MR CHIDI TEMPLE’S SECTION

ANATOMY
Anatomy is the study of the structure and organization of living organisms.
Physiology is the study of how the parts of the body work, and the ways in which they cooperate
together to maintain life and health of the individual.
Pathology is the study of abnormalities and how they affect body functions, often causing
illness.
Branches of human Anatomy:
Gross Anatomy: Study of visible structures.
Microscopic Anatomy: Study of cells and tissues.
Comparative Anatomy: Study of similarities and differences across species.
Developmental Anatomy: Study of embryonic development.
Neuroanatomy: Study of nervous system structure.
Functional Anatomy: Study of structure-function relationships.

Human Body Systems: Nervous System, Cardiovascular system, Lymphatic system,

Respiratory System, Digestive System, Endocrine System, Integumentary System,
Musculoskeletal System, Urinary System, and Reproductive System male & female

Directional terms use in Anatomy

Medial: means nearer to the midline (nearer or toward midline)
Lateral: means at the side of the body (away from midline)
Proximal: means nearer to a point of attachment or origin.
Distal: means far from point of attachment.
Anterior or ventral: part of the body being described is nearer the front of the body (front).
Posterior or dorsal part of the body being described is nearer the back of the body (back)
Superior: structure nearer to the head (toward head).
Inferior: Structure further from the head (toward feet).

Anatomical Planes:
Sagittal Plane (longitudinal): is a vertical plane that divides the body into a left section and a
right section.
Coronal plane (frontal): is a vertical plane that divides the body into a front (anterior) section
and back (posterior) section.
Transverse plane (horizontal or axial): is a cross sectional plane that divides the body into an
upper (superior) section and a lower (inferior) section.

Cavities of the body

The organs that make up the systems of the body are contained in four cavities: cranial, thoracic,
abdominal, pelvic.
Cranial cavity: contains the brain, and its boundaries are formed by the bones of the skull.

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Thoracic cavity: contains the trachea, 2 bronchi, 2 lungs, heart, aorta, superior and inferior vena
cava, numerous other blood vessels and the oesophagus.

Abdominal cavity: contains the stomach, small intestine and most of the large intestine, the
liver, gall bladder, bile ducts and pancreas. Posteriorly – 2 kidneys, 2 ureters, urinary bladder,
spleen, adrenal glands, numerous blood vessels, nerves and lymph vessels and node.

Pelvic cavity: contains sigmoid colon, rectum and anus, some loops of the small intestine,
urinary bladder, lower parts of the ureters and the urethra.
In female, the organs of the reproductive system: the uterus, uterine tubes, ovaries and vagina.
In male, some of the organs of the reproductive system: the prostate gland, seminal vesicles,
spermatic cords, deferent ducts (vas deferens), ejaculatory ducts and the urethra (common to the
reproductive and urinary systems)

THE STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL HUMAN CELL

Description of Cell
Definition: cell is the smallest functional unit of the body. Group of cells with specialised
function forms tissue.
Cell consist of:
Cell membrane:
 The cell membrane surrounds the cell. It
is the outer covering of the cell.
 It encloses the organelles suspended in a
watery fluid of the cell called cytosol.
 It is selectively permeable (to allow
materials in and out of the cell according
to cell requirement).
Functions of cell membrane: encloses the
content of the cell, provide shape for cell, allow
transport (diffusion and osmosis) and separate
the cell from the environment.

Cytoplasm: is the interior part which contain the organelles.

Cytosol: is a gel like matrix that fills the space where organelles are absent. It contains water,
nutrients and support the structures of cell.

Cell organelles: these are small organs or structures found within the cytoplasm of a cell. They
include nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes
and cytoskeleton.
Nucleus:
 Nucleus is the largest organelle within the cell.
 All human cell except matured red blood cell have nucleus.

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  The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane called nuclear envelop similar to plasma
membrane with tiny pores through which substances can pass between it and cytoplasm.
 The nucleus contains the body genetic materials (Deoxyribonucleic Acid DNA and
Ribonucleic Acid RNA. In non-dividing cell DNA is present as a fine network thread
called chromatin.
 The nucleus also has nucleolus, a roughly spherical structure which manufacture
ribosomes (that synthesizes new protein).
Functions: nucleus controls the activities of the cell, start cell division, and also controls
hereditary character through DNA / chromosomes.
Ribosomes:
 Ribosomes are tiny granules which consist of ribosomal RNA.
 They are found in the cytoplasm, nuclear envelop, and rough endoplasmic reticulum
where they manufacture protein.
Functions: the produced protein can be utilized within the cell and can also be exported from
the cell.

Mitochondria: Mitochondria are membranous sausage shaped organelles

Function: It is the power house of the cell it makes energy for the cell to function. It contains
enzymes that synthesizes ATP.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): are network of membrane. There are 2 types smooth and rough
ER.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): bears ribosomes and appears rough. They synthesize
proteins some of which are exported from cell.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): does not have ribosomes. They synthesize lipid and
steroid hormones. These lipids are use to replace and repair the plasma membrane and
membranes of the organelles.
Golgi Apparatus: this apparatus was discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898. Golgi apparatus
originated from RER. Proteins move from ER into Golgi apparatus. The apparatus then packages
the protein into membrane bound vesicle, when the need arises, they move to plasma membrane
and fuse with it, thus expelling the content from the cell (exocytosis).
Functions: Golgi apparatus sort, package protein as they leave the ER and ship it out of the cell.

Lysosomes: (note that cell part wear out and die and require to be disposed out from the cell).
Lysosomes are structures filled with digestive enzymes that break down items that would
become toxic if left in the cell. It digests obsolete component of cell itself.

Cytoskeleton: this consist of network of tiny protein fibers which provides internal support
system for the organelles within the cell and also guide the movement of materials around its
interior. They include microfilaments, microtubules, centrosome, and cell extension.

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 ASSIGNMENT ONE
In the space provided below, Explain the following terms: 5 Marks
(a) Diffusion (b) Passive transport (c) Osmosis (d) Active transport (e) Pinocytosis

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 CELL THEORY
Theory are widely accepted explanations of natural phenomenon.
Cell theory is a biological theory that explain the role of cell in living things. Cell theory was
developed centuries ago by two scientist Mathias Jakob Schleiden & Theordor Schwann. These
scientists studied plant and animal respectively using microscope before coming up with the
theory.
Mathias Jakob Schleiden a botanist from Germany used a microscope to examine wide
varieties of plant. He came to conclusion that all plants were made of cell.
Theordor Schwann for whom nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system are named, made a
similar conclusion. He realized that all animal samples he studied were made of cells.
Types of cell theory
1. Classical cell theory
2. Modern cell theory
Classical cell theory state /conclude that
1. Cells are basic unit of life [this means that cell carries all the processes necessary for
an organism to survive]
2. All living things are made up of cells [this implies that for something to be alive, it
must be a cell or made up of cell e.g. plant and animal]
3. All cells originate from pre-existing cells [this means cell arises from other cells, this is
where reproduction of cell via cell division occur]
Modern cell theory: development and technologies resulted to development of modern cell
theory. Modern cell theory has 3 principles.
1. Genetic information is passed to new cell during cell division.
2. Similar species contain cell of similar composition.
3. Energy flows within cells.
CELL CYCLE
To maintain tissue integrity and functions, damaged, dead and worn out cells depending on their
type can be replaced by a process called cell division. Cell cycle is a series of event that takes
place in a cell as it grows and divide

Cell Division
Cell division is the process the cells undergo to divide. In cell division, cells grow and replicate it
chromosomes before dividing.

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Phases of cell cycle: Mitosis (M phase) and interphase

Interphase
 Interphase is the time the cell spends to grow, replicate it chromosomes and prepare for
cell division.
 It has 3 stages
i. G1 – is the period of cell growth in size and volume
ii. S phase - is the period of DNA synthesis.
iii. G2 - is the period of more growth and preparation for mitosis.
Mitosis is the process of making new body cells. During mitosis a cell duplicate all it content
including its chromosomes and finally split to form 2 identical daughter cells. Mitosis involves 4
distinct stages.
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Prophase
 Is the first stage of mitosis
 During prophase the complex DNA and proteins contained in the cell nucleus condenses
to form chromosomes, then chromosomes replicate into chromatid.
 Mitotic apparatus appears i.e. centrioles & mitotic spindle. (centriole is a cylindrical
organelle that serves as cell skeletal system).
 The centriole migrates one to each end of the cell.
 Nuclear membrane (envelop) and nucleolus start to disappear.
Metaphase
 The chromatids align on the center (i.e. line up in the middle) of the cell, attached by their
centromeres.
 Centriole and mitotic spindle move to each side of the cell.
Anaphase
 Chromatids break apart at the centromere and move to opposite pole.

Telophase
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  In telophase the mitotic spindles disappear, the chromosomes uncoil, nuclear envelop
reform (rebuild).
 Following telophase, cytokinesis occurs i.e. (physical process of cell division in which
the cytoplasm of parental cell divides into 2 daughter).
 Plasma membrane split, forming 2 identical cells.

TISSUES
Tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function. The cells act together and perform a
specific function. The tissues of the body consist of large numbers of cells and they are classified
according to the size, shape and functions of these cells.
TYPES OF TISSUE
There are four main types of tissue, each has subdivisions
1. Epithelial tissue or epithelium
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue.
Epithelial Tissue
 Epithelial tissues are type of body tissue found covering the body and lining body cavities
(buccal, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic cavity), hollow organs (uterus) and tubes (intestine,
blood vessels, fallopian tube) also it can be found in glands.
 The cells are very closely packed.
 The cells usually lie on a basement membrane which is an inert connective tissue (i.e.
basement membrane connect epithelial tissue to connective tissue).
Functions Epithelial Tissue
 Protection of underlying structures from dehydration, chemical and mechanical damage
 Secretion
 Absorption.
Types of Epithelial Tissue
1. Simple: a single layer of cells
2. Stratified: several layers of cells.
Simple Epithelium: Simple epithelium has single layer of identical cells.
Locations: It is usually found on absorptive or secretory surfaces, where the single layer
enhances these processes.
 The more active the tissue, the taller are the cells.

Types of Simple Epithelium: the types are (squamous, cuboidal, and columnar epithelium)
Squamous (pavement) epithelium
 This is formed by a single layer of flattened
cells.
 The cells fit closely together like flat stones,
forming a thin and very smooth membrane.

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Function: Diffusion takes place freely through this thin, smooth, inactive lining
Locations: Heart & blood vessels: where it is also known as endothelium, Lymph vessels,
Alveoli of the lungs and collecting ducts of the nephrons.

Cuboidal Epithelium
 This consists of cube-shaped cells fitting closely
together lying on a basement membrane.
 The cells have central round nucleus.
 They lie on basement membrane.
Locations: It forms the tubules of the kidneys and is
found in some glands.
Functions: Cuboidal epithelium is actively involved in secretion, absorption and excretion.
Columnar Epithelium
 This is formed by a single layer of tall, thin cells,
(rectangular in shape), on a basement membrane.
 It has oval nucleus near basement membrane.
 Some have microvilli in their surfaces e.g. (small
intestine) while some have cilia to help move
substances across their surfaces.
Location: small intestine and stomach.

NOTE
Ciliated Epithelium
 This is formed by columnar cells each of which has
many fine, hair-like processes, called cilia.
 The cilia consist of microtubules inside the plasma
membrane that extends from the free border (luminal
border) of the columnar cells.
 The wave-like movement of many cilia propels the
contents of the tubes, which they line in one direction
only.
 Ciliated epithelium is found lining the uterine tubes
and most of the respiratory passages. In the uterine tubes the cilia propel ova towards the
uterus and in the respiratory passages they propel mucus towards the throat.

Stratified Epithelium
 Stratified epithelium consists of several layers of cells
of various shapes.
 The superficial layers grow up from below. Basement
membranes are usually absent.
Function: The main function of stratified epithelium is to
protect underlying structures from mechanical wear and tear.
Types of Stratified Epithelium

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There are two main types: stratified squamous and transitional

Stratified Squamous Epithelium: This is composed of several layers of cells of different

shapes representing newly formed and mature cells. In the deepest layers the cells are mainly
columnar and, as they grow towards the surface, they become flattened and are then shed.

Keratinized stratified epithelium: This is found on dry surfaces that are subjected to wear and
tear, i.e. skin, hair and nails. The surface layer consists of dead epithelial cells to which the
protein keratin has been added. This forms a tough, relatively waterproof protective layer that
prevents drying of the underlying live cells. The surface layer of skin is rubbed off and is
replaced from below.

Non-keratinized stratified epithelium: This is found on wet surfaces that may be subjected to
wear and tear but are protected from drying, e.g. the conjunctiva of the eyes, the lining of the
mouth, the pharynx, the oesophagus and the vagina

Transitional epithelium
This is composed of several layers of pear-
shaped cells and is found lining the urinary
bladder. It allows for stretching as the
bladder fills

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective tissue is a group of tissue that serve to connect, support, and protect the body
structures or organ, as well transport and insulate. It is the most abundant tissue in the body.

Cells of connective tissue

Fibroblasts: produce collagen and elastic fibers and a matrix of extracellular material
Fat cells (adipocytes): found in connective tissue & are abundant in adipose tissue
Macrophages: found attached to connective tissues where they engulf & digest cell debris, bacteria and
other foreign bodies. blood, phagocytes in the alveoli of the lungs, Kupffer cells in liver sinusoids,
fibroblasts in lymph nodes and spleen and microglial cells in the brain.
Leukocytes: White blood cells are normally found in small numbers in healthy connective tissue but
migrate in significant numbers during infection when they play an important part in tissue defense.
Lymphocytes synthesize and secrete specific antibodies into the blood in the presence of foreign material,
such as microbes.
Mast cells: They are found in loose connective tissue and under the fibrous capsule of some organs, e.g.
liver and spleen, and in considerable numbers round blood vessels. They produce granules containing
heparin, histamine and other substances, which are released when the cells are damaged by disease or
injury. Histamine is involved in local and general inflammatory reactions, it stimulates the secretion of
gastric juice and is associated with the development of allergies and hypersensitivity states. Heparin
prevents coagulation of blood, which may aid the passage of protective substances from blood to affected
tissues.

Types of Connective Tissue: Loose (areolar) connective tissue, Dense connective tissues AND
Specialized connective tissues

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 CARDIOVASCULAR SYTEM
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, which acts as a pump, and the blood vessels
through which the blood circulates in the body.
Description of The Human Heart
The heart is the pumping station of blood.
Shape: roughly cone shaped hollow muscular organ.
Length: about 10cm long
Shape: owner’s fist.
Weight: 225g in women, and 310g in men heavier.
Position: lies in the thoracic cavity in the space between the lungs, but lies obliquely more to the
left than right.
Parts: apex below and base above.
Structure: Pericardium, Myocardium and Endocardium.
The Internal Structure of the Heart
The internal structure of the heart shows the picture of the inside of a normal heart, and it
consists Heart chambers:
 The heart is divided into 4 chambers, namely 2 upper chambers (left and right atrium)
auricle and 2 lower chambers left and right ventricle.
 The right chambers are separated from the left chambers by a muscular tissue partition
called septum.
 The upper chambers (atria) are separated from the lower chambers (ventricles) by valves.
Septum:
 Is a muscle partition that separated the left chambers from the right chamber

The heart valves:

 The heart consists of 4
valves namely.
 Right atrioventricular valve
(tricuspid valve): guards the
opening between the right
atrium and the right
ventricle. It’s made up of
about 3 flaps or cusps.
 Left atrioventricular
valve/bicuspid or mitral
valve: guards the opening
between the right ventricle
and the pulmonary trunk. It consists of about 3 semilunar valves.
 Aortic valve: guards the opening between the left ventricle and aorta. N/B no valve
guards the openings of the pulmonary veins into the atrium.

Chordae Tendinae:
 Is a fine tendinous cord.

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  It extends from the ventricular surface of the tricuspid and bicuspid valve to cone shaped
projection of the myocardium called papillary muscle.
 Function is to support the valve preventing back flow of blood from the ventricle into the
atrium.
Diagram showing the chordae tendinae.

STRUCTURE OF THE HEART

The heart is made up of 3 layers, namely
 Pericardium
 Myocardium
 Endocardium
Pericardium
 Pericardium is the outermost layer of
the heart.
 It is divided into 2 layers namely (fibrous layer and serous membrane)
Fibrous layer
 Fibrous layer is inelastic and fibrous in nature.
 It attaches the heart to the diaphragm and prevent overdistension of the heart.
Serous membrane
 The serous membrane has 2 layers namely parietal and visceral layers.
Parietal layer: is the outer layer of the serious membrane.
Visceral layer: is the inner layer of the serous membrane.
The space between the two layer is called potential space which contain serous fluid secreted by
the serous cells of the membrane. This serous fluid lubricate moistens, smoothen and nourishes
the layer and prevent pressure and act as shock absorbed because blood does not flow in rough
area rather smooth area.

Myocardium
 Myocardium is the second layer of the heart. It is
called cardiac muscles.
 It is like skeletal muscle except that myocardium
muscle is joined together by intercalated disc.
 Each fiber (cell) has a nucleus and one or more
branches.
 The cardiac muscle is thicker at the left side due to
pressure involved in pumping blood to circulate round
and equally return back to the heart.
 The muscle is not under voluntary control.

Endocardium
 Endocardium is the 3rd or innermost lining of the heart.

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  It forms the lining of the myocardium.
 It is thin, glittering, shining and smooth to permit smooth blood flow inside the heart.
 It is made up of squamous epithelium which lines the blood vessel.

BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART

 The deoxygenated blood from all part of the
body is emptied into the right and left atrium
by the two largest veins in the body called
superior and inferior vena cava.
 The right atrium contract, the blood passes
via the right atrioventricular valve into the
right ventricle.
 When the right ventricle is filled, it contracts
and pump the blood through the pulmonary
valve into into the pulmonary trunk, then
into the left and right pulmonary arteries (the only artery in the body which carries
deoxygenated blood) to the lungs for oxygenation or exchange of gases (during which
carbon dioxide is released or excreted into the lungs and oxygen is absorbed into the
blood).
 After the oxygenation, the two pulmonary veins from each lung carry the oxygenated
blood back to the left atrium.
 When the left atrium is filled, the blood is then passed through the left atrioventricular
valve into the left ventricle.
 When the left ventricle is filled, it contracts and pump the oxygenated blood through the
aortic valve into the aorta (the largest artery) for general systematic circulation of blood
to all the body parts.

NOTE: it should be noted that both atria contract at the same time and this is followed by the
simultaneous contraction of both ventricles.

BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE HEART

 Arterial blood supply to the heart layers is through the coronary artery (left and right
coronary artery). Both arises 2cm above the aortic valve.
 The coronary arteries receive about 5% of the blood pumped from the heart.
Left Coronary Artery
 The left coronary artery moves
towards the left lateral side of the
heart, give rise to left lateral
coronary artery which supplies the
left lateral part of the heart and
anterior surface of the heart with
oxygenated blood.

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  The left coronary artery moves down to the apex of the heart to give rise to inferior
coronary artery which supplies the inferior part of the heart.
Right Coronary Artery
 The right coronary artery give rise to right lateral coronary artery which supplies the
right lateral part of the heart, right coronary artery also give rise to posterior artery
that supplies blood to the posterior part of the heart
With these networks of arteries, the heart becomes highly vascularized.
Note - Venous drainage: Most of the venous blood is collected into several small veins that join
to form the coronary sinus which opens into the right atrium. The remainder passes directly into
the heart chambers through little venous channels.

CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF THE HEART

Conducting system of the heart is a network
or group of specialized muscle cells found in
the cardiac walls. These muscle cells initiate
and send electrical stimulus or signals to the
entire myocardium thus causing myocardial
contraction. They are
 Sinoatrial node
 Atrioventricular node
 Atrioventricular bundle
 Purkinjes fibers

Sinoatrial Node
 S.A. Node is small mass of specialized cells is in the wall of the right atrium near the
opening of the superior vena cava.
 The SA node is known as the 'pace-maker' of the heart because the presence of blood in
the right atrium stimulate it to generate electrical impulses which is spread to the atrial
myocardium causing both atria to contract simultaneously forcing blood through the
atrioventricular valve into the ventricles.
Atrioventricular Node

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  A.V. Node is a small mass of neuromuscular tissue situated in the wall of the atrial
septum near the atrioventricular valves.
 A.V. node is stimulated by impulses from the atrial myocardium and it causes myocardial
contraction at slower rate.
Atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle or bundle of His)
 Atrioventricular bundle is a mass of specialized fibers that originate from the AV node.
 The A.V. bundle divides into right and left bundle branches which travels down along the
ventricular septum to the apex of the heart.
 Within the ventricular myocardium the branches break up into fine fibers, called the
Purkinje fibers.
 The AV bundle conduct electrical impulses and spread it to the ventricular septum, and
Purkinje fibers.
Purkinje fibers
 Purkinje fibers are fine neuromuscular fine fibers that arises from the A.V. bundle.
 It transmits impulses to the apex of the myocardium thereby causing the ventricles to
contract and pump blood into the pulmonary trunk and aorta.

Factors affecting heart rate

 Autonomic nervous system: the rate at which the heart beats is a balance of
sympathetic and parasympathetic activity and this is the most important factor in
determining heart rate.
 Circulating chemicals: The hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline, secreted by the
adrenal medulla, have the same effect as sympathetic stimulation, i.e. they increase
the heart rate. Other hormones including thyroxine increase heart rate by their
metabolic effect. Some drugs, dissolved gases and electrolytes in the blood may either
increase or decrease the heart rate.
 Position: When the person is upright, the heart rate is usually faster than when lying
down.
 Exercise: Active muscles need more blood than resting muscles and this is achieved
by an increased heart rate and selective vasodilatation.
 Emotional states: During excitement, fear or anxiety the heart rate is increased.
Other effects mediated by the sympathetic nervous system may be present.
 Gender: The heart rate is faster in women than men.
 Age: In babies and small children, the heart rate is more rapid than in older children
and adults.
 Temperature: The heart rate rises and falls with body temperature.
 Baroreceptor reflex.

CARDIAC CYCLE
Cardiac cycle is a series of action that the heart
undergoes to pump blood round the whole body. It is
also known as heartbeat. During each heartbeat, the

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heart contract and relax, the period of contraction is called systole while the period of relaxation
is called diastole.

Stages of the cardiac cycle

 The normal number of cardiac cycles per minute ranges from 60 to 80.
 Taking 74 as an example each cycle lasts about 0.8 of a second and consists of:

Atrial Systole: contraction of the atria. It takes about 0.1 seconds.

Ventricular Systole: contraction of the ventricles. It takes about 0.3 seconds.
Complete Cardiac Diastole: relaxation of the atria and ventricles. It takes about 0.4 seconds.
Heart Sounds
 The individual is not usually conscious of his heartbeat, but heart sound can be obtained
if the ear or the diaphragm of a stethoscope is placed on the chest wall a little below the
left nipple and slightly nearer the midline.
 Two sounds, separated by a short pause, can be clearly distinguished.
 The heart sound is described in words as 'lub dup'.
 The first sound, 'lub', is fairly loud and is due to the closure of the atrioventricular
valves. This corresponds with ventricular systole.
 The second sound, 'dup', is softer and is due to the closure of the aortic and pulmonary
valves. This corresponds with atrial systole.

ELECTRICAL ACTIVITIES WITHIN THE HEART

 The body fluids and
tissues are good
conductors of electricity,
thus electrical activity
within the heart can be
detected by attaching
electrodes to the surface of
the body.
 The pattern of electrical
activity may be displayed
on an oscilloscope screen or traced on paper.
 The apparatus used is an electrocardiograph and the tracing is an electrocardiogram
(ECG).

The normal ECG tracing shows five waves which, by convention, have been named P, Q, R, S
and T.
 P wave: represent the impulses from the SA node which sweeps over the atria
myocardium.

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  QRS complex: represents the very rapid spread of the impulse from the AV node
through the AV bundle and the Purkinje fibers and the electrical activity of the
ventricular muscle.
 T wave: represents the relaxation of the ventricular muscle.

The ECG described above originates from the SA node and is known as sinus rhythm. The rate
of sinus rhythm is 60 to 100 beats per minute.

A faster heart rate is called tachycardia and a slower heart rate, bradycardia.

By examining the pattern of waves and the time interval between cycles and parts of cycles,
information about the state of the myocardium and the cardiac conduction system is obtained.

Take Home Assignment: Not to be submitted

Find out the meaning, locations and functions of:
1. Baroreceptors
2. Chemoreceptors

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION OF THE STEM CELL
Stem cells are special human cell that are able to develop into many different cell types or the
only cell in the body that can produce or create specialized cells such as blood cells among other
trillions of cells in the body.

Types of stem cells

1. Hematopoietic stem cell (blood stem cells)
2. Mesenchymal stem cells
3. Neural stem cells.

BLOOD
Definition: Blood is a fluid connective tissue consisting of several types of cells in combination
with fluid. The fluid content enables it to circulate throughout the whole body via blood vessels
by the pumping action of the heart. Blood is contained in the vessel called blood vessel.
Volume: 5 – 5.6 liters in average adult.

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Weight: blood account for 7% of the total body weight.
The proportion is less in women, greater in children and
decrease in adult stage.
Colour: bright red when oxygenated and deep maroon
when deoxygenated. Blood is never blue in colour.
PH: 7.35 – 7.45 (slightly alkaline)
Composition of blood:
Blood is divided into 2 part namely
Plasma and Cellular part.
This is apparent when a sample of blood is poured in a centrifuge.

PLASMA
The plasma is the straw coloured fluid of blood which account 55% of whole blood.
Composition of plasma
 Water 90 - 92%. Other dissolved substances are
 Plasma proteins: which make up about 7% of plasma, are normally retained within the
blood, because they are too big to escape through the capillary pores into the tissues.
They are largely responsible for creating the osmotic pressure of blood (normally 25
mmHg or 3.3 kPa), which keeps plasma fluid within the circulation. If plasma protein
levels fall, because of either reduced production or loss from the blood vessels, osmotic
pressure is also reduced, and fluid moves into the tissues (oedema) and body cavities.
The plasma proteins are:
i. Albumins – most abundant plasma protein (60%) produced in the liver.
ii. Globulins (F) – complex protein produced by lymphocytes and it maintain osmotic
pressure of blood.
iii. Fibrinogen - most abundant blood clotting factors
 Inorganic salts (mineral salts): sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, potassium,
magnesium, phosphate, iron, calcium, copper, iodine, cobalt.
 Nutrients: principally from digested foods, e.g. monosaccharides (mainly glucose),
amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol and vitamins.
 Organic waste materials e.g. urea, uric acid, and creatinine are the waste products of
protein metabolism. They are formed in the liver and conveyed in blood to the kidneys
for excretion. Carbon dioxide, released by all cells, is conveyed to the lungs for excretion
 Hormones: These are chemical compounds synthesized by endocrine glands. Hormones
pass directly from the cells of the glands into the blood which transports them to their
target tissues and organs elsewhere in the body, where they influence cellular activity.
 Gases: e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen (atmospheric nitrogen).

Cellular Content of Blood

Cells makes up 45% of the blood. There are
three types of blood cells
 Erythrocytes or red cells.
 Thrombocytes or platelets.
 Leukocytes or white cells.

17
FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS
The process of blood cell formation is called hemopoiesis. The tissues that produces blood cells
are called hemopoietic tissues. The body has two hemopoietic tissues, namely:
i. Red bone marrow
ii. Lymphatic tissues

The Red Bone Marrow: the pluripotent stem cell in the red bone marrow produces all types of
blood cells. (pluripotent means ‘capable of producing many’). For the first few years of life, red
bone marrow occupies the entire bone capacity, and from the age of 20 years above, the red bone
marrow is gradually replaced by fatty yellow marrow that has no hemopoietic function. In adult,
hemopoiesis is confined to flat bones and irregular bones such (sternum, cranial bones,
vertebrate, ribs and the pelvis bone of the long bones)
The lymphatic tissues: this is found in the spleen, lymph nodes and thymus gland. The
lymphatic tissues supplement blood cells production by producing lymphocytes, a specific type
of WBC. All the blood cells originate from the pluripotent stem cell of the red bone marrow and
go through several developmental stages before entering the blood stream. Each blood cell has it
own separate line of development.
Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells:
 It is the most abundant blood cell accounting 99% of the
blood cell.
 They are circular biconcave non-nucleated discs with
sunken center
 the diameter is about 7 micrometers.
 They contain no intracellular organelle as they lose their
organelles during development.
 It is flexible to enables it squeeze through narrow capillaries after which it springs back
to its original shape.
 Life span is 120 days.

The Process of Production of Erythrocyte / Red Blood Cell

 The process of red blood cell production is called erythropoiesis.
 It takes 7 days for production of erythrocyte or red blood cell.
 Eerythropoietin produce in the kidney stimulate erythropoiesis
 Erythrocyte is produced by pluripotent stem cell of red bone marrow.
 It passes through 2 stages of development namely maturation of erythrocyte and
formation of hemoglobin.

Stage 1: Maturation of Erythrocyte

 Pluripotent stem cell (heamocytoblast) in the red bone marrow produces proerythroblast.
 The proerythroblast with vitamin B12 (cobalamin) and folic acid develop into
erythroblast.
 Erythroblast develop into normoblast
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  Normoblast with iron develop into reticulocyte.
 The reticulocyte loses their nucleus to avoid cell division and also lose their
intracellular organelles thus leaving room for hemoglobin development and finally
become / develop into erythrocyte.

Note: Deficiency of either vitamin B12 or folic acid or iron leads to impaired red cell
production.
Stage 2: Hemoglobin formation
 Hemoglobin develop inside reticulocyte after the
loss of intracellular organelles after which a
matured red blood cell is formed to carry oxygen
(oxyhemoglobin) to tissue cells.

Hemoglobin (Hb)
 Hemoglobin is a large, complex protein molecule and the oxygen carrying capacity of
blood.
 It is synthesized inside developing
erythrocytes in red bone marrow.
 It is made up of 4 ribbon – like protein
chain called globin i.e. (2 Beta chain
& 2 Alpha chain and each chain
contain about 146 amino acid in a
sequence) and 4 iron-containing
substance called haem which bound to
each globin.
 Hemoglobin in mature erythrocytes combines with oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin,
giving arterial blood its characteristic red colour.
 In this way the bulk of oxygen absorbed from the lungs is transported around the body to
maintain a continuous oxygen supply to all cells.
 Hemoglobin is also involved, to a lesser extent, in the transport of carbon dioxide from
the body cells to the lungs for excretion.
 Each hemoglobin molecule contains four atoms of iron. Each atom can carry one
molecule of oxygen; therefore, one hemoglobin molecule can carry up to four molecules
of oxygen to be saturated and form oxyhemoglobin
 This means that an average RBC carries about 280 million hemoglobin given each cell a
theoretical oxygen carrying capacity of over a billion oxygen molecules.

TYPES OF HAEMOGLOBIN
a) Adult haemoglobin (HBA) consisting of 2 Alpha
chain and 2 Beta chain
b) Fetal heamoglobin (HBF) consisting of 2 Alpha
chain and 2gamma chain.
Normal adult blood contains
 97% (HBA) consisting of 2 Alpha chain and 2
Beta chain

19
  2% (HBA2) consisting of 2 Alpha chain and 2 delta chain
 1% (HBF) consisting of 2 Alpha chain and 2gamma chain.

HBS is the most common worldwide. Each alpha chain has 141 amino acid while beta, gamma, and delta
chain have 146 amino acid in their DNA. The amino acids are arranged in sequential order. Any
mutation or translocation result to a defect in the RBCs.The amino acids are Alanine, Arginine,
Asparagine, Aspartic acid, Cysteine, Glutamate, Glutamic acid, Glycine, Histadine, Isoleucine, Leucin,
Lysine, Methionine, Proline, Serine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Tyrosine, Valine etc.

Control of Erythropoiesis
 The primary stimulus to increased erythropoiesis is hypoxia, i.e. deficient oxygen supply
to body cells usually caused by haemorrhage or excessive erythrocyte breakdown
(haemolysis) due to disease.
 Hypoxia increases erythrocyte formation by stimulating the production of the hormone
erythropoietin, mainly by the kidneys.
 Erythropoietin stimulates an increase in the production of proerythroblasts and the release
of increased numbers of reticulocytes into the blood.
 These changes increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and reverse tissue
hypoxia, the original stimulus.
 When the tissue hypoxia is overcome, erythropoietin production declines.
 When erythropoietin levels are low, red cell formation does not take place even in the
presence of hypoxia, and anaemia (the inability of the blood to carry adequate oxygen for
body needs) develops.
 It is believed that erythropoietin regulates normal red cell replacement, i.e. in the absence
of hypoxia
Destruction of erythrocytes
The life span of erythrocytes is about 120 days and their breakdown, or haemolysis, is carried out
by phagocytic reticuloendothelial cells. These cells are found in many tissues but the main sites
of haemolysis are the spleen, bone marrow and liver. As erythrocytes age, changes in their cell
membranes make them more susceptible to haemolysis. Iron released by haemolysis is retained
in the body and reused in the bone marrow to form haemoglobin. Biliverdin is formed from the
protein part of the erythrocytes. It is almost completely reduced to the yellow pigment bilirubin,
before it is bound to plasma globulin and transported to the liver. In the liver it is changed from a
fat-soluble to a water-soluble form before it is excreted as a constituent of bile.

BLOOD GROUP
Centuries ago, excessive loss of blood from trauma, road traffic accident, gunshot injuries,
surgery etc. was fatal as people were bleeding to death. Attempt to transfuse blood from one
person to another were rarely successful. The recipients of blood usually become ill, some
develop transfusion reaction and die. Until in 1990, the scientists discovered that the surface of

20
each red blood cells carries a different type of protein called antigen or agglutinogen. This lead
to discovery of blood group.

DEFINITION OF BLOOD GROUPING

Blood grouping is the classification of blood based on the presence or absence of antigen or
agglutinogen on the surface of the red blood cells, and also based on the presence or absence of
antibodies in the plasma.

Blood group is thus determined by antigen on the surface of the red blood cell. The red blood
cells have antigen A and B on it surfaces, and these antigens have been categorized into blood
group.

SYSTEMS OF BLOOD GROUPING

The international Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT) have recognized about 35 methods of
determining blood group: ABO system, Rhesus D antigen, Lewis, Duffy, MNs, Kidd, Kell &
Lutheran. The most commonly used is ABO and Rhesus D antigen system. The red blood cell
carries antigens (agglutinogens) on it surfaces while the plasma carries antibodies (agglutinins).
The antibodies fight against the antigens of other blood types.
ABO SYSTEM OF BLOOD GROUPING
The ABO system is a system of categorizing human blood group based on the presence and
absence of ABO antigens or agglutinogen on the surface of the red blood cells.
In ABO system, blood is grouped into 4 based on the antigen on the surface of the red blood
cells. They are
1. Type A (group A): the red blood cells has antigen A on its surfaces, with anti-B
antibodies in it plasma against B.
2. Type B (group B) the red blood cells has antigen B on its surfaces, with anti-A
antibodies in it plasma against A.
3. Type AB (group AB): the red blood cells has antigen A and antigen B on its surfaces,
but neither anti –A nor anti-B antibodies.

21
 4. Type O (group O): has neither A nor B antigens on the surface of their red blood cells
but has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in it plasma.

RED BLOOD CELLS COMPATIBILITY

1. Group A individual can receives only from individual of group A or O. (with A being
preferable) and can donate blood to individual with A and AB.
2. Group B individual can receives only from individual of group B or O. (with B being
preferable) and can donate blood to individual with B and AB.
3. Group AB individual can receives from any group (with AB being preferable) but
cannot donate blood to any group other than AB. Thus they are known as universal
recipient.
4. Group O individual can receives only from individual of group O only but can donate
blood to any ABO blood group i.e. (A, B, AB, and O).

22
NOTE: Agglutination reaction occurs whenever similar antibody agglutinate with similar
antigen e.g. antigen A agglutinate the antibody A, antigen B agglutinate with antigen B. thus
transfusion is considered safe as long as the serum of the recipient does not contain antibodies
for the blood cell antigens of the donor.

RHESUS BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM

Rhesus blood group is so named because it was first studied in rhesus monkeys. People are
Rhesus positive if they have Rh antigen (the D antigen) on the surface of their blood cells, and
people who do not have this are rhesus negative. The ABO system and Rhesus blood type are
usually expressed together.
Example: a person with A or blood group A in ABO system and Rhesus positive is said to be A
positive. The rarest combination is AB negative, which occur in less than 1% of the population.

USES OF BLOOD GROUPING

 Blood transfusion
 To diagnose or predict Rh incompatibility.
 To investigate a case of dispute paternity, but this is not absolutely reliable. E.g. if a
mother is O and baby is A group, then the alleged father cannot be of O group.
 Medico legal value – for criminal cases.
 Organ transplantation
 Susceptibility to certain disease e.g. O group persons are more prone to peptic ulcer.

LEUKOCYTES (WHITE BLOOD CELLS) WBC

Leukocytes are body’s soldiers. They provide defense and immunity to the body against invading
microbes. The Leukocytes differs from the RBC in that they possess nuclei and do not contain
hemoglobin. They also contain granules when stained and examine under a microscope.
Leukocytes account for about 1% of the blood volume.
Classification of Leukocytes
i. Granulocyte (neutrophil, eosinophil and basophil)
ii. Agranulocyte (T-lymphocyte and B lymphocyte)
Granulocyte: are WBCs that contains granules in their cytoplasm with multi-lobed nuclei.
Types of Granulocyte
i. Neutrophil
ii. Eosinophil
iii. Basophil.

Neutrophil: are the most abundant

WBCs.
 Colour – purple.
 Life span – 6 – 9 days in the blood
stream.

23
  Function – phagocytosis i.e. (they engulf and kill microbes that gains entrance into the
body tissues or system. They also helps in removal of cell debris.

Eosinophil:
 Colour – red.
 Locations- blood stream, while most
are found in the lining of the
oesophagus, respiratory and digestive
tract.
 Function: elimination of parasite such
as worms too big to be phagocytosed. They are equipped to do this with certain toxic
chemicals stored in their granules which are released when eosinophils bind to an
infecting organism.
Basophil:
 Colour – blue.
 Function – it is associated with allergic reaction. Basophil secretes heparin (an
anticoagulant) that prevent blood clotting. It also secrete histamine which triggers allergic
reaction and inflammation.
Agranulocyte: are WBCs that lacks cytoplasmic granules. They have large nucleus that lacks
lobes.
Types of Agranulocyte
i. Monocyte
ii. Lymphocyte
Monocytes: are the largest WBCs.
 Function: phagocytosis of large
bacteria’s and viral infected cells.
 Life span: macrophages can live for years.
 Monocytes circulate in the blood stream for 10-20 hours and some then migrate to tissues
of the body where they are transformed into macrophages (aggressive phagocytic cells
that ingest bacteria’s, cell debris and cancerous cells.
 Both types of cell produce interleukin 1 which:
i. Acts on the hypothalamus, causing the rise in body temperature associated with
microbial infections
ii. Stimulates the production of some globulins by the liver
iii. Enhances the production of activated T-lymphocytes.

 Macrophages have important functions in inflammation and immunity.

24
 The Monocyte-Macrophage System: This system, which is sometimes called the
reticuloendothelial system, consists of the body's complement of monocytes and
macrophages. Some macrophages are mobile whereas others are fixed. These include:
 Histiocytes in connective tissues
 Microglia in the brain
 Kupffer cells in the liver
 Alveolar macrophages in the lungs
 Sinus-lining macrophages (reticular cells) in the spleen, lymph nodes and thymus gland
 Mesangial cells in the glomerulus of nephrons in the kidney
 Osteoclasts in bone.
Macrophages function in close association with monocytes in the blood and with
lymphocytes which influence their activity. They are actively phagocytic and if they
encounter large amounts of foreign or waste material, they tend to multiply at the site and
'wall off the area, isolating the material, e.g. in the lungs when foreign material has been
inhaled. Their numbers are increased in microbial infections, collagen diseases and some
noninfective bowel conditions.

Lymphocyte: are the smallest WBCs.

 Function: provision of long term immunity.
Types of lymphocytes
i. B- lymphocyte: produces antibodies against specific antigens.
ii. T-lymphocyte: attack and destroy infected or cancerous cells.

Diagrammatic illustration showing stages of WBCs production

THROMBOCYTES (PLATELETS)
Thrombocytes are one of the blood cells. They are very small disc with diameter of 2-4
micrometer. They have no nucleus, their cytoplasm is packed with granules containing varieties

25
of substances that promote blood clotting which causes hemostasis. Thromboplastin is a
hormone produce by the liver that regulate platelets production. Platelets are also produced by
the pluripotent stem cells of the red bone marrow. Life span is 8-11 days.
Functions of Platelets
 Helps in vasoconstriction after vascular injury.
 Engulfment of bacteria and carbon particles.
 Platelet plays important role in inflammation by release of platelet growth factors that
helps in the process of chemotaxis.
 Platelet stores serotonin and histamine.

ASSIGNMENT TWO: Read LYMPHATIC SYSTEM chapter 6 (of about 3 pages in Ross & Wilson Anatomy &
Physiology in health & illness carefully and answer the following questions. Submit to Mr. Temple (Sir T).
1. The correct size, weight and colour of human spleen is?
a) 12cm long, 7cm wide & 2.5cm thick, weighs about 200g and purplish in colour
b) 11cm long, 8cm wide & 2.5cm thick, weighs 250g and purplish in colour
c) 12cm long, 7cm wide & 2.5cm thick, weighs only 200kg and red in colour
d) 10cm long, 8cm wide & 3.5cm thick, weighs less than 200g and pink in colour
2. Which of the following statement is NOT correct about the spleen? (a) Spleen is the
functional unit of the lymphatic system (b) Has anterior, medial and inferior surfaces (c) Has
gastric, renal and colic impressions (d) Splenic artery, vein, lymph vessel enters into the spleen
via its hilum.
3. The lymphatic vessel that drains the lymph from the right arm is called
a) Right lymphatic duct (b) Lymphatic vessel (c) Lateral lymphatic duct (d) Veins.
4. ____________ are encapsulated collection of lymphoid tissue located strategically in the
back of the mouth and throat to intercept swallowed or inhaled antigen.
a) Tonsil (b) Lymph node (c) Lymph (d) Lymphatic system
5. Lymphatic capillaries are
a) Blind ended (b) thick walled (c) equipped with valves (d) in direct contact with blood.
6. The thymus gland consists of 2 lobes joined by areolar tissue. (a) TRUE (b) FALSE
7. Which statement below is NOT correct about lymph? (a) Lymph is a clourless liquid similar
to glycerol (b) Lymph flows through a network of lymph vessel (c) Lymph is a clear watery fluid
similar to interstitial fluid with less protein (d) Lymph is similar in composition to blood plasma
8. The factors that keep lymph moving at low pressure even against gravity include all except
(a) Pumping action of the heart actively propels lymph flow (b) Valves of the lymph vessels (c)

26
 Fall in pressure in the thoracic cavity during inspiration (d) Action of the smooth muscle within
lymph vessel wall.
9. Lymph from the legs, pelvic and abdominal cavities, left half of the thorax, head, neck and
right arm are drained by __________
(a) thoracic duct (b) Right lymphatic duct (c) left lymphatic duct (d) abdominopelvic duct.
10. Lymph from the right half of the thorax, right arm, are drained by __________
(a) Right lymphatic duct (b) thoracic duct (c) left lymphatic duct (d) right arm duct.
11. Which duct begins at the cisterna chyli and measures about 40 cm long?
(a) thoracic duct (b) Right lymphatic duct (c) left lymphatic duct (d) abdominopelvic duct
12. Which duct empties lymph into the left subclavian vein in the root of the neck
(a) thoracic duct (b) Right lymphatic duct (c) left lymphatic duct (d) left arm duct
13. The hormone produced by epithelial cell of the thymus gland is called
(a) Thymosin (b) thymus hormone (c) T3T4 (d) thymus lymphatin.
14. Bone marrow is classified as lymphoid tissue because (a)Lymphocytes are produced there (b)
it filters blood (c) it produces T -cells (d) it produces plasma protein
15. Lymph nodes of the neck are called ________________________________
16. Lymph nodes of the armpit are called _______________________________
17. Lymph nodes of the groin are called ________________________________
18. __________________ tonsils are located at the back & sides of the tongue.
19. _______________ paired tonsils are found on the pharyngeal wall at the back of the mouth.
20. ____________ single tonsil lies at the back of nasal cavity on the posterior wall of pharynx.

MR. ECHEM AGADA’S SECTION

INTRODUCTION
Anatomy is the scientific study of the structure and organization of living organisms, particularly
the human body.

Branches of Anatomy
1. Gross Anatomy: Study of visible structures, organs, and systems.
2. Microscopic Anatomy: Study of cells, tissues, and organs at microscopic level.
3. Developmental Anatomy: Study of embryonic development and fetal formation.
4. Comparative Anatomy: Study of similarities and differences between humans and other
animals.

Divisions of Anatomy
1. Systemic Anatomy: Study of specific systems (e.g., nervous, circulatory).
2. Regional Anatomy: Study of specific body regions (e.g., head, thorax).
3. Functional Anatomy: Study of structure-function relationships.

Anatomical Levels of Organisation

1. Atomic level-Atoms make up molecules

27
2. Molecular level- molecules form cells. A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held
together by attractive forces known as chemical bond. Examples include water, oxygen, DNA,
Hemoglobin, cholesterol etc.
3. Cellular level-Cells form tissues. E.g., white blood cells, bone cells etc.
4. Tissue Level-Tissues form organs. E.g., epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
5. Organ Level-Organs form systems. E.g., heart, lungs, pancreas, kidney etc.
6. Systemic Level-Systems form the entire body. E.g., respiratory, digestive, renal , reproductive
etc.
Body Regions
1. Head-Contains the brain, eyes, ears, and mouth.
2. Neck-Connects the head to the body.
3. Thorax (Chest)-Contains the heart and lungs.
4. Abdomen-Contains digestive organs.
5. Pelvis-Contains reproductive organs.
6. Upper Limbs (Arms)-Include shoulders, arms, and hands.
7. Lower Limbs (Legs)- Include hips, legs, and feet.
Anatomical Terminology: Anatomical terms are words used to describe the structure and
organization of the human body.
A. Anatomical Positions
Anatomical positions are standardized reference points used to describe the location of body
structures.
Main Anatomical Positions
1. Anatomical Position-Standing upright with feet shoulder-width apart, arms at sides, palms
facing forward, and head level.
2. Supine Position- Lying on back with face up.
3. Prone Position-Lying on stomach with face down.
4. Lateral Recumbent Position-Lying on side with legs straight.
5. Sitting Position-Sitting upright with legs straight.

B. Directional Terms
1. Superior-Toward the head.
2. Inferior-Toward the feet.
3. Anterior- Front.
4. Posterior- Back.
5. Medial-Toward the midline.
6. Lateral- Away from the midline.
7. Proximal-Closer to the center.
8. Distal-Farther from the center.

C. Anatomical Planes
1. Sagittal Plane- Divides the body into left and right.
2. Frontal Plane (Coronal) - Divides the body into anterior and posterior.
3. Transverse Plane (Horizontal)-Divides the body into superior and inferior.

28
Other Terms:
1. Dorsal- Back or posterior surface
2. Ventral- Front or anterior surface
3. Ipsilateral- Same side
4. Contralateral-Opposite side
5. Bilateral- Both sides

Applications of Anatomy
Anatomy has numerous applications across various fields, including:
A. Medical and Health Sciences
1. Diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
2. Surgery and surgical planning.
3. Clinical research and trials.
4. Medical imaging (e.g., X-ray, MRI).
5. Forensic medicine.

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
Definition: The musculoskeletal system is a complex network of muscles, bones, joints, tendons,
and ligaments that work together to provide movement, stability, and support to the body.
Components
1. Bones (skeletal system)
2. Joints
3. Muscles (muscular system)
4. Tendons-connect muscles to bones
5. Ligaments-connect bones to other bones
6. Cartilage-cushions joints
7. Connective tissue-supports and binds components

MUSCLE
A muscle is a type of tissue in the human body that has the ability to contract, relax and produce
movement. Muscles are made of specialized cells called muscle fibers that work together to
generate force and facilitate movement.

TYPES OF MUSCLES: Cardiac, Smooth and Skeletal

CARDIAC MUSCLE (INVOLUNTARY): This is also known as myocardium, is a specialized

type of muscle tissue that makes up the heart. It is responsible for pumping blood throughout the
body.
Structure
1. Cardiac muscle cells (cardiomyocytes): These are the contractile units.
2. Striations: Visible bands due to organized myofilaments.
3. Intercalated discs: Specialized junctions connecting myocytes, enabling contraction.

29
4. Transverse tubules are tubular invaginations facilitating rapid transmission of action potentials
5. Sarcoplasmic reticulum modifies contraction and relaxation by regulating calcium.
Functions
1. Contractions of cardiac muscle generates force for blood pumping.
2. Relaxation of the muscle allows ventricles to fill with blood.
3. Conductivity: It permits rapid transmission of electrical impulses.
4. Elasticity: Elastic nature of the muscle enables stretching during filling.

Arterial Blood Supply

 Coronary arteries: A branch of the aorta supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscles.
 Coronary sinus: A large vein collecting deoxygenated blood from the myocardium.
 Nerve: It is innervated by the Vagus nerve (CN X) which originates from the brain stem.

A diagram showing three types of muscle

SMOOTH MUSCLE
This is also known as non-striated muscles are
involuntary muscles that lack striations (stripes)
under microscopic examination. They are found
in various organs and tissues including;
 Blood vessels
 Digestive tract
 Respiratory tract
 Urinary tract
 Eye
 Skin (pilosebaceous muscle)
 Uterus.
Types of smooth muscles
There are two functional categories of smooth
muscle; multi-unit and single unit
 Multi-unit smooth muscles do not possess
gap junction and contraction does not spread from cell to cell. It occurs in some of the
largest arteries and pulmonary air passages, in the piloerector muscles of the hair
follicles, and in the iris of the eye.
 Single-unit smooth muscle: This is more widespread. It occurs in most blood vessels and
in the digestive system, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracts. Thus, it is also called
visceral muscles. In many of the hollow viscera, it forms two or more layers-typically an
inner circular layer in which the myocytes encircles the organ and an outer longitudinal
layer in which the myocytes run lengthwise along the organ.
Structure
1. Muscle cells (Smooth muscle fibres): They possess spindle shaped cells with a central
nucleus.

30
2. Actin and myosin filament: Contractile proteins arranged in a non-striated pattern.
3. Dense bodies: Specialized regions anchoring actin filaments.
4. Caveolae: Membrane invaginations that facilitate calcium regulation.
5. Sarcoplasmic reticulum: This modulates calcium levels for contraction.
Functions
 Muscle contraction regulates movement and pressure.
 Blood pressure regulation by controlling vascular diameter.
 Digestion: It modulates intestinal motility.
 It controls respiration by regulating air way diameter.
Arterial Supply
1. Aorta: The main artery branching into smaller arteries.
2. Muscular arteries- supply oxygenated blood to smooth muscle tissues.
3. Arterioles regulate blood flow to the smooth muscle cells.
4. Capillaries facilitate oxygen and nutrient exchange.
Innervations
1. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates smooth muscle contraction and relaxation.
2. Sympathetic division typically stimulates contraction.
3. Enteric nervous system governs GIT smooth muscle.
4. Somatic nervous system controls involuntary contraction (e.g., urethral sphincter).
Functions
 Movement-voluntary and involuntary movement
 Stability-maintains posture and balance
 Support- protects internal organs
 Shock absorption-distributes force and reduces impact
 Blood cell production-bone marrow produces blood cells
Skeletal Muscle
Definition: Skeletal muscle is a voluntary, striated muscle tissue enabling movement, support
and stability.
Structure
1. Muscle Fibers: Long, multinucleated cells.
2. Sarcolemma: Muscle fiber membrane.
3. Myofibrils: Contractile units within muscle fibers.
4. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Regulates calcium levels.
5. T-Tubules: Transverse tubules facilitating rapid transmission.
Characteristics
1. Striated: Visible bands due to organized myofilaments.
2. Voluntary: Contraction controlled consciously.
3. Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch: Fiber types for speed and endurance.
4. Highly Plastic: Adapts to exercise and demands.
Functions
1. Movement: Enables locomotion, manipulation and facial expressions.
2. Posture: Maintains body position.

31
 3. Support: Stabilizes joints.
4. Thermogenesis: Generates heat.
Types
1. Skeletal Muscle Fibers: Extrafusal (movement) and intrafusal (sensing).
2. Fast-Twitch Fibers: Rapid contraction (type II).
3. Slow-Twitch Fibers: Endurance (type I).
4. Intermediate Fibers: Balanced properties.
Innervation
1. Motor Neurons: Transmit signals from the central nervous system.
2. Neuromuscular Junction: Synapse between motor neurons and muscle fibers.
3. Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter released by motor neurons.
Skeleton
Definition: The skeleton is the framework of the human body, composed of bones, joints,
and ligaments that provide support, protection, and movement.
Functions
1. Support: Maintains posture and body shape.
2. Protection: Shields internal organs (e.g., brain, heart, lungs).
3. Movement: Facilitates locomotion, flexibility, and mobility.
4. Blood cell production: Bone marrow produces blood cells.
5. Mineral storage: Bones store minerals (e.g., calcium, phosphorus).
Types of Skeleton
1. Axial skeleton (80 bones): Skull, vertebral column, ribcage, sternum.
2. Appendicular skeleton (126 bones): Upper and lower limbs, pelvis, shoulders.

Skeleton showing both types(Axial

and Appendicular)
Classification of bone
1. Long bones (e.g., femur, humerus).
2. Short bones (e.g., carpals, tarsals).
3. Flat bones (e.g., skull, sternum).
4. Irregular bones (e.g., vertebrae,
pelvis).
5. Sesamoid bones (e.g., patella).

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THE JOINTS, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS
Joints are structures connecting two or more bones.
A joint-synovial
Types
1. Synovial (freely moving): knees, elbows,
shoulders
2. Cartilaginous (partially moving): spine, pelvis
3. Fibrous (immovable): skull, teeth
Joint Components
 Articular cartilage: Covers bone ends
 Synovial membrane: Produces fluid for
lubrication
 Joint capsule: Connects bones, provides
stability
 Ligaments: Reinforce joint capsule
 Bursae: Fluid-filled sacs reducing friction
TENDONS: Are fibrous cords connecting muscles to
bones
Functions
1. Transmit forces from muscles to bones
2. Provide stability and support
Structure
1. Collagen fibers
2. Tendon sheath (surrounding tissue)
LIGAMENTS: Are fibrous bands connecting bones to bones
Functions
1. Provide stability and support
2. Limit excessive movement
Types
1. Intracapsular (within joint capsule)
2. Extracapsular (outside joint capsule)
Types of Ligaments
1. Collateral ligaments (side-to-side stability)
2. Cruciate ligaments (anterior and posterior stability)
3. Annular ligaments (ring-shaped, surrounding joints)
Muscle Structure
1. Muscle Fiber: Long, cylindrical cells.
2. Sarcolemma: Muscle fiber membrane.
3. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Smooth ER, regulates calcium.
4. Myofibrils: Contractile units within muscle fibers.
5. Sarcomere: Functional unit of myofibrils.
Muscle Functions
1. Movement: Voluntary and involuntary movement.
2. Stability: Maintains posture and balance.
3. Support: Protects internal organs.
4. Heat Production: Generates heat through contraction.
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Muscle Properties
 1. Contractility: Ability to contract.
 2. Extensibility: Ability to stretch.
 3. Elasticity: Ability to return to original shape.
Muscle Contraction
1. Excitation-Contraction Coupling: Neural stimulus triggers contraction.
2. Sliding Filament Theory: Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other.
Bone Formation
Bone formation, or osteogenesis, is a complex process involving multiple cell types, growth
factors, and hormones.
Stages of Bone Formation
1. Osteogenesis (bone formation)
2. Osteolysis (bone resorption)
3. Bone remodeling (resorption + formation)
Cell Types
1. Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells)
2. Osteoclasts (bone-resorbing cells)
3. Osteocytes (mature bone cells)
4. Osteoprogenitor cells (stem cells)
Bone Formation Process
1. Mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into osteoblasts.
2. Osteoblasts produce collagen and minerals.
3. Collagen fibers are organized into a matrix.
4. Minerals (calcium, phosphate) are deposited into the matrix.
5. Bone matrix calcifies, forming hydroxyapatite.
6. Osteoblasts become embedded in the matrix, becoming osteocytes.
Bone Types
1. Compact bone (dense, cortical bone)
2. Cancellous bone (spongy, trabecular bone)
3. Endochondral bone (forms from cartilage)
4. Intramembranous bone (forms from mesenchyme)

Types of Bones
1. Long Bones: Length > width, e.g., femur (thigh), humerus (upper arm)
2. Short Bones: Cube-shaped, e.g., carpals (wrist), tarsals (ankle)
3. Flat Bones: Thin, flat, e.g., sternum (breastbone), ribs
4. Irregular Bones: Complex shapes, e.g., vertebrae, pelvis
5. Sesamoid Bones: Embedded within tendons, e.g., patella (kneecap)
6. Pneumatic Bones: Air-filled cavities, e.g., skull bones
Functions of Bones
1. Support: Provide framework for body
2. Protection: Shield internal organs (e.g., skull, ribcage)
3. Movement: Serve as attachment points for muscles
4. Blood Cell Production: Bone marrow produces blood cells
5. Mineral Storage: Store calcium, phosphorus, and other minerals
6. Endocrine Functions: Produce hormones (e.g., osteocalcin)

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Bone Structure
1. Periosteum (outer layer)
2. Compact bone (dense outer layer)
3. Cancellous bone (spongy inner layer)
4. Bone marrow (within cancellous bone)
5. Endosteum (inner layer)

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION

Nose and Mouth
1. Nostrils: Two external openings for air
entry
2. Nasal cavity: Air passes through the
nasal turbinates and meatuses
3. Mouth: Air enters through the oral
cavity
 Pharynx (Throat)
1. Nasopharynx: Upper portion, connects
nasal cavity to larynx
2. Oropharynx: Middle portion, connects
oral cavity to larynx
3. Laryngopharynx: Lower portion,
connects larynx to esophagus
 Larynx (Voice Box)
1. Epiglottis: Flap separating trachea from esophagus
2. Vocal cords: Two pairs of folds producing sound
3. Thyroid cartilage: Largest cartilage, forms Adam's apple
 Trachea (Windpipe)
1. Ciliated epithelium: Lines trachea, moves mucus upward
2. Tracheal rings: C-shaped cartilage supporting trachea
3. Tracheal bifurcation: Divides into right and left bronchi
 Bronchi
1. Right bronchus: Wider and shorter, enters right lung
2. Left bronchus: Narrower and longer, enters left lung
3. Bronchial subdivisions: Branch into smaller bronchioles
 Bronchioles
1. Terminal bronchioles: Last subdivisions before respiratory bronchioles
2. Respiratory bronchioles: Lead to alveoli
 Alveoli
1. Type I pneumocytes: Flat cells allowing gas exchange
2. Type II pneumocytes: Cuboidal cells producing surfactant
3. Alveolar sacs: Clusters of alveoli

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  Lungs
1. Right lung: Three lobes (upper, middle, lower)
2. Left lung: Two lobes (upper, lower)
3. Pulmonary pleura: Double-layered membrane surrounding lungs
 Diaphragm
1. Dome-shaped muscle separating chest and abdominal cavities
2. Phrenic nerve: Innervates diaphragm
 Pleura
1. Visceral pleura: Adheres to lungs
2. Parietal pleura: Lines thoracic cavity
3. Pleural space: Narrow space between visceral and parietal pleura

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANS OF REPIRATION

 Nose and Mouth
1. Air entry: Allow air to enter the respiratory system.
2. Filtration: Filter out dust, pollen, and other particles.
3. Warming and humidification: Warm and humidify incoming air.
4. Olfaction: Smell detection.
 Pharynx (Throat)
1. Air passage: Directs air to the larynx.
2. Swallowing: Allows food to pass through to the esophagus.
3. Speech production: Plays a role in speech articulation.
 Larynx (Voice Box)
1. Speech production: Produces sound for speech.
2. Air passage: Regulates airflow to the trachea.
3. Coughing: Helps expel irritants from the respiratory system.
 Trachea (Windpipe)
1. Air conduction: Conducts air to the bronchi.
2. Mucus clearance: Cilia and mucus help clear debris.
 Bronchi
1. Air distribution: Divide air between lungs.
2. Gas exchange: Begin gas exchange process.
 Bronchioles
1. Air conduction: Conduct air to alveoli.
2. Gas exchange: Continue gas exchange process.
 Alveoli
1. Gas exchange: Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.
2. Oxygen diffusion: Oxygen diffuses into bloodstream.
3. Carbon dioxide removal: Carbon dioxide diffuses out of bloodstream.
 Lungs
1. Gas exchange: Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.
2. Oxygenation: Oxygenate blood.
3. Filteration: Filter out small blood clots and debris.
 Diaphragm

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1. Breathing: Contracts and relaxes for inhalation and exhalation.
2. Pressure regulation: Regulates thoracic pressure.
 Pleura
1. Lung expansion: Allows lungs to expand and contract.
2. Friction reduction: Reduces friction between lungs and chest wall.

Functions of the Respiratory System

1. Oxygenation: Supplies oxygen to body tissues.
2. Carbon dioxide removal: Removes carbon dioxide from body.
3. Acid-base regulation: Helps regulate pH levels.
4. Filteration: Filters out harmful substances.

MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION
The mechanism of respiration involves the coordinated effort of multiple organs and systems to
bring oxygen into the body and remove carbon dioxide.

Steps of Respiration
1. Inhalation (Inspiration):
 Diaphragm contracts and flattens.
 Rib cage expands outward.
 Air enters through the nostrils or mouth.
 Air passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles.
2. Gas Exchange
 Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into bloodstream.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from bloodstream into alveoli.
3. Exhalation (Expiration):
 Diaphragm relaxes and rises.
 Rib cage descends inward.
 Air leaves the lungs through the same pathway as inhalation.

Respiratory Cycle
1. Inhalation: 2-3 seconds.
2. Exhalation: 2-3 seconds.
3. Pause: 1-2 seconds.

Types of Respiration
1. Internal Respiration: Gas exchange within cells and tissues.
2. External Respiration: Gas exchange between lungs and environment.

Other Types of Respiration

1. Quiet Respiration: Resting breathing rate.
2. Deep Respiration: Increased breathing rate and depth.
3. Forced Respiration: Maximum breathing effort.

Regulation of Respiration
1. Chemoreceptors: Detect changes in blood pH, CO2, and O2.
2. Stretch Receptors: Monitor lung expansion.

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3. Brainstem: Integrates signals to adjust breathing rate and depth.

Respiratory Volumes
 Tidal Volume (TV)
Volume of air inhaled/exhaled during quiet respiration.
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Additional volume inhaled during deep respiration.
 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Additional volume exhaled during forced respiration.
 Residual Volume (RV)
Volume of air remaining in lungs after forced exhalation.

Respiratory Capacities
 Vital Capacity (VC)
Maximum volume of air exhaled after maximum inhalation.
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
Volume of air inhaled during quiet respiration.
 Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
Volume of air remaining in lungs after quiet exhalation.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system consists of organs that work together to bring oxygen into the body and
remove carbon dioxide.

Functions of Respiratory Organs

1. Nose and Mouth
 Filter, warm and humidify inhaled air
 Contain olfactory receptors for smell
2. Pharynx (Throat)
 Passageway for air and food
 Divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx
3. Larynx (Voice Box)
 Produces sound for speech
 Contains vocal cords
 Separates trachea from esophagus
4. Trachea (Windpipe)
 Conducts air to bronchi
 Supported by cartilaginous rings
5. Bronchi
 Divide into smaller bronchioles
 Conduct air to lungs
6. Bronchioles
 Smallest airways
 Lead to alveoli
7. Alveoli
 Site of gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
 Surrounded by capillaries

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8. Lungs
 Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Filter blood
 Regulate pH
9. Diaphragm
 Primary muscle for breathing
 Separates chest and abdominal cavities

RESPIRATORY PROCESS
1. Inhalation (inspiration)
2. Air enters nostrils or mouth
3. Air passes through pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles
4. Gas exchange in alveoli
5. Exhalation (expiration)
6. Carbon dioxide removed from body

Definition of Physiological terms used in Respiration

Here are definitions of physiological terms used in respiration

LUNG VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

1. Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inhaled/exhaled during normal breathing (500-750 mL).
2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Additional volume inhaled beyond tidal volume (1900-
3300 mL).
3. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Additional volume exhaled beyond tidal volume (1000-
1200 mL).
4. Residual Volume (RV): Volume remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation (1100-1200
mL).
5. Vital Capacity (VC): Maximum volume exhaled after maximum inhalation (4600-5800 mL).
6. Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): Volume remaining in lungs after normal exhalation
(2300-2500 mL).

BREATHING RATE AND DEPTH

1. Respiratory Rate (RR): Number of breaths per minute (12-20).
2. Respiratory Depth: Volume of air inhaled/exhaled.
Other Terms
1. Pulmonary Pressure: Pressure within lungs.
2. Intrathoracic Pressure: Pressure within chest cavity.
3. Surfactant: Substance reducing surface tension in alveoli.
4. Dead Space: Volume of air not participating in gas exchange.

Mechanism of Respiration
The mechanism of respiration involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
environment, lungs, and body tissues.

External Respiration (Breathing)

1. Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, rib cage expands, and air enters lungs.
2. Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, rib cage descends, and air leaves lungs.

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Internal Respiration (Gas Exchange)
1. Pulmonary Gas Exchange: Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood, while carbon dioxide
diffuses out.
2. Systemic Gas Exchange: Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissues, while carbon dioxide
diffuses into blood.

Oxygen Transportation
1. Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells.
2. Oxygen-rich blood transported to tissues via arteries.
3. Oxygen diffuses into tissues, binding to proteins and enzymes.

Carbon Dioxide Removal

1. Carbon dioxide produced by cellular metabolism.
2. Diffuses into blood, binding to hemoglobin.
3. Transported to lungs via veins.
4. Exhaled through external respiration.

Other Gaseous Exchange

1. Nitrogen: Exhaled and inhaled, maintaining atmospheric balance.
2. Water Vapor: Exhaled, regulating body temperature.
3. Other gases (e.g., CO, NO): Removed through exhalation.

Internal Respiration Processes

1. Diffusion: Gases move from high to low concentration areas.
2. Facilitated Diffusion: Proteins aid gas transport.
3. Active Transport: Energy-driven gas transport.

External Respiration Processes

1. Ventilation: Air movement in and out of lungs.
2. Perfusion: Blood flow through lungs.
3. Diffusion: Gas exchange between alveoli and blood.

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION (NERVOUS AND CHEMICAL CONTROL OF

RESPIRSTION)
The nervous and chemical control of respiration ensures optimal breathing and maintains acid-
base balance.

Nervous Control
1. Brainstem-medulla oblongata and pons regulate breathing.
2. Respiratory Centers
 Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG): controls inspiration.
 Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG): controls expiration.
3. Nerve Pathways
 Phrenic nerve- controls diaphragm.
 Intercostal nerves-control rib cage muscles.
Chemical Control
1. Chemoreceptors

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  Central chemoreceptors (brainstem)- detect CO2, pH changes.
 Peripheral chemoreceptors (carotid and aortic bodies)-detect O2, CO2, pH changes.

ORGANS OF DIGESTION, THEIR STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Mouth
Structure: Lips, cheeks, tongue, teeth, and gums.
Functions
 Ingestion of food
 Mechanical breakdown of food
(chewing)
 Mixing with saliva (amylase and
lysozyme)
 Swallowing
Esophagus
Structure: Muscular tube connecting mouth to
stomach.
Functions
 Transport of food to stomach through peristalsis
 Lower esophageal sphincter regulates stomach entry
Stomach
Structure: Sac-like organ with rugae (folds) and glands.
Functions
 Mechanical breakdown of food (churning)
 Chemical digestion by gastric juices (pepsin, mucus, hydrochloric acid)
 Protein denaturation
 Killing bacteria
Small Intestine
Structure: Long, thin tube (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) with villi and microvilli.
Functions
 Most nutrient absorption (carbohydrates, proteins, fats)
 Pancreatic juice and bile reception
 Enzymatic digestion (amylase, lipase, trypsin)
Pancreas
Structure: Gland located behind stomach.
Functions
 Exocrine secretion: pancreatic juice (amylase, lipase, trypsin)
 Endocrine secretion: hormones (insulin, glucagon)

Liver
Structure: Largest gland, divided into lobules.
Functions
 Bile production and secretion
 Detoxification and metabolism
 Storage of glycogen and vitamins
 Filtration of blood
Gallbladder
Structure: Small sac storing bile.
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Functions
 Bile concentration and storage
 Release of bile into small intestine
Large Intestine (Colon)
Structure: Tube-like organ (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid)
Functions
 Water absorption
 Electrolyte balance
 Storage and elimination of waste
 Hosts gut microbiome

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