
After this time interval is over OS switches over to next task.
► Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:
∙ Each task gets an equal opportunity
∙ Less chances of duplication of software
∙ CPU idle time can be reduced
► Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
∙ Reliability problem
∙ One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data
∙ Data communication problem
► Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix etc.
3. Distributed Operating System
►These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer
technology and are being widely accepted all-over the world and, that too, with a great
pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate each other using a
shared communication network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit and
CPU. These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These system’s
processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of working with these types of
operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software
which are not actually present on his system but on some other system connected within
this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network.
What is Booting?

► When we power on our computer, the devices receive power and are initialized.
At this stage, the primary memory, or RAM, is empty. To kickstart the system, a
small set of instructions stored in the read-only memory (ROM) is sent to the
central processing unit (CPU) for execution. These instructions help inspect the
hardware components and identify any potential issues. If hardware problems
exist, a beep or on-screen notifications alert us.
► Once the hardware inspection is complete, the booting in the operating system
process begins. The operating system is loaded, allowing the computer to
function properly and accept user commands. It is important to note that the
booting process in OS is essential for adequately operating the computer and
the execution of various software applications.
Types of Booting in Operating System

► 1. Cold Booting
Cold booting refers to starting up a computer for the first time or after it has been
shut down completely. When we press the power button to initiate a cold boot, the
computer reads the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) instructions stored in the
ROM.Compared to warm booting, cold booting takes longer as it involves a
complete system startup.
► 2. Warm Booting
Warm booting, or rebooting, occurs when a computer restarts while it is powered
on. This type of booting is usually performed when the system hangs or becomes
unresponsive. Warm booting can be initiated through hardware, such as pressing a
reset button, or software commands, like Ctrl+Alt+Del. It is often necessary to
perform a warm boot after installing new software or hardware to apply
configuration changes and ensure proper system functionality.
Steps of Booting in Operating System

► Step 1: BIOS is loaded

When we turn on the power, the first step in the booting process is to load the
BIOS. The power supply provides electricity to essential components, including the
processor and BIOS.
► Step 2: BIOS: Power on Self-Test
After loading the BIOS, it performs a Power on Self-Test (POST). This test checks
the computer's main memory, disk drives, input/output devices, and other hardware
components. If errors are detected during the test, the system emits beep sounds
or displays on-screen notifications to alert the user.
Steps of Booting in Operating System

► Step 3: Loading of OS
Once the POST is successfully completed, the BIOS reads the bootable sequence.
Based on the bootable sequence, the BIOS searches for the Master Boot Record
(MBR) on bootable devices such as floppy disks, CD-ROMs, and hard disks. If the
MBR is not found on bootable devices, the system displays a message saying "No
Boot Device Found" and crashes. However, if the MBR is found, the BIOS
launches a boot loader, a specialized application software that loads the operating
system.
► Step 4: System Configuration
After the operating system is loaded, device drivers are loaded into memory to
ensure the proper operation of the computer's hardware components. These
device drivers act as intermediaries between the operating system and the
hardware, allowing them to communicate effectively.
Steps of Booting in Operating System

► Step 5: Loading System Utilities

In this step, the booting in operating system process involves loading system
utilities into memory. System utilities, such as antivirus software and volume
control, are essential tools that enhance the functionality and security of the
operating system.

► Step 6: User Authentication

If any user authentication is configured, the system prompts users to input their
credentials. Once the system receives valid credentials, it typically launches the
graphical user interface (GUI) shell or the command-line interface (CLI) shell,
providing the user access to the system's resources and applications.
 Startup sequence

• The CPU starts and fetches instructions from the BIOS(which is stored in the
ROM) into RAM.
• The BIOS starts the monitor and keyboard, and does some basic checks to
make sure the computer is working properly. For example, it will look for the
RAM.
• The BIOS then starts the boot sequence. It will look for the operating system.
• If you don’t change any of the settings, the BIOS will fetch the operating system
from the hard drive and load it into the RAM.
• The BIOS then transfers control to the operating system.
Startup sequence
Graphical User Interface (GUI)

► Graphical User Interface (GUI) is a visual interface that allows users

to interact with a computer or software application through graphical
elements rather than text-based commands. It uses windows, icons,
buttons, menus, and other visual elements to represent various
functions and data. GUIs provide a more intuitive and user-friendly
experience compared to command-line interfaces, making it easier for
users to perform tasks and access features. By clicking, dragging, and
typing within a graphical environment, users can efficiently navigate and
control software. GUIs are widely used in operating systems like
Windows and macOS, as well as in applications across diverse
platforms, enhancing accessibility and productivity.
Working of GUI:
1. User Input:
►The interaction begins with user input through devices like a mouse,
keyboard, or touch screen. Users perform actions such as clicking buttons,
typing text, or dragging and dropping items.
2. Event Handling:
►The GUI system detects and processes these user inputs as events. For
instance, clicking a button generates a “click” event. The operating system
or application software captures these events through event handlers.
3. Event Processing:
► Once an event is captured, the GUI’s event processing system
determines what action to take. This involves interpreting the user’s
action, such as opening a file, submitting a form, or executing a
command.
Working of GUI:
4. Command Execution:
►The action determined by the event processing system triggers the
corresponding command or function within the software. For example,
clicking “Save” may prompt the application to write data to a file.
5. Update Display:
►After executing the command, the GUI updates the display to reflect any
changes. This could involve updating the content of a window, changing
the state of a button, or refreshing a view. The graphical components on
the screen are redrawn to show the current state of the application or
system.
6. Rendering:
►The GUI uses a rendering engine to draw graphical elements on the
screen. This involves translating graphical data, such as icons, windows,
and text, into pixels that are displayed on the monitor. The rendering
engine ensures that the interface appears correctly and consistently
across different devices and screen resolutions.
Working of GUI:

7. User Feedback:
►The GUI provides visual feedback to users to confirm that their actions have been
recognized. This feedback can include highlighting, animations, or status
messages that inform users about the outcome of their actions.
8. Interaction Loop:
►The process repeats as users continue to interact with the GUI. New inputs
generate events, which are processed and lead to further updates and feedback,
creating an ongoing loop of interaction between the user and the application.
Benefits of GUI:
∙ User-Friendly Experience:
►GUIs are designed to be intuitive and easy to use. Visual elements like icons,
buttons, and menus make it simpler for users to understand and navigate software.
This reduces the learning curve for new users and helps them perform tasks more
efficiently.
∙ Visual Feedback:
►GUIs provide immediate visual feedback to user actions. For instance, clicking a
button or dragging an icon results in visual changes, such as highlighting or
moving, which confirms that the action has been recognized by the system. This
feedback helps users understand the results of their interactions.
∙ Multitasking:
►GUIs allow users to work with multiple applications simultaneously through
windows and tabs. Users can switch between tasks easily by simply clicking on
different windows or tabs, which enhances productivity and efficiency.
Benefits of GUI:

∙ Reduced Error Rates:

►By using visual elements and predefined options, GUIs minimize the likelihood of
user errors. For example, dropdown menus and checkboxes reduce the risk of
typing mistakes and ensure that users select from available options rather than
entering incorrect commands.
∙ Enhanced Accessibility:
►GUIs often include accessibility features such as screen readers, magnification
tools, and customizable interfaces. These features help users with disabilities
interact with software effectively, making technology more inclusive.
∙ Drag-and-Drop Functionality:
►GUIs commonly support drag-and-drop operations, allowing users to move files,
icons, and other elements easily. This functionality simplifies tasks such as
organizing files and arranging elements on the screen, making interactions more
natural and efficient.
Benefits of GUI:

∙ Integration of Visual Elements:

►GUIs leverage graphical elements to present complex information in a more
digestible format. Charts, graphs, and visual indicators help users understand and
analyze data quickly, improving decision-making and comprehension.
∙ Customization and Personalization:
►Many GUIs offer customization options, allowing users to personalize their
environment according to their preferences. Users can change themes, arrange
toolbars, and adjust settings to create a workspace that suits their needs and
enhances their comfort.
DICTIONARY
► A dictionary is an alphabetical listing of words and their meanings. Dictionaries help
users look up definitions to get a better understanding of the word and an overall better
understanding of a language or field. Many computers do not include an electronic
dictionary, however, with access to the Internet, there are hundreds of free online
dictionaries.
► Why would someone need a dictionary on a computer?
► A dictionary is used on a computer most often to find the meaning words and as
a way to find the correct spelling of a word.
FILE

►A file is an object on a computer that stores data, information, settings, or commands used
with a computer program. In a GUI (graphical user interface), such as Microsoft Windows,
files display as icons that relate to the program that opens the file. For example, the picture
is an icon associated with Adobe Acrobat PDF files. If this file was on your computer,
double-clicking the icon in Windows would open that file in Adobe Acrobat or the PDF
reader installed on the computer.
► How are files created?
►A file is created using a software program on the computer. For example, to create a text
file you would use a text editor, to create an image file you would use an image editor, and
to create a document you would use a word processor.
VOLUME

►(i)When referring to sound, volume refers to the amplitude of the sound being projected
from a speaker.
►(ii) When referring to data storage, a volume refers to a logical drive, which has a single
file system and is usually located on a single partition. For instance, on a typical Microsoft
Windows computer, the volume named C: contains the operating system. In Windows, any
drive which has an assigned drive letter is a volume.
LABEL

► A label may refer to any of the following:

1. In general, a label is a sticker placed on a floppy diskette drive, hard drive, CD-ROM or
other equipment that contains printed information to help identify that object or its data.
2. In a spreadsheet program such as Microsoft Excel, a label is text within a cell, usually
describing data in the rows or columns surrounding it.
3. When referring to a chart, a label is any text over a section of a chart that gives
additional information about the charts value. For example, in our pie chart example
each section of the pie chart is labeled to give the value of each percentage.
4. When referring to HTML, the <label> tag is used to create labels for items in a user
interface.
5. In programming, a label is either a reference point or command used to move
throughout a program. See the goto definition for an example of how this may be used.
6. Label is also an MS-DOS and Windows command line instruction used to change the
identity of a hard or floppy disk drive.
DRIVE

►A drive is a location (medium) that is capable of storing and reading information that is not
easily removed, like a disk or disc. All drives store files and programs that are used by your
computer. For example, when you write a letter in a word processor the program is loaded
from you hard drive and when you save the document it is saved to the hard drive or other
disk or drive.
► In the example shown on this above, drive A: is the floppy drive, C: is the primary hard
drive, D: and E: are partitions of the hard drive, and F: is the CD-ROM drive. The
CD-ROM drive is usually the last drive letter, so in most situations the hard drive is the
C: drive and a CD-ROM or other disc drive is the D: drive.
Compiler:

► Compiler is a software tool that translates source code written in a high-level

programming language into machine code or intermediate code that a computer’s
processor can execute. This process involves several stages: lexical analysis
(breaking code into tokens), syntax analysis (parsing tokens to understand
structure), semantic analysis (ensuring correct usage of language rules),
optimization (improving performance), and code generation (producing executable
code). By converting human-readable code into a format that machines can
understand, compilers enable the development of software applications that can be
run on different computer systems.
Functions of Compiler:

∙ Lexical Analysis:
►The compiler performs lexical analysis to break the source code into tokens,
which are the smallest units of meaning (such as keywords, operators, and
identifiers). This phase converts raw code into a structured format that can be
further processed.
∙ Syntax Analysis:
►Also known as parsing, this function involves analyzing the tokenized code to
ensure it adheres to the grammatical rules of the programming language. The
syntax analyzer creates a syntax tree or parse tree that represents the hierarchical
structure of the code.
∙ Semantic Analysis:
►This phase checks the code for semantic errors, ensuring that it makes logical
sense according to the language’s rules. It verifies that operations are performed
on compatible data types, variables are declared before use, and other
language-specific constraints are satisfied.
Functions of Compiler:

∙ Intermediate Code Generation:

►The compiler generates an intermediate code, which is a lower-level
representation of the source code but not yet machine-specific. This code serves
as a bridge between the high-level language and machine code, allowing for
optimization and easier translation.
∙ Optimization:
►The compiler performs various optimizations to improve the efficiency of the
intermediate code. This can include reducing the number of instructions, improving
performance, and minimizing resource usage. Optimization aims to produce faster
and more efficient machine code.
∙ Code Generation:
►The optimized intermediate code is then translated into machine code or
assembly code specific to the target processor. This phase generates the
executable instructions that the computer’s CPU can understand and execute.
Functions of Compiler:

∙ Error Handling:
►Throughout the compilation process, the compiler identifies and reports errors in
the source code. This includes syntax errors, semantic errors, and other issues that
prevent successful compilation. Effective error handling helps developers debug
and correct their code.
∙ Code Linking and Assembly:
►After generating machine code, the compiler may perform linking, where it
combines various code modules or libraries into a single executable. It resolves
external references and addresses, producing a complete and executable program.
Interpreter:

► An interpreter is a software tool that executes code written in a high-level

programming language directly, without converting it into machine code
beforehand. It processes the source code line-by-line or
statement-by-statement, translating it into executable instructions at runtime.
This approach allows for immediate execution and debugging of code but can
be slower compared to compiled languages because translation occurs during
execution. Interpreters are commonly used in scripting languages like Python
and JavaScript, where flexibility and ease of testing are prioritized over
execution speed. They offer interactive programming and rapid development by
directly interpreting code as it’s written.
Functions of Interpreter:
∙ Lexical Analysis:
►Similar to a compiler, the interpreter begins by breaking down the source code into tokens.
This process involves identifying and classifying elements such as keywords, operators, and
identifiers, which are the fundamental building blocks of the program.
∙ Syntax Analysis:
►The interpreter parses the tokens to analyze the syntactic structure of the code. It ensures
that the code follows the grammatical rules of the programming language, generating a
syntax tree or similar data structure that represents the code’s logical flow.
∙ Semantic Analysis:
►This phase involves checking the code for semantic correctness. The interpreter verifies that
operations make sense with respect to data types and language rules. It ensures that
variables are used correctly, functions are called with the right parameters, and other
language constraints are respected.
∙ Intermediate Representation:
►While not always necessary, some interpreters convert the parsed code into an intermediate
representation. This abstract form of the code simplifies further processing and execution,
making it easier to perform tasks like optimization and debugging.
Functions of Interpreter:
∙ Execution:
►The core function of an interpreter is to execute the code directly. It processes instructions
line-by-line or statement-by-statement, performing the specified operations immediately. This
allows for interactive execution and immediate feedback, which is particularly useful for
scripting and development.
∙ Error Handling:
►Interpreters continuously check for errors during execution. They provide immediate
feedback when syntax or runtime errors occur, allowing developers to identify and fix issues
on the fly. This interactive error handling facilitates rapid development and debugging.
∙ Memory Management:
►The interpreter manages memory allocation and deallocation as it executes the code. It
handles dynamic memory operations, such as allocating memory for variables and releasing
it when no longer needed, which is essential for managing resources efficiently during
execution.
∙ Interactive Debugging:
►Many interpreters offer interactive debugging features, allowing developers to test and debug
code in real-time. Developers can inspect variables, set breakpoints, and step through code
execution, which aids in understanding program behavior and identifying issues.
Assembler:

► An assembler is a software tool that converts assembly language code, which is

a low-level programming language closely related to machine code, into executable
machine code. Assembly language uses mnemonic codes and symbols to
represent machine-level instructions, making it more human-readable than raw
binary code. The assembler translates these mnemonics into binary instructions
that a computer’s processor can execute. This translation process involves parsing
the assembly code, resolving symbols and addresses, and generating the final
machine code output. Assemblers are crucial for low-level programming and
systems programming, providing a bridge between human-readable code and
machine execution.
Functions of Assembler:

∙ Lexical Analysis:
►The assembler starts by breaking down the assembly language code into tokens. These
tokens include mnemonics, labels, and operands, which represent the basic components of
the assembly instructions. This phase prepares the code for further processing by identifying
its structural elements.
∙ Syntax Analysis:
►In this phase, the assembler verifies that the assembly instructions conform to the syntactic
rules of the assembly language. It checks the format of the instructions and ensures that all
required fields, such as operation codes (opcodes) and operands, are present and correctly
placed.
∙ Symbol Resolution:
►Assembly language often includes symbols like labels for memory addresses and constants.
The assembler resolves these symbols by mapping them to their corresponding addresses or
values. This process involves creating and maintaining a symbol table that tracks these
associations throughout the assembly process.
Functions of Assembler:

∙ Address Calculation:
►The assembler calculates the memory addresses for each instruction and data item. It
assigns addresses to labels and variables, ensuring that each location in memory is
correctly identified and utilized. This step is crucial for generating executable code that
operates correctly in memory.
∙ Code Generation:
►The assembler converts the analyzed assembly language instructions into machine code
or binary code. This machine code consists of numeric opcodes and data that the
processor can directly execute. Code generation involves translating each instruction into
its corresponding binary representation.
∙ Error Detection and Reporting:
►Throughout the assembly process, the assembler detects and reports errors such as
syntax errors, undefined symbols, and invalid instructions. It provides feedback to the
programmer, helping them identify and correct mistakes in the assembly language code.
Functions of Assembler:

∙ Optimization:
►Some assemblers perform optimization to improve the efficiency of the generated
machine code. This can include rearranging instructions or optimizing the use of
memory to enhance performance and reduce the size of the resulting binary code.
∙ Listing Generation:
►The assembler often produces a listing file that contains a human-readable
representation of the assembly code, along with its corresponding machine code,
addresses, and other details. This listing file helps programmers review the
generated code and debug any issues.
Types of Computer Languages

► Computer Languages are the mediums through which humans communicate

with computers. These languages allow users to give instructions to a computer
and develop software applications, websites, and systems. Over the years,
various computer languages have emerged, each designed to address specific
types of problems and to suit different programming environments. They can be
broadly categorized into machine languages, assembly languages, and
high-level languages. The evolution of computer languages mirrors the
advancement of technology, moving from complex and rigid code to more
user-friendly and versatile languages.
Types of Computer Languages

► Machine Language: The Foundation of Programming

Machine language, also known as machine code, is the lowest level of
programming language. It consists of binary code (1s and 0s) that is directly
understood by a computer’s central processing unit (CPU). Machine language
instructions are specific to a computer’s hardware architecture and consist of
operations like loading data, storing data, and performing arithmetic. Although
extremely efficient, writing programs in machine language is highly tedious and
error-prone.
► Assembly Language: Bridging the Gap
Assembly language was developed to make programming more accessible than
using raw binary code. It uses symbolic names, known as mnemonics, for
instructions instead of binary, making the code more understandable for humans.
For example, instead of writing a machine code like “101101,” an assembly
language might use an instruction like “MOV” to represent the same operation.
However, assembly language is still closely tied to hardware and requires
knowledge of the computer’s architecture. Programs written in assembly language
need to be converted into machine code using an assembler before they can be
executed by the computer.
 Types of Computer Languages
High-Level Languages: Simplifying Programming:
High-level languages are designed to be more abstract and closer to human languages,
making programming easier and more efficient. Unlike machine and assembly languages,
high-level languages are independent of a computer’s hardware, allowing programs to be
more portable across different systems. High-level languages use a combination of
English-like syntax and mathematical symbols, making them easier to learn and write.
Examples include C, Java, Python, and JavaScript.

Key Characteristics of High-Level Languages:

•Easier to write, read, and maintain.
•Abstracts away low-level details, such as memory management.
•Portable across multiple platforms.
•Supports structured, object-oriented, and procedural programming paradigms.
Generations of Programming Languages:

•First-Generation Languages (1GL):

These are machine languages consisting of binary code directly executed by the CPU.
Programming in 1GL is labor-intensive and error-prone.
•Second-Generation Languages (2GL):
Assembly languages fall into this category. They provide a symbolic representation of
machine code but still require knowledge of the computer’s hardware.
•Third-Generation Languages (3GL):
These are high-level languages such as C, FORTRAN, and COBOL. They use more
human-readable syntax and support complex operations. Programs in 3GL need to be
compiled or interpreted into machine code.
•Fourth-Generation Languages (4GL):
4GLs are even more abstract and are designed to be closer to natural language. They include
languages used for database management, report generation, and mathematical modeling.
Examples include SQL, MATLAB, and SAS.
•Fifth-Generation Languages (5GL):
These languages are primarily used for artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning. 5GLs
focus on constraint-based and logic programming. PROLOG and LISP are examples of 5GLs.