Knowledge grows

Yara International ASA

Strawberry
Yara delivers solutions for sustainable agriculture and the environment.
Our fertilizers and crop nutrition programmes help produce the food
required for the growing world population. Our industrial products and

Plantmaster
solutions reduce emissions, improve air quality and support safe and
efficient operations. Founded in Norway in 1905, Yara has a worldwide ™
presence with sales to 150 countries. Safety is always our top priority.

For further information contact:

Yara International ASA
Postboks 343, Skøyen
0213 Oslo
Norway
www.yara.com

Disclaimer: The information contained herein is to

the best of Yara’s knowledge and belief accurate.
Recommendations and results stated, unless
otherwise acknowledged, are based upon Yara’s
experience and on field trial results.
Strawberry Plantmaster™

Crop Knowledge
As a major provider of specialist
crop nutrition advice and fertilizers
worldwide, Yara is committed to
providing our customers and growers
with the latest scientific information.

This, together with the practical

experience of our agronomists, gives us
a full understanding of the nutritional
needs of crops worldwide.

As a result of this activity, we have

developed a comprehensive series
of Yara Crop Nutrition Programmes
for a wide range of crops under the
Plantmaster™ brand.

Based on a knowledge of market

requirements, this Strawberry
Plantmaster™ details those nutrients
that the crop needs and when and
how best they should be applied to
maximize crop potential.

In doing so, it complements the Yara

portfolio of fertilizers, known globally
for their consistency, quality and unique
features and benefits.

By taking this information and working

with your local agronomist and local
trials, you can be sure of achieving
excellent crop performance secure
in the knowledge that it is backed
by Yara’s wide-ranging knowledge of
strawberry crop nutrition.

2 | ©Yara
Contents

World Production 4
Strawberry Markets 5
Agronomic Principles 7
Influencing Yield and Quality 21
Nutritional Summary 22
Application Strategies 26

The Role of Specific Nutrients 28

N Nitrogen 29
P Phosphorus 34
K Potassium 36
Ca Calcium 39
Mg Magnesium 43
S Sulfur 44
B Boron 45
Cu Copper 47
Fe Iron 48
Mn Manganese 49
Mo Molybdenum 50
Zn Zinc 50
Si Silicon 52

Plantmaster™ Nutritional Programme 54

Glossary 56
References 57
Units 61
Local Recommendations 62

©Yara | 3
World Production

The strawberry belongs to the family Biggest producer is the USA at 1.3 The highest mean yield of 56t/ha comes
Rosaceae, genus Fragaria, and is million tonnes per annum – which from the USA where a large proportion
among the most widely consumed fruit represents 30% of the world’s crop of the crop is intensively produced under
throughout the world. (Table 1). plastic tunnels.

Most varieties are cultivated from The next largest producers are Turkey, Northern and Eastern European
Fragaria x Ananassa and grown across Spain, Egypt and Mexico, growing countries are lower, at between 3-8t/
a wide range of regions worldwide with between 230,000-303,000t each. ha, but the best growers produce yields
the exception of polar latitudes. much higher than this.
The areas grown and their respective
Over 4.3 million tonnes of strawberries yields vary considerably, largely due to Spain is the largest exporter at over
are produced each year. This has production methods. 350,000 tonnes/annum, marketing
increased from 3.2 million tonnes over 85% of their crop largely to North
the last decade. Protected cropping under plastic or in European consumers. In the EU,
greenhouses produces yields that are Germany and France are biggest
around 60-70t/ha while under open importers at 90,000-100,000t/annum.
Table 1 field cultivation producers aim for
around 20t/ha. The second largest exporter is the USA,
Strawberry Production
where Canada is the main market,
Countries with over 50,000t
taking 110,000t. Around 80% of US
Country Production (‘000 t) Area (ha) Yield (t/ha)
exports are as fresh strawberries.

USA 1,313 23260 56.4 Per capita annual consumption of

Turkey 302 11967 25.3 strawberries in the USA is around
3kg - a figure that has almost doubled
Spain 263 6896 38.1
over the last decade. EU citizens also
Egypt 240 5628 42.7 consume similar amounts at between
Mexico 229 6978 32.8 3-4kg/person.
Russian Federation 184 27000 6.8
Japan 177 6020 29.5
Republic of Korea 172 5816 29.5
Poland 166 50522 3.3
Germany 154 13848 11.2
Italy 150 6000 25.0
Source : PHOSYN MEGALAB
Morocco 111 2516 44.0 Open field strawberries

United Kingdom 107 4972 21.5

Ukraine 56 8200 6.8
France 51 3100 16.4
Belarus 50 6077 8.2
World Total 4308 242371 17.8
REF: FAO STATISTICS - 2011
Strawberries under plastic tunnels

4 | ©Yara
Strawberry Markets

The vast majority of strawberries – over

80% worldwide – are eaten fresh.
Handling, packaging, transport and
storage is critical and fruit needs to be
picked ripe, with good skin and pulp
integrity, be free of disease and have an
intact calyx and stem.

Processed fruit is used in a number of

products including jams, concentrates,
syrups, wine, cakes, confectionary, ice
cream and preserves.

Most processed strawberries are

separated from the stalk and calyx in Strawberries for processing market
the field prior to packing. They are
commonly quick frozen prior to use in
the above processes. Generally, upon Fresh Strawberry Quality The most intensely flavored fruit have a
thawing, frozen fruit loses some of its Strawberry fruit consists of high TSS and also acidity.
color and aroma and is less sweet. Fruit approximately 90% water and 10% total
is also less firm. soluble solids. The best quality berries are uniform in
size and should be glossy with a strong
They are a good source of folate and red color. They should also be juicy and
potassium, as well as dietary fiber, have a strong aroma with no mold or
manganese and antioxidants. bruises.

The fruit is high in vitamin C and Variety selection is critical and each
consumption of 10 fruit per day virtually cultivar has its own often distinctive
meets all of the recommended dietary shape, size, taste and texture.
requirements for this vitamin.
Fresh strawberries are harvested and
The main soluble sugar components are stored with the calyx and part of the
glucose and fructose. The primary acid stem intact, which is then removed by
is citric acid. the consumer prior to eating.

Strawberry flavor is a key characteristic Size is important, but overly large

and is a complex mix of the sweetness, fruit are more difficult to package and
acidity and aroma of the fruit. transport.

Ripe red strawberries

©Yara | 5
Small differences in fruit quality can Table 2
have a strong impact on price and European Quality Standards
grade, so production methods focus on
producing and maintaining good quality Class ‘extra‘ Class I Class II
fruit with a long shelf life. superior quality good quality marketable quality

Minimum • intact, undamaged, sound, clean fruit

Most countries have specified grades criteria for • with fresh calyx and stem
or standards for the crop (Tables 2 and all quality • free of abnormal moisture or foreign smell / taste
3). The top grades are generally more classes • sufficiently developed, ripe
uniform and comprise larger, riper fruits, • bright • appearance typical • appearance according
Quality
with minimal defects. They must also • appearance typical for for variety to minimum criteria
criteria
be free of disease. variety • traces of sand • traces of sand and
• free from soil tolerated soil tolerated
Handling and storability is critical and • min. fruit size 25mm • min. fruit size 18mm • min. fruit size 18mm
• homogenous level of • less homogenous in • low homogenity in
large losses and low shelf life occurs as ripening, colour and ripening, colour and ripening, colour and
a result of rots and decays. size size size
• max. 10% of white • max. 20% of white
Strawberries have very high respiration surface tolerated surface tolerated
rates of around 20-40mg CO2/kg per
Tolerances • max. 10% of lower • max. 10% of lower • max. 10% of lower
hour at 5˚C and this makes them highly size size size
perishable. In general they can be kept • max. 5% of lower • max. 10% of lower • max. 10% of lower
for 5-10 days, if pre-cooled immediately quality class quality class quality class
after harvest, and stored at 0˚C and at • max. 2% rotten fruit • max. 2% rotten fruit • max. 2% rotten fruit
90-95% relative humidity.
REF: OECD - 2005

Berry shelf life can be extended by using

10-30% carbon dioxide in refrigerated Table 3
transport storage, helping to reduce Quality Grades – USA
fungal growth. At CO2 levels above
30%, off-flavors can develop. Grade Strawberries of one variety or similar varietal characteristics with the calyx
Number 1 attached, which are firm, not overripe or undeveloped, and which are free
from mold or decay and free from damage caused by dirt, moisture, foreign
The nutrient status of the fruit plays a matter, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. Each strawberry
major role in protecting fruit quality. Too has not less than 3/4 of its surface showing a pink or red color
much nitrogen results in excess plant Size. Minimum diameter not less than 3/4 inch (18mm). Not more than
vigor and a larger canopy. This leads to 5% of the total sample below this.
delayed ripening and malformed fruit, a For defects. Not more than 10% for strawberries in any lot which fail to
meet the requirements of this grade, but not more than one-half of this
greater incidence of disease and lower tolerance, or 5%, shall be allowed for defects causing serious damage,
soluble solid content, flavor, firmness including therein not more than two-fifths of this latter amount, or 2%, for
and a reduced shelf life. strawberries affected by decay.

The use of a balanced fertilizer Grade Strawberries which are free from decay and free from serious damage
Number 2 caused by dirt, disease, insects, mechanical or other means. Each
programme helps to reduce disease in strawberry has not less than 1/2 of its surface showing a pink or red color
the fruit through strengthening the skin Size. Minimum diameter not less than 5/8 inch (15mm). No more than
and also improving shelf life. 5% of the total sample below this.
For defects. Not more than 10% for strawberries in any lot are seriously
damaged, including therein not more than three tenths of this tolerance, or
3%, for strawberries affected by decay.

Combination A mix of Grade 1 and Grade 2 – but 80% need to be Grade 1 – with Grade 1
Grade size and defects tolerances.

REF: USDA AGRICULTURE AND MARKETING SERVICE - 2006

With unbalanced nutrition, strawberries have poor keeping

qualities

6 | ©Yara
Agronomic Principles

The aim of every producer is a high yield In contrast, too much water leads to Pollination is largely carried out by
of top quality fruit and there are a large malformed fruit. insects such as bees and bumble bees
number of agronomic factors which can – which are increasingly introduced
influence this, many of which are within Very high temperatures can have a to crops grown in tunnels to aid this
their control given their specific growing negative effect on growth and are process.
systems and climatic/soil conditions. detrimental to photosynthesis and
productivity. Poor pollination – particularly in
cold conditions or due to lack of
Growth Requirements Temperatures above 25˚C can reduce boron, or damage due to high or low
There are a wide range of strawberry fruit set, levels of Total Soluble Solids temperatures, insects or disease - can
cultivars including those that are well (TSS) and at the same time, hasten fruit result in malformed fruit.
adapted to winter cold and spring frost development.
or summer heat and drought. This poor, distorted berry formation
High temperature can also reduce is due to the restricted formation of
Cultivars also vary widely in their need fruit size, and lead to tissue damage, auxins. However, while auxins can be
for chilling and time of bloom and softness and breakdown near the berry applied to the crop to counteract these
ripening period. surface. effects, this can have a negative effect
on the fruit’s ripening process.
Most production is focused in temperate
and Mediterranean climates, between
latitudes 28 and 60˚, with average mid-
summer temperatures of 15-30˚C.

Strawberries require a steady supply

of water. This is most critical at
establishment and during fruit
development (from petal fall to end
of fruiting), otherwise there will be a
reduction of leaf area, photosynthetic
rate and yield.

Creating water stress – in specific

60 day plants - at the later stage
of flowering, through reducing crop
Malformed fruit Malformed fruit
irrigation, can be used, however, to
increase flower numbers and fruiting.

©Yara | 7
Growth Stages Plant development is regulated by
Strawberry is an herbaceous perennial environmental factors – notably
whose upper parts die back at the photoperiod and temperature.
end of the season. It is, however, for
commercial reasons, often cultivated as Roots are largely formed in the spring
an annual crop. and autumn when temperatures are
cool.
The central stem or crown of the plant
supports the leaves, roots, stolons and They emerge from the base of the
inflorescences - Figure 1 - and typical crown and between 50-90% of all roots
growth stages are illustrated in Figure 2. are found in the top 10-15cm of soil.

Water and nutrients are taken up by

feeder roots, which last only for a few
Figure 1 days or weeks, and are constantly Healthy root system
Strawberry Plant Botany replaced.
Runners are produced from base buds,
Primary roots are used for the transport
Leaves whereas inflorescences are produced
of water and nutrients to the crown,
from terminal buds of the lateral
and commonly last for more than one
crowns. Flowers are produced when
season.
Fruit
conditions are not favourable for the
truss production of runners.
Root biomass declines during fruiting
but increases again in the autumn prior
The first fruit on the runner will mature
to the onset of winter temperatures.
first, and as more fruit develop they
Crown Runner
(stolon) mature in turn.
Leaves are produced during the
Daughter plant
whole season, mostly under long-day
Stolons support daughter plants which
Young roots Branch crown conditions. However, leaf production
can also produce plants in their own
ceases when temperatures drop below
right. These daughter plants are usually
0˚C or exceed 30˚C.
self-sufficient and can survive on their
own after 2-3 weeks.
Mature roots
At the base of each leaf is an auxiliary
bud which, depending upon conditions,
either produces lateral crowns with
inflorescences or stolons (runners).

Figure 2
Strawberry Growth Stages

Leaf Development Stolon Development Flower Emergence - Flowering Fruit Maturity Senescence

REF: MEIER ET AL - 1994

8 | ©Yara
Most commercial strawberries are either short-day or day-neutral plants (Figure 3).

Figure 3
Strawberry Growth Cycle

Short-day cultivars

Runners Flower Dormancy Flowering Fruit Harvest Runners

initiation

Autumn Winter Spring Summer

Short-day photoperiod Long-day photoperiod

Flowering Dormancy Flowering

Runners Runners

Day-neutral cultivars (ever-bearer varieties)

REF: HANCOCK - 1999

Short-day plants produce flowers buds the hardiest cultivars can survive Waiting bed plants are grown on from
either under short-day conditions (less temperatures as low as -45˚C. runners and planted into a ‘waiting bed’
than 14 hours of day length) or when to produce a large, strong plant. This
temperatures are less than 15˚C. While strawberries can tolerate low is then lifted when dormant and cold
winter temperatures, frost during flower stored for spring or summer planting.
In these short-day types, stolons are development damages blooms.
produced after flowering, normally when Tray plants are produced from runner
temperatures are between 20-30˚C, or In some countries, irrigation is used ‘tips’ harvested from mother plants in
when days are longer than 10 hours. to provide frost protection. In this mid-summer. They are then grown in
situation, overhead irrigation water heated glasshouses until the crown size
In climates with cold winters, flower applied prior to frosts, freezes around is approximately 17mm in diameter and
buds of short day types are normally the leaf, releasing heat which protects then planted under protection for an
formed in the late summer and autumn. the plant from damage. early and long season crop.

Short-day cultivars can be grown in Strawberries grown under plastic film Misted tip plants are produced in
mild, sub-tropical climates, but flower can tolerate frosts down to -5˚C. the same manner as tray plants, but
bud formation will be restricted by hot are forced quickly under tunnels for
temperatures. Tolerance to cold temperatures varies four to five weeks and then planted in
with the growth stage of strawberries. early autumn for a crop the following
Day-neutral plants produce crowns Flowers are the least tolerant to cold. summer.
and flower buds around three months The temperatures shown are where
after planting, regardless of day length commercial loss of production occurs Bare root runners are produced as
throughout the summer and in due due to frost (Table 4). rooted, runner plants from a field grown
course, produce stolons. Again, high mother plant, then lifted and cold stored
day/night temperatures of 30/26˚C will before planting in early spring. They are
inhibit flower formation. Table 4 smaller runner plants but can be used to
Cold Tolerance of Strawberries establish an ever-bearer crop.
Shorter days and lower temperatures
induce plant dormancy. Chilling at -1 to Growth Stage Temperate Runners can also be overwintered in
-10˚C is required in most cultivars to Open crowns
the field in colder regions (above 55˚
-5˚C 23˚F
break this dormancy – those varieties Latitude). They are lifted and planted
Fully extended crowns -3˚C 26˚F in spring or early summer. While this is
bred for warmer climates have a greatly
reduced chilling need. Open flowers -2˚C 28˚F a cheap option it is no longer common
REF: A&L CANADA LABS - 2000 practice.
In sub tropical growing conditions,
production is better from planting Growing Systems There is also a wide range of strawberry
material produced in cool climates Strawberry plants are ‘raised’ or grown- cultivation systems. Worldwide, most
compared to that created locally. on in a number of different ways prior to are still produced in open fields.
planting out.
Once fully hardened, the crowns of

©Yara | 9
Most field crops are mulched, either with straw or with plastic to aid weed control, Two main production systems are
conserve moisture, to help reduce contamination by keeping the fruit off the soil practiced with field grown strawberries;
surface and bring forward harvest. the hill- and matted-row system. Each
requires different planting densities
and cultivation techniques (Table 5 and
Figure 4).

The hill or plasticulture system uses

the crowns to produce fruit with any
runners removed to encourage the plant
to focus on production.

It is used to grow day-neutral varieties

across most regions, but also short-day
types in climates where the plants will
survive winter and summer conditions.

Straw ready for placing between rows Plants are transplanted into raised
beds which are covered with plastic.
The plastic warms the soil, suppresses
weeds and brings production forward.
Using raised bed production also
improves soil drainage.

Strawberry plants grown using the hill

system are planted more densely to
produce high yields and remain viable
for only a couple of years.

A typical planting density for hill

Straw mulch
production is 50,000 plants/ha in
single rows or 75,000 plants/ha as a
Table 5 double or three row set. More prolific
Open Field Production Systems varieties are spaced further apart.
Hill Matted Row
Matted row production allows the
Winter temperatures Mild Cold mother and daughter plants to grow
Planting dates Summer or winter Spring side by side with plants trained to run in
narrow rows.
Bed height Raised Flat
Mulch Clear or black plastic Straw Grown over a two year production
Irrigation Trickle Overhead cycle, spacings are less dense at around
35,000–40,000 plants/ha.
Production seasons 1-2 3-5
REF: HANCOCK - 1999
Matted-row production, although
Figure 4 less intensive and lower yielding, is
Planting Systems lower cost and is commonly practiced
where hill production is not possible,
particularly in cooler climates.
Matted row system Hill system
90cm 30cm 75 - 90cm Seasons are extended by the use of day
neutral types in warmer climates (e.g.
USA) and through tunnel production
30cm (e.g. Northern Europe).
40 - 80cm

15 - 35cm

10 | ©Yara
 Tunnel and Glasshouse
Production
Tunnel production – utilizing polythene
film supported by semi-circular steel
frames to cover the raised beds – is
widely used in Europe and the USA and
helps to bring forward harvest by around
1 month and also to extend the season.

‘High tunnels’ - taller structures that are

also enclosed against the elements - are
usually passively heated and cooled, so
Plastic covered hills ready for planting operating costs can be minimal.

Drip irrigation and plastic mulches are

commonly used in crops planted into soil
at high plant densities.

In tunnels or glasshouses, strawberries

are usually produced using the annual
hill production system, spaced 30cm
apart in staggered rows, with 2-4 rows
in each bed (Figure 4).

Growers tend to use either white

plastic which keeps plants cooler in
the summer months or black plastic or
fleece to warm them in the spring and
Matted rows are planted at a lower density maintain a higher heat in the summer.

Drip tape is commonly employed under

the plastic to facilitate irrigation and
fertigation.

Plants can be grown in bags filled with

the desired soil mix or substrate which
are then placed on top of the ground.

More intensive glasshouse production

– at planting densities of 12 plants per
m2 (120,000/ha), utilizes peat and or
coir or soil-less substrate such as perlite,
in high elevation structures which are
Plastic tunnel framework
raised above the soil or ground level.

Strawberries grown in bags

High plastic tunnels

©Yara | 11
Table top systems, where the plants are It requires an adapted fertigation Figure 5
grown in a plastic tray or gutter system, programme with higher levels of calcium Carbon Dioxide & Growth
suspended on wires 1.5m above the to balance the naturally high potassium Elsanta – Sand Culture - Germany
ground, benefit from the use of closed levels in the coir, which depending upon
irrigation and fertigation systems that product grade can vary from 1.6-2.0% Daughter plants (Numbers/plant)
provide a continuous, balanced supply on a dry weight basis. 10-

of nutrient to the plants (See section on

8-
page 26). Coir can be used for up to four seasons
and because of its more open structure 6-
This system – using a range of growing water management around the roots is
media - allows the grower to supply the easier to control. 4-

right nutrient at the right time without

2-
the inefficiencies of soil supply, lock-up When strawberries are grown in bags,
and leaching which can be a problem soil born pests such as nematodes and 0-
in field grown strawberries. Fertilizer grubs are more easily controlled in this 300 450 600 750 900
CO2 concentration (ppm)
requirement needs to take into account relatively closed environment, through
water quality and nutrient availability effective use of pesticides or natural REF: CHEN & LENZ - 1997

from the growing medium that is being parasites.

used.
Heating, cooling and lighting, plus Figure 6
the use of carbon dioxide enrichment Carbon Dioxide – DM Production
(see below), helps to boost production Elsanta – Sand Culture - Germany
and maintain an extended harvest in
DM biomass (g/plant)
glasshouses. 70 -

60 -
While expensive to run and operate,
table top glasshouse production eases 50 -

picking and cuts harvesting costs by 40 -

around 30-40% compared to field 30 -
cultivation. 20 -

10 -
The system also improves fruit quality
and, through intensive fertigation and 0-
300 450 600 750 900
crop protection, allowing out of season CO2 concentration (ppm)
production, a much higher yield and
Roots Stems Leaves
potentially better financial returns.
REF: CHEN & LENZ - 1997

In the past, soils have been fumigated

prior to planting, but such practice is Figure 7
increasingly regulated, due to the highly
Carbon Dioxide - Flowering/Fruit
toxic nature of the fumigant and its
Growth
effects on natural soil organisms, and is Elsanta – Sand Culture - Germany
being phased out in most countries.
Length of flowering and fruit growth period (days)

Controlled Atmosphere 40 -
35 -
High density planting in table-top system Production 30 -
Carbon dioxide is increasingly used to 25 -
Coir or coco peat – a waste fiber from improve growth and yield in a controlled 20 -
coconut husks – is increasingly popular glasshouse environment
15 -
for use as a substrate in bags, slabs or 10 -
pots. It needs to be prepared to remove It has a direct effect on vegetative
5-
fines and salts such as sodium chloride, growth (Figure 5) leading to a significant
0-
which limit root development. increase in root, stem and leaf 300 450 600 750 900
production (Figure 6). CO2 concentration (ppm)

Coir provides a better, more stable, Flowering period Fruit growth period
growing media than peat and a higher At later stages of growth, carbon REF: CHEN & LENZ - 1997

level of production consistency – it is dioxide also prolongs flowering without

also less acid than peat at a typical pH influencing significantly the length of
of 4.5-6, compared to peat at 3.5-4.5. time of fruit growth (Figure 7).

12 | ©Yara
Carbon dioxide concentrations of up Figure 10 Soils that have previously grown
to 600ppm also help plants to better Carbon Dioxide - Yield potatoes or other Solanaceous species
utilize nutrients (Figure 8) and growers Elsanta – Sand Culture - Germany should be avoided to reduce the risks of
should increase fertilizer use accordingly. Verticillium wilt and Rhizoctonia solani
Fruit dry weight (g/plant) in the strawberry crop.
Water use efficiency is also improved in 12 -

controlled CO2 atmospheres (Figure 9). 10 - Strawberries that follow grass can also
be subject to greater pest attack from
8-
The end result is a higher yield – grubs, so planting is commonly delayed
particularly where nutrition is not 6- for a year, giving the grower a better
limiting (Figure 10). 4-
chance of controlling weeds as well.

In addition, utilizing carbon dioxide in 2-

Strawberries prefer slightly acid soils
the glasshouse helps boost fruit quality 0- with a pH value between 5.5 (light soil)
56 5,6 0,56
through improving the sugar content in to 6.8 (heavy soil). As a result, liming is
N concentration in nutrient solution (mg N/l)
the fruit (Figure 11). not common in strawberry production.
Ambient High CO2 REF: DENG - 1998 In soils with a higher organic matter
content strawberries can tolerate a
Figure 11 slightly lower pH.
Figure 8 Carbon Dioxide - Fruit Quality
Carbon Dioxide & Nutrient Uptake Elsanta – Sand Culture - Germany
Elsanta – Sand Culture - Germany
Total sugar content (%) sugar acid ratio Titratable acid (%)
Total nutrient uptake (mg/plant) 10 - - 1.0
700 -
8- - 0.8
600 -

500 - 6- - 0.6

400 -
4- - 0.4
300 -
2- - 0.2
200 -

100 - 0- -0
300 450 600 750 900
0-
300 450 600 750 900
CO2 concentration (ppm)
CO2 concentration (ppm)

N P K Ca Mg Total sugar Titratable acid Sugar / acid ratio

REF: CHEN & LENZ - 1997

REF: CHEN & LENZ - 1997

Figure 9 Soils & Liming

Carbon Dioxide & Water Use
Efficiency Strawberries have no specific
Elsanta – Sand Culture - Germany requirements in terms of soil type.
Fields and tunnels should be well
Water use efficiency (g DM/l H2O) drained and relatively flat with no frost
18 - pockets.
16 -
14 - Yields are usually slightly higher on
12 -
heavy soils with a greater water holding
10 -
capacity. However, light soils warm up
8-
faster so that flowering is earlier. In
6-
4-
these situations frost protection may be
2-
more important.
0-
300 450 600 750 900 Light or sandy soils do have advantages
CO2 concentration (ppm) in that harvest is earlier, helping the
REF: CHEN & LENZ - 1997 grower catch an early market. These
soils also have fewer problems with root
diseases.

©Yara | 13
 Salinity
When the soil pH drops below 5.5, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus and Strawberries are very sensitive to
molybdenum availability drops, so supplies need to be maintained. At pH levels salinity (Figure 13).
above 7.0, zinc, manganese and iron can become deficient (Figure 12).
All irrigation water contains dissolved
Figure 12 mineral salts, but the concentration and
The Influence of Soil pH* on Nutrient Availability composition varies.

RANGE OF ACIDITY RANGE OF ALKALINITY

Water with the highest concentrations
will cause the greatest salinity issues.
Once the salinity of the irrigation water
NITROGEN
exceeds an ideal EC level of 0.7mS/cm,
PHOSPHORUS yield losses will occur (Table 6) and at
much higher ECs, yields are significantly
POTASSIUM reduced (Figures 14 and 15).

SULFUR Salinity symptoms are commonly seen

CALCIUM as dry and brown leaf margins, brittle
leaves, stunted plant growth, or even
MAGNESIUM dead roots and plants.
IRON
Poor irrigation management can also
lead to a build-up of salts around the
MANGANESE
roots, so it is important to flush these
BORON out of this zone.

COPPER & ZINC The salinity level in the root zone

is directly related to water quality,
MOLYBDENUM fertilizer rate and the depth of irrigation
application.
* Soil pH measured in water
Figure 14
Figure 13 Salinity & Yield
Elsanta – Soil Culture - Germany
Salinity and Plant Growth
FM yield (g/plant)
120 -

100 -

80 -

60 -

40 -

20 -

0-
0mS/cm 2mS/cm 6mS/cm
Salinity level in irrigation water
REF: RESEARCH CENTRE HANNINGHOF - 2001

Salinity from fertigation in addition to that of the

irrigation water. Note that 1mS/cm = 1dS/m
Low salinity Medium salinity High salinity
Figure 15
Salinity & Yield
Soil Grown - Colombia - 3 Varieties

Single fruit weight (g)

12 -

10 -

8-

6-

4-

2-

0-
0 1.2 2.3 3.5 4.7
Low salinity = 1mS/cm Medium salinity = 3mS/cm High salinity = 7mS/cm Salt concentration in soil (g NaCl/kg soil)

Chandler Sweet Charlie Camarosa

REF: CASIERRA POSADA - 2005

14 | ©Yara
Table 6
Yield Losses Due to Salinity

Potential Strawberry Yield Loss (%)

0 5 25 50 100

ECe ECw LF (%) ECe ECw LF (%) ECe ECw LF (%) ECe ECw LF (%) ECe ECw

1.0 0.7 9 1.3 0.9 11 1.8 1.2 15 2.5 1.7 21 4 2.7

REF: MASS & HOFFMAN - 1977
ECw is the electrical conductivity of irrigation water
ECe is the electric conductivity of the soil as measured in a soil sample (saturated extract)
LF is the leaching fraction – the amount of additional water you need to mitigate against the salinity effect.

It is possible to predict potential yield Alternative growing systems used in

loss using the following equation derived substrate production include the use
by Maas and Hoffman (1977): of inert rock wool, perlite, or volcanic/
Y = 100 - b (ECe - a) pumice stone and organic media such as
peat, coir and coco peat. Growers also
This is where Y is the relative crop yield utilize nutrient film techniques (NFT),
(%), ECe is the salinity of the saturated which are substrate free.
soil extract in dS/m, a is the threshold
value for maximum, 100% production, These closed systems are easy to
and b is the yield loss per unit increase disinfect and the pH and EC are more
in salinity. easily controlled. Drainage water is
collected and re-cycled, helping to
For strawberries; a = 0.7, b = 33.3, improve nutrient efficiency.
therefore the equation is: High salinity and pH reduce plant growth
The optimal pH range is 5.0–6.0.
Y=100-33.3 (ECe-0.7)
Below this, root tips can be harmed.
of Na and Cl in water and fertilizers
Any excess ammonium in solution can
Table 6 details the effects of different must be as low as possible.
alter pH to unacceptable levels.
levels of soil salinity (ECe) and water
salinity (ECw) on percentage crop yield High concentrations of salts in the soil
loss. It also provides an indication of prevent the plant from absorbing the
the amount of irrigation water required water, resulting in leaf scorching, wilting
to flush salinity out of the system (LF). and yield loss, and varieties differ in
It is important to test soils/substrates their sensitivity to this salinity (Figure
regularly for levels of soluble salts and 15).
to manage irrigation water accordingly.
The effects of specific nutrients on
A high salt content is controlled by mitigating salinity are dealt within the
leaching using 10-20% more irrigation individual nutrient section from page 29
water than that normally applied. onwards in this Plantmaster.
Strawberries grown in coco peat
The proportion of water that leaches For more information on fertigation and
below the root zone, carrying with it a salinity, consult the Yara Fertigation If the pH is lowered some nutrients are
portion of the accumulated soluble salts Manual. more available (e.g. manganese) and
is known as leaching factor (LF). potentially toxic.

The amount and frequency of irrigation

Substrate and Hydroponic
In contrast though, when the pH in the
should be adjusted to allow sufficient Systems root zone rises above 7.0, nutrients such
leaching yet at the same time Substrate and hydroponic systems as P, Mn, Zn, Cu and Fe, become less
minimizing the risk of excessive soil have been developed over recent years available (Figure 12).
moisture levels which could cause other as a means of improving production
problems. consistency, and to ease crop The amount of different nitrogen forms
management and harvesting, leading to is important as ammonium-N alters
Two types of salt problems exist - those higher crop yields and better quality. the pH. Common practice is to use
associated with the total salinity and a maximum of 14-20ppm NH4-N
those associated with sodium chloride. In addition, these systems help to (1.0-1.5mmol/l NH4) - with the majority
Soils may be affected only by salinity isolate and minimize issues with of nitrogen supplied as nitrate.
or by a combination of both salinity disease, which is increasingly difficult to
and sodium. Sodium is antagonistic control in soil cultivated crops where soil
with potassium and calcium. Chloride disinfection is either not permissible or
competes with nitrate. Therefore, levels difficult.

©Yara | 15
Because of the smaller volume of
substrate compared to soil grown crops,
high levels of sodium and chloride can
cause greater salinity issues in substrate
systems.

Maximum levels in water are < 1.5mmol

Na/l (35ppm) and < 1.5mmol Cl/l
(53ppm). In recirculation systems these
maximum levels should not exceed the
uptake by the crop.

Crops in a hydroponic system need a full

package of nutrients. To reduce work
and labor cost, nutrient solutions are
prepared in a highly concentrated stock
solution which is then diluted.

The stock solution is generally a 10%

solution (100x concentrated) and the
final solution is diluted to 1.0–3.0g/l
depending on the crop and local
conditions.

Because of nutrient antagonism and

interactions, it is not possible to mix Strawberries grown in potting mix
all nutrients in one high concentration
stock solution. For example, calcium
containing products cannot be dissolved The higher the EC, the higher the Weeds, Pests and Diseases
with phosphate or sulfate containing nutrient content of the solution.
products. Therefore a two tank - A + B The strawberry crop is relatively shallow
tank - system is used. Growers using hydroponic or substrate rooted and a poor competitor against
based systems also need to adjust deeper rooted weeds.
the final EC of the nutrient solution
according to radiation. On cloudy days, In annual hill culture systems, complete
water uptake is lower and therefore EC weed control prior to planting and the
needs to be higher to ensure sufficient use of mulches may suffice.
nutrient uptake. On sunny days the
water uptake is high and therefore the Under matted-row systems, cultivation
EC should be lowered. and chemical weed control is also
important in the spring.
It is important to test the substrate,
water source and drip water on a regular There is a wide range of pests and
basis – normally every week - and adjust diseases that affect the strawberry crop.
it accordingly to ensure an optimal ratio
of nutrients are available. Growers Nematodes damage roots making them
should also analyze the pH and EC of more susceptible to disease. Slugs and
the substrate several times a week. snails also graze leaves.

Refer to the Yara Fertigation Manual for Aphids primarily attack new leaves,
details on how to manage a two tank transmitting viruses within the crop.
system.
Mites are also a worldwide problem
and are particularly damaging in already
stressed plants.

Sucking insects such as thrips focus on

A & B tank system flowers and developing fruit causing fruit
shape to deform.

16 | ©Yara
Drosophila suzukii, an Asian fruit fly has Powdery mildew (Podosphaera aphanis),
become a major pest, spreading rapidly leaf spot (Mycosphaerella fragariae)
through the USA and many parts of and leaf scorch (Diplocarpon earliana)
Europe. commonly affect the plant foliage.

Unlike common fruit flies which only lay Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) – where the
eggs in rotten fruit, D. suzukii is able to fruit is covered by a velvety grey growth
use its powerful saw-like ovipositor to – and anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp),
break through the skins of ripe fruit and causing dark brown lesions, are probably
deposit its young inside. the most common fruit diseases.

When these maggots hatch, they eat The removal of plant debris and mulch
through the fruit, causing it to rot. Thrip damage plus the use of resistant cultivars are
key control measures. Systemic and
protectant fungicides are also commonly
utilized.

Balanced crop nutrition will also help.

Avoiding high rates of nitrogen after mid
fruit development and ensuring a high
calcium and potassium status in the
fruit, will help minimize the impact of
berry diseases.

Snail damage Thrip damage

In the first year that D. suzukii was

detected in the state of California,
producers lost $300 million worth of
strawberry crops.

Weevils that affect roots can cause

Phytophthora can be devastating in isolated areas
severe damage particularly under
tunnels.

The key to pest control is vigilance

and a programmed approach utilizing
Integrated Pest Management methods.

Weevil damage Chemical pesticides are available, and

natural predators can help within the
glasshouse environment.

Disease is a particular issue.

Phytophthora and Rhizoctonia species

cause root rots.

Crown rots are caused by a range of Crown rot caused by Verticillium dahliae
organisms; Colletotrichum, Fusarium,
Phytophthora and Verticillium species.

Mite damage

©Yara | 17
Leaf spot commonly occurs when K levels are low Botrytis on flowers
Photo courtesy: A&L Canada Laboratories

Powdery mildew on leaves Botrytis on fruit

Powdery mildew on leaves Botrytis on fruit

18 | ©Yara
Harvest and Post Harvest
Management
The soluble solid content of the fruit
rises during maturation from 5% in
green fruit up to 11% in mature red
berries of some varieties.

The red coloration is due to production

of anthocyanins which start to develop
in the white fruit.

Fresh strawberries harvested for local

– home country – consumption, are
harvested when completely red.

Those for export are harvested when

they are three quarters colored and then
placed in cold storage.

Rapid cooling helps to maintain the

quality of the fruit for up to ten days in
storage.
¾ colored fruit for export
High carbon dioxide concentrations
within the cold store, which help reduce
fungal growth and fruit decay, can also
help maintain quality in store.

After harvest, matted-row production

field crops need to be thinned –
selectively removing older plants – as
soon as possible.

Growers will commonly mow-off the

strawberry leaves around 2-3cm above
the crown.

Weed control utilizing residual

herbicides can help where annual
and perennial broadleaved weeds
are a problem, but these need to be
applied before the start of blossom
development or the following year’s fruit
could be malformed.
Leaves are removed from the crown after harvest
Inter-row cultivation can also help to
trim excessive runners and provide the
space needed for the development of a Covering the complete crop with a temperatures of below 2˚C. The first
high yielding following crop. straw mulch or protective sheeting will sign of this is a discoloration of the
also protect the flower buds from frost flower parts.
Fertilizer use – notably potassium, boron damage.
and zinc - helps to strengthen the crop Partially injured blossoms may produce
prior to winter and ensure good flower Strawberries are also particularly deformed fruit, whereas severely injured
set and fruiting in the following spring. susceptible to late frosts in the flowers will abort. Frost protection
spring. Open blossoms are injured at limits this damage.

©Yara | 19
Leaf and Fruit Symptoms To identify if the leaf damage is caused Leaf curling or discoloration – due
by mite, check the under side of the to cold temperatures or frost. Can be
There are a wide range of leaf and leaf, with a x10 hand lens, for mite confused with phosphorus deficiency.
fruit symptoms – notably those caused activity.
by growth stress or pest damage -
that could be mistaken for nutrient Fruit Bronzing - caused by insects,
deficiencies. A number of these are spray damage or weather conditions.
pictured in this section. If there is any When the bronzing is over the whole
doubt, check leaf tissues to assess fruit, the cause is often an unusual spell
nutrient levels and imbalances. of hot or cold weather. Bronzed fruit is
often unmarketable.
Examples:

Phyllody - the abnormal development

of floral parts into leafy structures -
generally caused by phytoplasma or
virus infections with symptoms that Leaf discoloration due to cold temperatures
can be mistaken for calcium or boron
deficiency.

Marginal Leaf Burn – due to soil

disease such as Verticillium wilt or
crown rot, or salt damage. Symptoms
are similar to those of potassium or
Fruit bronzing (left)
magnesium deficiency.
Misshapen Fruit – following poor
pollination due to conditions at flowering
and poor water management – can be
mistaken for calcium or boron deficiency.
Hail damage can also give a similar
appearance.
Leaf curling due to frost

Albinism – due to excess N or overcast

conditions during ripening can be a
problem in certain varieties and can be
confused with potassium or calcium
Marginal leaf burn
deficiency.

Leaf yellowing – due to herbicide

or virus damage – can give rise to
symptoms similar to those for iron, zinc
on manganese deficiency.

Leaf Bronzing – resulting from red

spider mite or wind damage – can be
confused with potassium or phosphorus
Hail damage to fruit
deficiency.

Albinism prevents strawberries ripening correctly.

Photo courtesy: University of California Cooperative Extension

Leaf bronzing Albinism in hydroponically grown strawberries.

Photo courtesy: P, Lieten

20 | ©Yara
Influencing Yield and Quality

Growing a crop with a high yield and Most required nutrients have specific Use of appropriate mulches or growing
good quality is important for maximum roles to play in improving yield: systems to minimize soil contamination
profitability. is important to physical quality.
• Nitrogen is important for green leaf
Agronomically, there is a lot that the production and fruit development, Good hygiene, sanitation and appropriate
grower can do to maximize both and promoting growth processes and in season fungicides and pesticides will
proper nutrition is central to this. protein assimilation in the plant. help to provide fruit that is less at risk of
pest and disease damage.
In a large number of cases, nutrients • Phosphorus delivers energy to the
that improve yield will also improve the plant and is particularly important Maximizing growth through appropriate
quality of the harvested berry. for root development, flower irrigation will help ensure good water
induction and higher fruit numbers. and nutrient flow to the developing fruit.
Yield
It is essential to select an appropriate • Potassium, like nitrogen boosts Refrigerated storage and transport,
growing system that will ensure good strong growth, and improves utilizing controlled carbon dioxide
production and profitability, given local water regulation within the plant, environments will help to maximize the
market conditions. stress tolerance and transport/ shelf life of the fruit that is picked.
accumulation processes.
Protected cropping will help maximize Good crop nutrition will ensure the
yield by maintaining good growing • Magnesium boots photosynthesis production of fruit that handles well
temperatures, bringing forward maturity as a result of increasing plant and has a longer shelf life with the right
and prolonging the harvest period. chlorophyll. balance of sugars and acidity plus a
good aroma and taste.
A well drained soil at a pH of 5.5- • Magnesium, sulfur, iron and
6.8 ensures good root growth and micronutrients increase plant • Potassium plays a key role in
maximizes nutrient availability. growth and dry matter accumulation increasing fruit sugars, acidity and
in the fruit. improving its taste.
Good renovation, including the
management of runners and effective • Calcium ensures good plant and fruit • Nitrogen – particularly nitrate
weed control, will ensure a good strength, protecting root, leaf and forms – used at adequate rates
planting density is maintained. stalk production, and promoting yield. during flowering and fruiting – will
maintain taste and acidity without
Frost protection measures to protect • Boron is required for pollen encouraging rots.
flowers will ensure strong fruit set and germination and good fruit set,
good fruit development. leading to high fruit numbers and • Calcium – is essential to maintain
better fruit weight. fruit integrity, health and a longer
Mulching with straw or the use of shelf-life, with reduced damage
plastic will help with weed control • Zinc is needed for the growth and when handling.
and maintain soil temperatures and development of new tissues.
moisture. • Boron – also helps to maintain good
Fruit Quality fruit strength.
Good water supply – especially during Variety selection is particularly important
flowering and fruit fill - maintains berry and producers should select resistant
number and boosts berry size. cultivars with the quality characteristics
that most suit their intended market.

©Yara | 21
Nutritional Summary

Growers need to take into account the Figure 16

growing system and growing medium NPK Uptake
when assessing nutrient removal and Influence of Variety
recycling.
Nutrient uptake (kg/ha)

With field cultivation, where crop 250 -

DM Yield
renovation practices after harvest (t/ha) (t/ha)
200 -
remove most of the leaves and runners, Idea 9.0 39.6
it is assumed that nutrient uptake is the 150 - Marmolade 7.5 29.5
same as nutrient removal.
100 - Gariguette 11.0 30.0
As a result, with crops grown in the Elsanta 6.5 30.6
field, it is necessary to ensure that the 50 -
annual fertilizer supply balances those
0-
nutrients available from soil reserves to N P K
meet complete crop needs each season.
Idea Gariguette
It is also important to adjust nutrient Marmolade Elsanta
REF: TAGLIAVINI - 2004
needs according to production system
and yield expectation as there are some
major differences between cultivars
Figure 17
(Figure 16). This figure shows that some
varieties can require twice as much N, P Macronutrient Uptake
Elsanta grown in bags filled with perlite - (yield 497g/plant, 5.96kg/m2)
and K as others.
Nutrient uptake rate (mg/plant/day)
Thus, it is important to base application 36 -
rates on local trial and practical data to 32 -
match system requirements and yield 28 -
and quality characteristics, to the variety 24 -
being grown. 20 -
16 -
12 -
Macronutrients 8-
4-
Crops require good availability of all 0-
macronutrients to support critical Transplanting Green Bud Flowering Green Fruit Start Harvest End Harvest

growth stages (Figure 17).

N P K Mg Ca REF: LIETEN AND MISOTTEN - 1993

22 | ©Yara
Nitrogen is required in large quantities Figure 18
at rates of 3-3.5kg/t of crop yield Macronutrient Uptake (Plant + Fruit)
(Figure 18). Substrate and Soil Grown

Nutrient uptake (kg/t of fruit)

Plants require a continuous supply
of N for growth and 50% of nitrogen 5-
4.5 -
eventually accumulates in the fruit
4-
(Figure 19).
3.5 -
3-
Excessive amounts in the leaf, and
2.5 -
available at later stages, can soften the
2-
fruit and delay ripening.
1.5 -
1-
Best practice is to ensure regular
0.5 -
applications throughout the growing
0-
season.
N P K Ca Mg

Phosphorus is important at early stages Substrate grown (left bar) is 3 trials x 2 varieties – mean yield 40t/ha
of crop development to ensure good Soil grown (right bar) is 5 trials x 5 varieties – mean yield 34t/ha REF: LIETEN - 2003

rooting and leaf growth.

Crops take up around 0.5-1kg P/t of fruit Figure 19

yield (Figure 18). Macronutrient Partitioning
Elsanta
During fruit development, the P Nutrient distribution (%)
concentration in other plant organs
100 -
decreases, indicating a redistribution of 90 -
P to the fruits with around 40% of total 80 -
uptake ending up in the berry (Figure 70 -
19). 60 -
50 -
Potassium is needed in large quantities 40 -
– at levels above those of nitrogen 30 -
(Figures 17 and 18). Total crop K uptake 20 -
is around 3.5-4.5kg/t of fruit yield 10 -
(Figure 18). 0-

N P K Ca Mg
Almost 60% of the potassium is found
Fruit Petioles & flowers Leaves Root & crown REF: TAGLIAVINI - 2004
in the fruit at harvest (Figure 19 and
Table 7).
Calcium is required in large quantities. Magnesium, while required in lower
Generally, around 1.5kg of calcium is amounts than calcium (Figure 18), it
Table 7 needed for every tonne of fruit (Figure is needed to support plant growth and
Macronutrient Removal (Fruit) 18). relatively low levels find their way into
the harvested fruit (Figure 19).
Removal per
tonne of fruit [kg] A lot of this calcium is found in the root,
the plant leaves and petioles (Figure 19). All nutrient uptake figures in this section
Nitrogen (N) 1 - 1.5 are given in elemental forms.
Phosphorus (P) 0.13 Transport of calcium into the fruit is
Potassium (K) 1.66 - 2.00 limited largely because Ca follows For conversion to P2O5, K2O, MgO, and
water uptake and is only taken up by CaO from the elemental form see the
Calcium (Ca) 0.14 transpiring organs thereby mirroring conversion table on page 61.
Magnesium (Mg) 0.06 water uptake.
REF: LIETEN - 2003
Thus regular, season-long supply of
calcium to the fruit is critical to maintain
Peak K demand is from early fruit fruit quality and in particular firmness
formation through to maturity, when and shelf life.
uptake is faster than for any other
nutrient (Figure 17).

©Yara | 23
Micronutrients Figure 20
While much lower levels of Micronutrient Uptake (Plant + Fruit)
micronutrients are needed, all play a Elsanta - Grown in Perlite

role, particularly in supporting plant Nutrient uptake (g/t of fruit)

growth, yield and fruit quality. 90 -

80 -
The micronutrients taken up in greatest
70 -
quantities are iron and manganese
60 -
(Figure 20).
50 -

Iron and copper are found mostly in the 40 -

roots and the crown. Boron, manganese 30 -

and zinc are mainly distributed in the 20 -
fruit and the leaf (Figure 21). 10 -

0-
Boron and zinc support the growth of B Cu Fe Mn Zn
new tissues and poor supply can lead
REF: LIETEN AND MISOTTEN - 1993
to reduced fruit set or malformation.
Between 20-30% of the B and Zn taken
up by the plant, ends up in the fruit Figure 21
(Figure 21).
Micronutrient Partitioning
Elsanta - Grown in Perlite
Analysis Nutrient distribution (%)
Soil Analysis
100 -
Soil analysis is used to provide baseline
90 -
initial information for a fertilizer
80 -
programme – particularly as an
70 -
indication of potassium and phosphorus
60 -
requirements and to assess plant- 50 -
available soil mineral N for nitrogen 40 -
recommendations. It is also used to 30 -
assess soil pH, and organic matter 20 -
levels. 10 -
0-
A soil test should be taken before
B Cu Fe Mn Zn
planting. Sample the top 30cm, taking
Fruit Petioles & flowers Leaves Root & crown REF: TAGLIAVINI - 2004
10 or more samples for fields of around
1ha. Bulk the samples. For larger fields,
30 samples is the required minimum. Leaf Tissue Analysis Typical practice is to collect a random
Leaf tissue analysis is important to sample of leaves in the morning, before
Water Analysis confirm that the balance between the day heats up.
In fertigation and hydroponic systems, elements within an appropriate
analysis of your irrigation water is fertilizer programme will maximize crop Collect a minimum of 60 samples
essential for checking water quality and production. taking the youngest fully developed or
adjusting your fertilizer input, pH and EC expanded leaves from the same cultivar.
accordingly. It is a highly effective way of monitoring Note: the common standard consists of
nutrient levels in the crop, particularly the 3 leaflets minus the leaf stalk (see
Irrigation water should be run for several under soilless cultivation, allowing the photo opposite).
minutes before samples are collected for fertilizer programme to be adjusted as
analysis, in clean bottles, from the point required. Where you suspect a deficiency or issue,
where the water enters your system. perhaps in a specific area of the field,
Leaf tissue analysis will also confirm keep samples separate and compare
In hydroponic systems, collect sample most visible deficiency symptoms, reveal with those of healthier plants.
from several emitters in the line to hidden deficiencies where visual plant
periodically monitor the applied nutrient symptoms are not yet present and show Tables 8 and 9 give interpretative
solutions. Where recycled irrigation excessive nutrient concentrations which nutrient ranges for leaves from a range
water is used, periodically analyse the may be causing other nutrients to be of different sources and regions.
run-off solution to make sure there is no deficient – e.g. excess K supply creating
buildup of undesirable elements such as an imbalance of calcium or magnesium. While fruit analysis is not commonly
Na & Cl, or an imbalance of nutrients in used, Table 10 gives an indicative range
the solution. Fresh, whole leaves that are free of dust for macronutrients in fruit.
or dirt, disease and pest damage should
be taken.

24 | ©Yara
 Figure 22
Nutrient Distribution in the Fruit
(% DM)

Potassium Ca Calcium Mg Magnesium

seed at 0.55 0.16

proximal
outer Inner
end
fruit at fruit at
0.11 0.18 0.15
proximal proximal
end end 1.00
0.09 0.08
2.34

0.13 0.07 0.14 0.07

0.95
2.01 inner fruit
outer fruit at distal seed at 0.32 0.17
at distal end distal end
end 0.11

Sample the youngest fully developed leaf

REF: MAKUS & MORRIS - 1998

Table 8
Macronutrient Norms - Leaf
Optimum Range (%DM) Table 11 gives Yara’s standard
recommendation for use of micronutrients
Source N P K Ca Mg S
for strawberry grown in peat/hydroponics.
NSW Government - Australia 2.5-3.5 0.3-0.5 1.5-2.5 1.0-2.0 0.4-0.6 0.1-0.2
REF: L Ullio – 2010 Figure 22 also shows the distribution
of selected nutrients within various
Leaf – Elsanta 1.8-2.5 0.3-0.6 1.5-3.0 1.0-2.0 0.3-0.6 0.16-0.24 sections of the fruit. In this trial, the
REF: Lieten - 2003
fruit was divided into proximal and distal
Leaves after renovation 1.8-2.8 0.25-0.4 1.5-2.5 0.69-1.7 0.29-0.5 parts and each of them separated into
REF: Ohio State University, USA - 2006 inner and outer part of fruit. The berry
peel was removed and not tested.
Mid Summer - Canada 2.0-2.8 0.25-0.4 1.5-2.5 0.7-1.7 0.3-0.5 0.16-0.24
REF: Pritts & Handley - 1998
Table 11
Yara - Megalab 2.5 0.25 1.5 0.8 0.25 0.1
Micronutrient Rates
Recommended Rates for Strawberry in Peat
Table 9
Recommended Comments
Micronutrient Norms - Leaf Rates (µmol/l)
Optimum Range (ppm DM)
Boron 10
Source B Cu Fe Mn Mo Zn (maximum 15)
NSW Government - Australia 30-50 5-10 70-200 50-350 >0.5 30-50 Copper 0.75
REF: L Ullio – 2010

Iron 20 30 at the
Leaf – Elsanta 40-55 3-6 70-200 200-500 0.5 30-90
REF: Lieten - 2003 (as Fe-DTPA) start of
cultivation
Leaves after renovation 24-35 6-20 59-150 49-150 - 20-50
REF: Ohio State University, USA - 2006 Manganese 10 15 at the start
of cultivation
Mid Summer - Canada 30-70 6-20 60-250 50-200 - 20-50
REF: Pritts & Handley - 1998 Molybdenum 0.5
Yara - Megalab 30 7 150 40 0.2 20 Zinc 7
REF: YARA

Table 10
Macronutrient Norms - Fruit All nutrient norm figures are guidelines
Elsanta - >100 sites – Soil Grown and could vary according to variety as
well as local research.
(%DM) N P K Ca Mg

Mean 1 - 1.5 0.19 1.69 0.11 0.11

Consult your local Yara agronomist for
ways of overcoming deficiencies.
Optimum Range 0.90 - 1.40 0.12-0.27 1.30-2.20 0.08-0.20 0.08-0.14
REF: FABY - 2004

©Yara | 25
Application Strategies

Pre-planting Fertigation Figure 23

Pre-planting soil preparation provides Fertigation, by providing nutrients Irrigation and Yield
an ideal opportunity to apply base through the irrigation system located Chandler – Soil Grown - India
fertilizers. under a plastic mulch or in table top
% Yield Increase over surface irrigation treatment
systems, delivers fertilizer direct to the
Direct contact between newly planted plant to meet an immediate need. 25 -

runners and soil applied fertilizers can

20 -
damage roots and compromise crop This allows the application of soluble
establishment prior to the winter. As a fertilizers to the plants throughout the 15 -
result, fertilizers should be thoroughly growing season and at the same time
incorporated into the soil before the maintains a good water balance for the 10-

positioning of the straw or plastic mulch. crop.

5-

Fertilizers can be applied during bed Drip irrigation is the most effective 0-
60% Drip 80% Drip 100% Drip
formation and should be placed in a means of supplying water to the Irrigation Irrigation Irrigation
band 5-10cm below the surface and in strawberry crop, (Figure 23). In
between the intended planting rows. this trial, making best use of water, REF: KUMAR - 2011

delivered yield responses over surface

Post Planting irrigation of over 20%.
Broadcasting of fertilizer can be
practiced in systems where straw has
been used as mulch, but is not practical
with strawberries under plastic.

Fertilizer placed in planting holes can

damage the plants leading to toxicity
issues. To avoid this potential for
toxicity, some growers will cut a hole in
the plastic 10 to 15cm from the crown of
the strawberry and place the fertilizer in
this hole.

Fertilizers applied along walkways close

to beds are often ineffective and can
lead to run-off.

For this reason, fertigation is most

commonly recommended for in-season
fertilizer application.

Drip irrigation and fertigation are commonly used in soil grown strawberries

26 | ©Yara
Adding fertilizers to the drip irrigation Avoiding the use of water with high (bi-)
water is a major advantage over carbonate levels will help reduce the
broadcasting fertilizer and irrigating risk of phosphate, sulfate or calcium
separately. Yield responses of around rich fertilizers from precipitating out and
40% have been shown (Figure 24), blocking the drippers. If the irrigation
through better utilization of the nutrients water contains high (bi-) carbonate
that are applied. levels, acid should be used to neutralize
the solution.
Figure 24 It is also common practice to irrigate
Fertilizer Application Method before and after injecting the fertilizer.
Elsanta
This helps move the nutrients down into
Fruit yield (g/plant)
the root zone, avoids the build-up of
fertilizer salts in the drip system and / or
200 -
pockets of fertilizer salt concentrations
+ 46%
within the soil.
150 -
+ 9%
Under table-top systems, fertigation
100 -
is through a continuous flow of water
and nutrients can be much more closely
50 -
regulated. See section on hydroponics
and substrate systems on page 15.
0-
Sprinkler Drip Irrigated Fertigated
Irrigation
NPK & Mg
NPK & Mg
Broadcast
with NPK
& Mg
Foliar Application
Broadcast Foliar application is used to address an
All treatments received 60kgN/ha
immediate nutritional need.
REF: YARA RESEARCH CENTER HANNINGHOF
It applies the nutrient directly to the Fertigation distribution in table top grown strawberries
plant and relies on leaf and fruit
When fertigating strawberries grown absorption.
in soil, it is important to keep the soil
moisture level at or near field capacity In in-field cultivation systems foliar
and to maximize the area of the sprays are used when soil applications
wetted bulb. This helps to avoid high are ineffective and when plants are
concentrations of fertilizer salts close to under stress during early fruit set and
the root zone, which can occur if the soil development.
is allowed to dry out (see salinity section
on page 14).

©Yara | 27
Role of Specific Nutrients

Si
Yield

Fruit Set *

Fruit Quality * * *

Fruit Firmness *

Malformed Fruit * *

Shelf Life

Fruit Acidity *
Fruit TSS * * *
Fruit Vitamin C

Fruit Albinism

Leaf Diseases * * *

Fruit Diseases *

Root Diseases *

Cold Tolerance * *
Page No. 29 - 33 34 - 35 36 - 39 39 - 42 43 44 45 - 46 47 48 - 49 49 - 50 50 50 - 51 52

Increase Reduction No clear trend * No strawberry trial data available but seen in field.

28 | ©Yara
 Nitrogen
Nitrogen is essential for plant growth
being one of the main building blocks of
proteins.

It is important for biomass production

and fruit production, maximizing
photosynthetic assimilation leading to
high strawberry yields (Figure 25).

Figure 25
Nitrogen & Yield
Festival - USA
0mM 5mM 10mM 15mM 20mM
Marketable fruit yield (t/ha)
N concentration (millimolar) in solution – 0, 5, 10, 15, 20mM
35 - Photo courtesy: Dr Choi, Chungnam

30 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

10 -

5-

0-
75 105 135
N Rate (kg/ha)
Total fruit yield
Early fruit yield REF: SANTOS - 2009

During periods of rapid growth, leaves

that are short of nitrogen remain small
and turn pale green or yellow.

However, too much nitrogen can lead

to an excessive leaf area which is out of Excess N causes too much leaf growth
balance with the rest of the plant, and
also produces too many runners and
insufficient flowers. These N applications must be balanced Figure 26
with the expected release of N from N Remobilization in the Spring
Strawberries are quite sensitive to any organic matter added to the Idea – Field Grown - Italy
excessive rates of N and so nitrogen soil in preparation for planting the
supply needs to be closely monitored strawberries. Distribution of N taken up in the autumn (%)

and balanced with other nutrients. The 120 -

total rate of N required will vary with Applications made in the autumn
100 -
variety and growing system. are mainly stored in the roots and
crown during winter dormancy, then 80 -

Timing of N is also critical and translocated to leaves and flowers in the 60 -

programmes need to be tailored to following spring (Figure 26).
40 -
deliver enough leaf growth and strong
fruit set without creating issues during Trials confirm that this autumn applied 20 -

fruit fill and at harvest. nitrogen increases leaf biomass and the 0-
Winter Spring
number of crowns in spring even when
In field grown strawberries, this no further N is applied (Figures 27 and Crowns Flowers Leaves Roots

will mean focusing upon nitrogen 28). REF: TAGLIAVINI - 2005

applications in the autumn and also

early in the spring - to strengthen
and build the plant and improve fruit
production.

©Yara | 29
Figure 27 Figure 30
Autumn N Application & Plant Growth Nitrogen - Application Method - Yield
Elsanta – Plastic Tunnel - France Elsanta - Soil Culture - Belgium

Leaf biomass in autumn (g DM/plant) Leaf biomass in spring (g DM/plant) Fruit yield (t/ha)
40 - 40 - 26 -

35 - 35 - 24 -

30 - 30 - 22 -

25 - 25 - 20 -

20 - 20 - 18 -

15 - 15 - 16 -

10 - 10 - 14 -

5- 5- 12 -

0- 0- 10 -
Jun Aug Oct Dec Feb Mar Apr May Jun 20 70 120
N rate applied in spring (kg N/ha)
20 kg N/ha
40 kg N/ha Fertigated
55 kg N/ha REF: RAYNAL-LACROIX - 1999 Broadcast REF: LATET - 2002

Figure 28 remobilization in the spring. Thus, Figure 31

Autumn N & Plant Growth annual production systems commonly Nitrogen – Application Method –
Elsanta – Plastic Tunnel - France require and consequently receive higher Yield & Quality
N rates than perennial systems.
Crowns/plant
Berry yield (g FM/plant) % Rotten berries after 9
days of storage at 3°C
4- Relying on autumn applications only
200 - - 60
3.5 - will not maximize production in spring.
3- Spring N applications are essential
150 - - 50
2.5 - to maximize yield, but they cannot
2-
compensate sufficiently if autumn
100 - - 40
application rates were too low (Figure
1.5 -
29).
1- 50 - - 30
0.5 -
Figure 29 0- - 20
0-
20 kg N/ha 40 kg N/ha 55 kg N/ha Autumn & Spring Nitrogen - Yield 60
common
0 20 60 100
Selekta – Field Grown – South Africa practice Fertigation
REF: RAYNAL-LACROIX - 1999
Application rates (kg N/ha)
Marketable yield (t/ha)
REF: YARA RESEARCH CENTER HANNINGHOF
Autumn applications of nitrogen 50 -
36.5kg N applied in spring
will also need to be balanced with
40 -
potassium and other nutrients to
maximize production the following no N applied in spring Quality
30 - Excess nitrogen during fruit growth and
spring.
20 -
development has an adverse affect
on fruit quality. It increases disease
In fertigation systems, nitrogen should
10 - susceptibility and the softening of fruit.
be applied through the period of
This leads to a shorter shelf life and fruit
maximum growth with rates reducing as 0- that is quicker to rot.
the crop ripens. 0 18.25 36.5 0 18.25 36.5
N rate applied in autumn (kg N/ha)
Maturity can also be delayed and fruit
Yield REF: HUMAN & KOTZE - 1990
malformed, resulting in reduced yields.
Uptake figures confirm that around
3-3.5kg of nitrogen per tonne of fruit is In soil cultivation systems, split Excess N also encourages anthracnose
required (Figure 18). application of N is recommended for crown rot (Figure 32).
what is a relatively shallow-rooted crop,
Nitrogen uptake increases during the commonly grown on light, leaching Fertigation can help ensure that applied
vegetative stage and reaches a peak just prone soils. nitrogen is better utilized by the plant
before the fruit starts maturing (Figure and not available to encourage rots
17). Nitrogen is better utilized when applied (Figure 31). Although, even under more
by fertigation compared to broadcast controlled fertigation systems, high N
Perennial systems can utilise N reserves application (Figures 30 and 31). rates may still result in greater disease
held in the crown and roots, over the severity.
2-3 years of production as a result of A consistent low N rate applied by
fertigation is much more effective than
broadcasting N in one dose.

30 | ©Yara
Figure 32
Nitrogen & Anthracnose

Disease severity (DS) Rating

6-

5-

4-

3-

2-
100:0 73:27 50:50 23:73 0:100
1-
NO3:NH4 ratio
Photo courtesy: Dr Choi, Chungnam
0-
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Any applied ammonium-N intensifies • Ammonium-N forms increase the
Level of nitrogen treatment (ppm N) the acidification of the substrate, incidence of Botrytis compared to
Low P & K reducing growth. nitrate forms (Figure 35). Even
High P & K REF: SMITH - 2009 though higher rates of N will
High - P = 35,8 ppm, K = 66,4 ppm Ammonium-N can be used in increase the incidence of the
Low - P = 8,7 ppm, K = 16,6 ppm hydroponic media to control the pH disease, the performance of nitrate
in the rooting medium, but common sources is still better than pure
practice in hydroponic production is ammonium N.
Nitrogen Form to use a maximum of 5-10% NH4-N.
Trial data and commercial practice Using 100% nitrate may also increase Figure 34
confirms that the nitrate form of the pH of the nutrient solution, reducing N-Form & Anthracnose
nitrogen is the preferred source across the availability of some other nutrients. Nyoho - Inert Medium
all production systems, improving
growth, disease tolerance and fruit Nitrogen form is also particularly Anthracnose index* 100% NO3-N
2.5 - 100% NH4-N
quality. important in securing good disease free
fruit with a long shelf-life. Ammonium
2.0 -
Nitrate fertilizers are more readily forms of nitrogen have a negative effect
available and help to increase on fruit quality compared to nitrate 1.5 -
productivity, leading to better, more forms:
marketable fruit. 1.0 -
• Ammonium-N forms encourage
While a small amount of ammonium greater incidence of anthracnose 0.5 -
can be supplied during early stages than nitrate N (Figure 34). Soil
of spring growth to improve plant borne, root fungi (e.g. Fusarium 0-
70 140 210
development, nitrate forms encourage spp. and Pythium spp.) tend to N concentration (mg/l)
greater plant development (Figure 33), thrive in more acidic conditions *anthracnose index:
and during flowering and fruiting, N created by ammonium N. 0 – healthy;
1 - <50% petioles affected;
needs to be supplied in nitrate form. 2 - > 50% petioles affected;
3 – wilted; REF: NAM -
4 – necrosis formed on entire plants 2006
Figure 33
N Form & Growth Figure 35
Fertigation – Seolhyang - Korea N-Form & Botrytis – Leaf Incidence

DM plant weight (g/plant) Botrytis leaf incidence (%) Botrytis leaf incidence (%)
5-
50 - 50 -

4-
40 - 40 -

3-
30 - 30 -

2-
20 - 20 -

1-
10 - 10 -

0-
0- 0-
100:0 65:35 50:50 40:60 0:100 Ammonium Ammonium Calcium Ammonium Ammonium Calcium
161mg N/L 161mg N/L 210mg N/L 140mg N/L 140mg N/L
Nitrate Sulfate Nitrate Nitrate Sulfate Nitrate
NH4-N:NO3-N ratio
40 mg N/l applied 140 mg N/l applied
REF: CHOI - 2011 REF: WALTER - 2008

©Yara | 31
• Calcium nitrate consistently gives N Interactions
the best results against botrytis It is important to ensure that nitrogen
whether it is infecting the leaves or supply is balanced with that of
the fruit. (Figure 36) potassium. Both are needed in large
quantities and at different proportions
• Compared to nitrate-N, according to crop growth stage.
ammonium-N can also limit calcium
uptake into fruit and thus have a The N:K ratio changes as the crop
negative effect on fruit firmness and moves through vegetative development
shelf life. (Figure 37) into fruit production (Figure 38).

Figure 38
Figure 36 N:K Ratio
N-Form & Botrytis – Fruit Incidence
N:K ratio in shoot
Botrytis fruit rot (%)
2,5 -
50 - Leaf production Fruit production

45 - 2-

40 - Relatively high Relatively high

N requirement K requirement
1,5 -
35 -

30 - 1-

25 - Beginning of harvest
0,5 -
20 - Planting 2 4 6 8 10 12
Ammonium Ammonium Calcium Weeks after Planting
Nitrate Sulfate Nitrate

140 mg N/L applied Nutrient ratio is based on uptake in mg/plant REF: YARA RESEARCH CENTER HANNINGHOF

REF: WALTER - 2008

Figure 37 Carbon Footprint

N Form & Fruit Quality By investing in new ‘best available
Yara believes that sustainable
Selva – Inert Medium technology’ that minimizes its carbon
agriculture to meet growing world
footprint, Yara’s manufacturing plants
population food and energy demands
Shelf life (days) Fruit Ca content (%) are rated amongst the most energy
will continue to require mineral
efficient in the world.
7- - 0.1 fertilizer inputs, but that these
products need a low carbon footprint
6- - 0.08 Indeed, by developing and
to reduce their environmental impact.
implementing catalyst technology Yara
5- - 0.06
has reduced N2O emissions from its
4- - 0.04
Figure 39 nitric acid plants by as much as 90%.
Carbon Footprint of Plant Nutrition This reduces the carbon footprint of
3- - 0.02 the nitrate containing fertilizers we
2- -0
100% - produce by 40% (Figure 39).
Reduction Reduction
75:25 50:50 25:75 0:100 from fertilizer from

NH4-N:NO3-N ratio
production
35-40%
increased
N-efficiency
Furthermore, by enhancing N
10-30% efficiency in fertilizer use – through
REF: TABATABAEI - 2006
50% - proper selection and use of these
nitrate based fertilizers growers can
go further, contributing another 10-
30% in terms of carbon saving.
0-
European Yara with Yara with
average BAT BAT and bast Thus, by selecting and using Yara’s
without BAT* farming
practice
lower carbon footprint nitrogen
Fertilizer use
fertilizers, in a targeted manner,
Transportation growers can effectively reduce carbon
Solidification
Nitric acid production
emissions from plant nutrition by
Ammonia production 50%.
*Best Avaiable Technology REF: YARA

Ammonium toxicity
Photo courtesy: Dr Choi, Chungnam National University,
South Korea

32 | ©Yara
Deficiency Symptoms
Leaves are small and become chlorotic,
turning yellowish-green.

Growth stagnates and the stalk and the

tips of the older leaves turn a brilliant
red color.

With increasing deficiency, the red color

migrates inward until the whole leaf
turns a reddish-orange.

Fruit size is also reduced and the calyx

around the fruit becomes red.
Nitrogen deficiency
When N deficiency symptoms appear, Photo courtesy: Dr Choi, Chungnam National University,
South Korea
considerable yield losses have also
occurred.

Nitrogen deficiency – field symptoms

-N Control

Nitrogen deficiency

©Yara | 33
 Phosphorus
Phosphorus is a constituent of nucleic Figure 40
acids (DNA and RNA) and essential for Phosphorus Uptake
cell division, energy transfer within the 1st year Elsanta – P rate 32 kg P2O5 /ha
plant and the development of new plant
tissues. P uptake (Kg P2O5 /ha)
20 -
Total
It is important for root development
and flower initiation. It also stimulates 15 -
root formation and increasing cytokinin
Leaves
levels which in turn initiate flower bud 10 -
formation.
Fruit
5-
P deficiency at flower bud differentiation
leads to a reduced number of fruit buds
0-
and lower yields. Planting 2 4 6 8 10 12
Weeks after Planting
Yield and Quality REF: YARA RESEARCH CENTER HANNINGHOF

Phosphorus is only needed in relatively

small quantities of around 0.5- Figure 41 Figure 43
0.75kg P/t fruit yield (Figure 18) and
P Rate & Yield Salinity & Leaf P Concentration
accumulates slowly within the crop. Soil Grown - Pot Experiment - Turkey Mean of two varieties - Oso Grande and Camarosa

Highest uptake is from after flowering to Strawberry fruit yield P content (%) Leaf P concentration (% DM)
(g DM/pot)
the end of harvest (Figures 17 and 40). 1.0 -
100 - -1
0.9 -
During fruiting, phosphorus is transferred 90 - - 0.8
0.8 -
0.7 -
from the leaves, petioles and roots and 0.6 -
accumulates within the fruit – largely in 80 - - 0.6
0.5 -
the seeds. 70 - - 0.4
0.4 -
0.3 -
0.2 -
In pot experiments, high yields have 60 - - 0.2
0.1 -
come from up to 100kg/ha P (Figure 41), 0 -
50 - -0 Control Control 35mmol 35mmol
though in practice lower rates are used in 0 50 100 150 200 + Foliar NaCl NaCl + Foliar
the field. P rate (kg P/ha)
KH2PO4 KH2PO4
Leaf P content
Yield REF: KAYA ET AL - 2001
In field systems, most phosphorus is Fruit P content
applied before planting and placed in the REF: GUNES - 2009

root zone, with rates adjusted according

to soil test results. Figure 42
Phosphorus & Plant Growth
Under substrate production, P is targeted Seolhyang – Fertigation - Korea
at early development and also fruit set
and development. DM biomass (g/plant)

10 -
In trials (Figure 42), 30-50mg P/l (1.0-
8-
1.6mmol P/l) was sufficient for optimum
growth and at P rates above this, plant 6-
growth suffered.
4-

Salinity reduces leaf phosphorus levels 2-

(Figure 43). Foliar P can help to correct
this. 0-
0 50 100 150 200

P concentration (mg P/l)

REF: CHOI - 2013

34 | ©Yara
Deficiency Symptoms
The first indications of a deficiency are a
deep green or bluish-purple discoloration
of the plant and a reduction in leaf size.

As the deficiency worsens the upper

surface of the leaves develops a dark,
metallic sheen while the underside
becomes reddish-purple.

Fruit numbers are reduced and the fruits

and flowers are smaller and roots less
abundant, stunted and darker.

Symptoms are worse during cold and

dry growing conditions and at high pH Phosphorus deficiency.
values, all of which makes the P less No P (left). Control with adequate P (right)
available.

Phosphorus deficiency due to low temperature Phosphorus deficiency Phosphorus deficiency

Photo courtesy: Dr Choi, Chungnam National University, South Korea

©Yara | 35
 Potassium
Potassium is particularly important in Figure 44 Quality
terms of berry quality providing a high Potassium – Flowering Key quality characteristics such as fruit
sugar and acid content, and a good taste Camarosa – Field Experiment - Egypt acidity and TSS continue to rise with
to the fruit. levels of potassium up to 600kg K2O/ha
Number of flowers/plant and beyond (Figure 47).
It is important for transpiration and 25 -
regulates stomatal opening and closing, Potassium also influences the levels of
helping improve water use efficiency 24 -
vitamin C within the fruit and has a direct
particularly in periods of moisture stress. 23 - effect on anthocyanin levels, improving
berry color (Figure 48).
Potassium is involved in a range of 22 -
transport and accumulation processes Rate of K use needs to be balanced by
21 -
within the plant, including the that of nitrogen and adjusted according
translocation of nitrates and activation of 20 - to growth stage of the crop.
some enzymes. 357 kg K2O/ha 476 kg K2O/ha

REF: EL-SAWY - 2012

It can also help minimize the effects of
stresses such as frost by increasing the
osmotic potential and therefore lowering Figure 45 Figure 46
the freezing point of the cell solution. Nutrient Concentration Change During Potassium – Yield & Fruit Weight
Ripening Camarosa – Field Experiment - Egypt
Elsanta - Mean of 3 Harvests
Yield Fruit yield (t/ha) Single fruit weight
High levels of potassium – 3.5-4.5kg/t of Fruit nutrient content (% DM) (g/fruit)

fruit - are required for strong crop growth 2.0 -

50 - - 25

(Figure 18). 1.8 - 49 - - 23

1.6 -
Potassium has a direct effect on flower 48 - - 22
1.4 -
number and consequent fruit set (Figure 47 - - 21
1.2 -
44).
1.0 - 46 - - 20

Peak uptake is between fruit formation 0.8 -

45 - - 19
until the end of harvest (Figure 17). 0.6 -
N K 44 - - 18
Degree of fruit ripeness (fruit colour) 357 kg K2O/ha 476 kg K2O/ha
At maturity, most potassium – almost Green
60% - is accumulated in the fruit (Figure White/yellow Total yield
Red REF: FABY - 2004 Fruit weight
19). K concentrations are highest in the REF: EL-SAWY - 2012

outer flesh and nearer to the calyx end

(Figure 22). Figure 47
Potassium – Fruit Quality
Compared to other nutrients (e.g. Camarosa - Soil Grown - Brazil
nitrogen), potassium is hardly diluted in
Titratable acidity (% of citric acid) Soluble solids (°Brix)
the fruit during ripening, so supplies need
8.0 - 10 -
to be maintained throughout maturity as
the fruit changes color (Figure 45). 7.5 -
9.5 -

9.0 -
7.0 -
As a consequence of good K supply, fruit 8.5 -
weight and yield is increased (Figure 46). 6.5 - 8.0 -

7.5 -
6.0 -
7.0 -
5.5 -
6.5 -

5.0 - 6.0 -
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
K rate (kg K2O/ha) K rate (kg K2O/ha)

REF: MARODIN - 2010

36 | ©Yara
Figure 48 Figure 49 Figure 52
Potassium – Quality N:K Ratio - Yield and Fruit Quality Potassium – Amelioration of Salinity
Festival – Foliar Application - Egypt Oso Grande – Fertigation - Brazil Selva - Hydroponics

Vitamin C Anthocyan Fruit yield (g/plant) Total soluble solids Fruit yield (g/plant)
(mg/100g FW) (mg/100g FW) (° Brix)
250 - -7 800 -
50 - - 90
700 -
200 - - 6.6 600 -
45 - - 85
500 -
150 - - 6.2
400 -
40 - - 80 300 -
100 - - 5.8
200 -
35 - - 75 50 - - 5.4 100 -
0-
0- -5 No salt Control 390mg/l 780mg/l
30 - - 70 stress K2SO4 K2SO4
0ppm 500ppm 1000ppm 6:1 3:1 2:1 1:1
Molar N:K ratio in fertigation solution
Salt stress treatments with 2g/l NaCl
Foliar potassium application (mg K/l)
Yield
TSS REF: MALDONADE - 2012 REF: KHAYYAT - 2007
Vitamin C
Anthocyan
REF: EL-YAZIED - 2012
Figure 50 Deficiency
K Form - Yield & Salinity The first signs of potassium deficiency
During vegetative growth around 2.5 Polana - Field Grown - Hungary are necrosis on the margins of the older,
times more nitrogen is required than lower leaves.
Chloride content
potassium, but during production a molar Total yield (t/ha)
(mg/kg)
N:K ratio of 2:1 or 1:1 is more appropriate 20 - - 800 This necrosis spreads to the centre of
and will help improve fruit quality (Figure 19.5 - - 700 the leaf between the veins. The mid-rib
49). 19 - section of the leaf may darken and dry
- 600
18.5 -
- 500
out. Crops also wilt and are therefore
Similarly, the ratio between potassium 18 - lower yielding.
- 400
and calcium also needs to be in balance 17.5 -
to ensure a mix of good fruit taste, 17 -
- 300
Because poor K supply restricts
fruit strength for a better shelf life and 16.5 - - 200 translocation and storage of assimilates
optimum yield. (See section on cationic 16 - - 100 to the fruit, quality is affected first.
balance on page 38). 15.5 - -0 Fruit can fail to develop full color and
Control KCl K2SO4
tend to be soft, pulpy and taste insipid.
Yield
It is also important to recognize that high REF: VAGO - 2008
Cl
levels of potassium will not necessarily Young, developing leaves remain free
120 kg K2O/ha applied with the different K sources; no
increase fruit firmness if it restricts K application in the control treatment of deficiency symptoms as potassium
calcium uptake (see calcium section on is readily translocated from the older
page 41). leaves to this new material.
Figure 51
Strawberries are sensitive to salinity and Foliar Potassium - Salt Stress
this makes the use of potassium chloride,
with its high salt index, unsuitable for Membrane leakage (%)

this crop. Yield improves when other 60 -

potassium forms such as potassium
50 -
sulphate or potassium nitrate are used
(Figure 50). 40 -

30 -
Potassium can help to reduce the effects
of salinity, reducing membrane leakage 20 -
and helping to maintain fruit quality and
10 -
reducing yield loss (Figures 51 and 52).
0-
Control Salt stress (2.3g NaCl/l)

No K
KNO3 foliar (400mg K/l) REF: YILDIRIM - 2009

Mild potassium deficiency in field

©Yara | 37
 Cationic Balance - K:Ca:Mg Figure 54
The correct balance of K:Ca:Mg is K:Ca:Mg Ratio - Fruit Acidity
particularly important in hydroponic Elsanta – Fertigation - Belgium

and substrate grown strawberries to Titratable acid (meq NaOH/100g)

maximize quality and yield.
16 -

14 -
When not balanced correctly, high
12 -
levels of any of these cations will
restrict the uptake of the others. 10 -

8-
While the potassium to calcium 6-
ratio in the nutrient solution will 4-
vary according to the growth stage 2-
of the strawberries, at all times the 0-
potassium level will be higher than 8:1.5:1 5:3:1 2:4.5:1
the calcium. K:Ca:Mg molar ratio in nutrient solution
REF: LIETEN - 2005
The other issue in strawberry
production is that the plants are
Mild potassium deficiency
continually flowering, developing However, to achieve the best fruit
Photo courtesy: Dr Choi, Chungnam National University, South Korea
fruit, being harvested and developing firmness, the calcium levels must be
new stolons and so the grower high (Figure 55).
must take into account the key
requirements at any one time to suit Figure 55
crop management and fruit priorities. K:Ca Ratio - Fruit Firmness
Fruit firmness (Durofel units)
A series of experiments with Elsanta [The force required to deform the fruit]
grown in peat bags under a polythene
50 -
tunnel, gives some clues as to the best
cationic ratios to use. For example:
45 -

Higher levels of potassium will give

the highest level of fruit sugars and 40 -
therefore the best taste (Figure 53).
35 -
Severe potassium deficiency The highest acidity levels come from
Photo courtesy: Dr Choi, Chungnam National University, South Korea maintaining high potassium levels
30 -
(Figure 54). 8:1.5:1 5:3:1 2:4.5:1
K:Ca:Mg molar ratio in nutrient solution

Figure 53 REF: LIETEN - 2003

K:Ca:Mg Ratio - Fruit Sugar

Elsanta – Fertigation - Belgium
Figure 56
Sugar (%) K:Ca:Mg Ratio - Fruit Weight
6- Elsanta – Fertigation - Belgium

5-
Fruit yield kg/m2 (mean of 3 years)
4- 6-

3- 5-

2- 4-
Potassium deficiency in field
1- 3-

0- 2-
8:1.5:1 5:3:1 2:4.5:1
1-
K:Ca:Mg molar ratio in nutrient solution
REF: LIETEN - 2005 0-
8:1.5:1 5:3:1 2:4.5:1
K:Ca:Mg molar ratio in nutrient solution
REF: LIETEN - 2005

38 | ©Yara
In addition, high calcium levels
improve the fruit weight (Figure 56)
Calcium
and yield (Figure 57).

Achieving the optimal level for all Calcium supports root development Figure 58
criteria is not always possible in and crop establishment, including the
practice, so Yara recommends the Calcium Distribution
growth of young leaves and buds. Units are: meq Ca2+/10g fresh matter
following ratios for Elsanta (Table 12).
It plays a key role in maintaining the Sepal: 0.7
However, it must be remembered physiological stability of plant tissue Big fruit: 0.1
that the desired ratio will vary with ensuring good plant structure and health.
Stem: 1

variety and local data and practices

Small fruit: 0.2
should be taken into account. For example, calcium builds strong cell Older
leaves: 52
walls and is vital to cell membrane
Figure 57 integrity and permeability.
31
Calcium – Yield
Elsanta – Mean of three trials over three In addition, Ca helps improve the
years plant’s tolerance to disease and salinity,
Yield (kg/m2) maintaining good, stress-free growth. 55 Younger
leaves: 24
5.5 -
5- Yield Stem: 74

4.5 - Peak demand is during flowering and

4- fruit formation (Figure 17), and levels of
3.5 - around 1.5kg Ca are required per tonne
3- of fruit yield (Figure 18).
2.5 -
2- While liming can help to get calcium
1.5 - into the soil and will influence pH, it is Root: 175
1- not an effective way of meeting plant
5:3:1 5:2:2 5:1:3 5:0:4
and fruit Ca need, due to its limited REF: SCHIMANSKI & WIENEKE - 1976

K:Ca:Mg molar ratio in nutrient solution

solubility and plant availability.
REF: LIETEN - 2005
Figure 59
Most calcium is transported to the
Calcium Deficiency
leaves via the transpiration system and
Table 12 cannot be transferred from the leaf to
Elsanta

Balanced Cation Ratios the developing fruit. As a consequence, Incidence (%)

Elsanta, Belgium
strawberry crops require regular 50 -
applications of calcium as only small 45 -
Growth Stage Desired K:Ca:Mg
Ratio (mmol) amounts are taken up by new growth or 40 -
the fruit (Figure 58). 35 -
Nursery plants 3:4:1 30 -
in autumn Calcium supply to the fruit is a 25 -

particular issue where high air humidity 20 -

Vegetative 4.5:3.5:1 15 -
in protected cultivation reduces
development 10 -
transpiration and water uptake.
5-
Flowering and 6:4:1 0-
fruit Poor calcium uptake – particularly Necrosis Lesions Tipburn
development when it is out of balance with K and (petioles) (flower stem) (runners)

Mg supply – leads to necrosis and tip K:Ca:Mg (mmol/l)

This will vary with variety REF: YARA burn (Figure 59). In this trial, petiole 5:3:1
5:2:2
and production system necrosis, flower stem lesions and 5:1:3
tip burn of runners increased with 5:0:4 REF: LIETEN - 2005

decreasing Ca and increasing Mg

availability in the nutrient solution.

©Yara | 39
Tip burn can be minimized by lowering Figure 61 However, excessive rates of calcium
the EC at night. Calcium uptake and Foliar Calcium – Fruit Firmness at the expense of other cations can
distribution is favored at night when the Kent – Soil Culture - Canada reduce fruit firmness and shelf life
xylem sap pressure can push water and (Figure 62 and section on page 38).
calcium into the low or non transpiring Fruit firmness (N) 28 days after harvest For this reason it is important to keep
tissues such as enclosed leaf tips and 9- calcium applications in balance with
fruit. 8- other cations such as potassium and
7- magnesium.
6-
Regular calcium supply throughout
5-
the production cycle ensures that Ca Calcium also helps to reduce levels of
4-
required for fruit integrity, will find its 3-
mold on fruit post harvest (Figure 64).
way into the fruit also boosting yields 2- This calcium can also be applied pre-
(Figure 60). 1- harvest as a foliar application (Figure
0- 65).
0 1.8 3.6 5.4 7.2

Figure 60 Rate (kg Ca/ha)

Ca reduces albinism, maintaining
Calcium – Uptake & Yield Foliar application at a rate of 1.8 kg Ca/ha per date, fruit coloration through increasing
Redcoat – Soil Culture - Canada starting from pink fruit, in intervals of 3 days, until
the final Ca application rate was reached. anthocyanin levels during maturity
Fruit yield (g/plant) Fruit Ca content (% DM) REF: CHEOUR ET AL - 1990 (Figure 66).
500 - - 0.25

400 - - 0.2 Figure 62

Calcium - Fruit Firmness & Shelf Life
300 - - 0.15 Selva - Sand Culture - UK

200 - - 0.1
Fruit firmness* (kg) Shelf life (days)

100 - - 0.05 1.6 - 14 -

1.4 - 12 -
0- -0
1.2 -
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 10 -
1.0 -
Calcium concentration in nutrient solution (ppm) 8-
0.8 -
Fruit yield 6-
Ca fruit REF: BLATT - 1967 0.6 -
4-
0.4 -
2-
0.2 -

Quality 0-
300 ppm Ca 900 ppm Ca 1800 ppm Ca
0-
300 ppm Ca 900 ppm Ca 1800 ppm Ca
While most calcium is found in the
leaves, petioles, crown and roots (Figure
* firmness measured with an Iwaki penetrometer, with a 6 mm diameter tip REF: DUNN - 2006
19), the small amount that does get
into the fruit is critical in terms of berry
structure and shelf life. Figure 63 Figure 64
Foliar Calcium – Fruit Firmness Foliar Calcium - Fruit Mold
Although the inner fruit and distal parts Luna & Zanta – Pot Experiment - Poland Glooscap - Soil Culture - Canada
of the fruit contain little calcium, the
relatively high concentrations found Fruit firmness (N) Mold score
in the fruit margins are particularly 4-
0 = healthy 9 =completely covered with mold

important in terms of fruit quality 3.5 - 8-

(Figure 22). 3- 7-
2.5 - 6-
Strawberry fruit is highly susceptible 2- 5-
to bruising and post harvest decay and 1.5 -
4-
low levels of calcium exacerbate the 1-
3-
problem, reducing shelf life. 0.5 -
2-
0-
Luna Zanta 1-
Trials show that calcium increases fruit
firmness and prolongs keeping quality Control
0-
0 5 10 15 20 25
(Figures 61, 62 and 63). Ca 0.45g/l REF: BIENIASZ - 2012
Days after harvest
Control
Ca 3.6kg/ha (pre harvest) REF: CHEOUR - 1991

40 | ©Yara
Figure 65 Calcium Interactions
Pre-Harvest Foliar Ca – Uptake & Quality Even with sufficient calcium supply to
Elsanta - Soil Culture - Poland the roots, Ca deficiency can occur due to
excessive concentrations of competing
Fruit Ca content (mg/kg FW) Fruit firmness (N) Grey mold incidence (%)
cations (Mg, K, NH4), or oversupply of
220 - 2- 8- nitrogen (Figure 57).
7-
200 -
6- As leaf production progresses, the rate
180 - 1.5 -
5- of potassium uptake declines in favor of
160 - 4- calcium. However, during fruiting and
3-
fruit fill, the plant actively takes up more
140 - 1-
potassium.
2-
120 -
1-
Achieving the correct balance of
100 - 0.5 - 0-
Control Ca foliar At harvest After At harvest After K:Ca:Mg is important at different stages
5 days
storage
5 days
storage
of growth (See cationic balance section
Control on page 38).
Ca foliar REF: WOJCIK - 2003

It is important to maintain Ca
concentrations to ensure that this
Figure 66 Calcium also minimizes cell leakage and
nutrient is not limiting, or physical fruit
Pre-Harvest Foliar Calcium & Albinism tissue senescence through supporting
quality can be compromised (Figures 53
Chandler - Soil Culture - India membrane structures.
and 54).
Albinism (%) Fertigation methods and foliar
16 - However, too much calcium in the mix,
applications which cover the fruit
while increasing fruit strength, may well
14 - provide a regular supply over the growth
reduce fruit sugars and acidity due to its
12 - of the crop and are the most effective
competition with potassium.
10 - means of raising calcium levels in the
8- berry.
6- Boron applied with calcium often
improves yield and quality (Figure 78).
4- The critical calcium level in leaves is
It has been shown in other crops e.g.
2- 0.3-0.8% DM and varies markedly
tomatoes, that adding boron to calcium
0- according to variety.
Control Ca foliar applications will improve Ca distribution
in new tissues in the plant.
REF: SINGH - 2007 The incidence of tip burn increases
markedly at Ca levels below 80mg
Where salinity is an issue, use of
Ca/l (2 mmol Ca/l) in the fertigation
calcium can help to mitigate these
Figure 67 solution.
effects. In trials, adding extra Ca in a
Calcium – Salinity Amelioration saline situation helps to reduce cellular
Oso Grande – Pot Experiment breakdown and leakage, improving
Electrolyte leakage (%) Biomass (g DM/plant) Fruit yield (g/plant)
growth and yield (Figure 67).

60 - 35 - 450 -
Calcium nitrate or calcium sulfate forms
400 -
50 - 30 - are effective and trials show that they
350 -
25 - can be applied through fertigation or
40 - 300 -
foliar sprays to help reduce salinity
20 - 250 -
30 - stress (Figures 68 to 70).
15 - 200 -
20 - 150 -
10 -
100 -
10 - 5-
50 -
0- 0- 0-

Control
Salinity stress
REF: KAYA ET AL - 2002
Salinity stress + extra Ca

©Yara | 41
Figure 68 Sometimes the large leaf veins, and
Foliar Calcium – Salinity Amelioration also the fruit, will exude a brown syrup.

Shoot DW (g/plant) Root DW (g/plant) The fruit does not mature and develops
a dense cover of seeds, either in patches
2.5 - 1.2 -
or across the whole fruit and has a hard
2- 1.0 - texture and acid taste.
0.8 -
1.5 - Fruits that are low in calcium are prone
0.6 - to rots. Often, secondary infections by
1- Rhizoctonia and bacteria (Erwinia and
0.4 -
Pseudomonas) are found in the juice of
0.5 -
0.2 - the fruit.
0- 0-
Control Salt stress Control Salt stress Roots become short, stubby and dark.
(2.3g NaCl/l) (2.3g NaCl/l)
No Ca
CaNO3 foliar REF: YILDIRIM ET AL - 2009 Calcium deficiency symptoms on leaves,
fruits and roots are similar to those of
boron deficiency and may need to be
Figure 69 Strawberries grown in greenhouses and checked using tissue analysis.
Foliar Calcium - Salt Stress Alleviation polythene tunnels are very susceptible
to this typical leaf and flower tip burn,
Membrane leakage (%) especially when the Ca level in the
nutrient solution drops below 2mmol
60 -
(80mg Ca/l).
50 -
Injury begins on emerging young leaves
40 -
as necrosis near the tip. As they expand,
30 - the leaf blades have light green borders.
The next leaves are crinkled, the tips fail
20 -
to expand fully and turn black.
10 - Tip burn is calcium deficiency

Under severe conditions the sepals will

0-
Control Salt stress show marginal necrosis and the central
(2.3g NaCl/l)
part of the receptacle will turn black.
No Ca
CaNO3 foliar REF: YILDIRIM ET AL - 2009 The central pistils are damaged resulting
in typical ‘cat-faced’ fruits.
Figure 70 Petioles and flowers develop
Calcium Form - Salinity Alleviation longitudinal brown glassy lesions (1-4
Selva - Hydroponics
cm in length) from which a brown
Fruit yield (g/plant) syrup leaks. Petioles and flower stalks
collapse. (Figure 71)
800 -
700 -
600 -
Figure 71
500 - Calcium Deficiency Calcium deficiency in field
Elsanta – Fertigation - Belgium
400 -
300 - Flower stem lesions (% of plants)
200 -
60 -
100 -
50 -
0-
No salt Control CaCl2 CaSO4
40 -
stress
Salt stress treatments with 2g/l NaCl 30 -
400mg Ca/l applied REF: KHAYYAT - 2007
20 -

10 -
Deficiency Symptoms
0-
The most common deficiency symptom 0/4 1/3 2/2 3/1
is tip burn, where youngest leaves (at Calcium:Magnesium ratio (mmol/l)
the heart of the plant) and the growing
points have necrotic margins, and are Autumn culture REF: LIETEN - 2002, CITED
Calcium deficiency in substrate grown strawberries
often deformed or folded in appearance. Spring culture IN RELAB DE HAAN - 2011

42 | ©Yara
 Magnesium
As the central atom of the chlorophyll Under fertigation, magnesium is commonly
molecule, magnesium plays a key role in applied as magnesium nitrate or sulfate.
Deficiency Symptoms
Mature leaves are the first to show Mg
photosynthesis.
deficiency. It starts as a yellow/brown
Nutrient Interactions scorch of the upper margins of the leaf
Magnesium is required for many growth High levels of potassium and/or calcium blade and progresses to a yellowing
processes including transfer of energy can restrict and compete with uptake interveinal necrosis of these older leaves.
and protein synthesis. of magnesium, so it is important that
all three of these nutrients are well This moves inwards to the centre of the
Yield balanced (see section on page 38). leaf between the veins and is accompanied
Magnesium is particularly important by a twisting and downwards cupping of
during peak periods of growth with The Ca:Mg ratio is relatively stable the leaf margins.
uptake peaking at the green fruit stage compared to other nutrients, with more
(Figure 17). Ca required at early and later stages of The basal part of the leaf and the
crop development (Figures 71 and 73). petiole remain green and healthy, unlike
Uptake continues through to maturity symptoms of K deficiency.
and crops need a continuous supply There are differences between varieties
of magnesium to support growth and which need to be taken into account Mg deficiency can look similar to iron
improve yield (Figure 72). when devising nutritional programmes. deficiency but starts in the older leaves,
while iron deficiencies are first seen in the
Figure 72 Under salt stress conditions, magnesium young leaves.
can help to reduce leakage from the fruit
Magnesium & Yield
Polana - Field Grown - Hungary (Figure 74).

Total yield (kg/plot) Figure 73

21 -
Ca:Mg Uptake Ratio
20 -
Open Field - Italy - Two Varieties

19 - Ca:Mg Ratio (mg/plant) Leaf production Fruit production

4.9 -
18 -
Idea
4.4 -
17 - 3.9 - End of
ripening
16 - 3.4 -
Marmolada
2.9 -
15 -
2.4 -
Control K2SO4 K2SO4 + Dormant period Beginning of Beginning of
MgSO4 1.9 - flowering ripening
120 kg K2O/ha applied with the different K sources, 1.4 -
40 kg MgO/ha applied with MgSO4 no K or Mg 0.9 -
applied in the control treatment
REF: VAGO - 2008 0.4 -
9/12/1998 11/1/1998 12/21/1998 2/9/1999 3/31/1999 5/20/1999 7/9/1999
Sample Date

In total, crops require around 0.5kg/t REF: TAGLIAVINI ET AL - 2005

fruit of magnesium – only marginally

less than the level of phosphorus Figure 74 Fruit appear normal, but are lighter in color
required by the plant (Figure 18). Magnesium - Salt Stress and softer in texture.
Foliar Application
Unlike calcium, magnesium is Deficiencies are common on sandy, acid
Membrane leakage (%)
more mobile in plants and is readily soils where magnesium has been leached,
60 -
translocated to the fruit (Figure 19). or in wet and cold growing conditions.
50 -
Like calcium, magnesium concentrations
40 -
within the fruit are highest in the outer
flesh and nearer to the calyx end (Figure 30 -
22).
20 -

Foliar magnesium can be used to 10 -

supplement soil application in long 0-
running crops to maintain strong leaf Control Salt stress
(2.3g NaCl/l)
growth and higher yields.
No Mg
MgNO3 foliar REF: YILDIRIM ET AL - 2009

©Yara | 43
 Sulfur
An adequate supply of sulfur is important Deficiency
for protein synthesis and the activation of Strawberry plants and leaves are stunted.
co-enzymes and ferredoxin. They develop pale yellow leaves with red
speckled blades.
It helps drive the conversion of nitrate
to ammonium in the process of amino Ultimately, sulfur deficiency leads to yield
acid production – ensuring high N-use losses and reductions in fruit weight.
efficiency.
Symptoms are similar to those for nitrogen
Sulfur is also required for chlorophyll deficiency, but they first appear on younger
formation and effective photosynthesis. leaves and not on older leaves as for N.

Yield
Optimum leaf norms are around 0.1-
0.25% of DM (Table 7).

Magnesium deficiency
An oversupply of sulfur reduces leaf
Photo courtesy: Dr Choi, Chungnam National University, South Korea surface area, petiole length and fruit
number, leading to a loss of yield.

Yield increases have been found from

utilizing pre-planting nitrogen fertilizers
that also had sulfur as a key constituent
(Figure 75).

In fertigation, sufficient sulfur is usually

available from using potassium or
Sulfur deficiency
magnesium sulfate based fertilizers.
Where sulfur needs are low, it is commonly
delivered as water soluble magnesium
sulfate; where higher rates are needed, as
potassium sulfate.

Figure 75
Magnesium deficiency
Pre-Planting Fertilizers – Yield
Festival – Florida (USA)

Marketable fruit yield (t/ha)

40 -

35 -
Sulfur deficiency (left). Control with adequate sulfur (right)
30 -

25 -

20 -

15 -

10 -
Control Ammonium Ammonium
Nitrate Sulfate

Early yield
Total yield
REF: SANTOS & SANCHEZ - 2009

Magnesium deficiency

44 | ©Yara
Micronutrients

A good balance of micronutrients is Figure 76 Figure 77

essential to maintain strong growth and Boron – Fruit Number Boron – Fruit Weight
development of the strawberry plant, Elsanta – Peat & Rockwool - Belgium Elsanta – Peat & Rockwool - Belgium
culminating in good quality and high
Fruit number/plant Individual fruit weight (g)
yields.
80 - 14 -

70 -
Table 11 (page 25) gives the standard 12 -

micronutrient rates used in peat and 60 - 10 -

hydroponic production systems to meet 50 -
8-
typical crop needs. 40 -
6-
30 -
4-
20 -

Boron 10 - 2-

0- 0-
Peat Rockwool Peat Rockwool

Control Control
A good supply of boron is important for Boron REF: LIETEN - 2002
Boron REF: LIETEN - 2002

root growth, pollen germination, seed

formation and fruit set. Figure 78
Foliar B & Ca - Yield & Quality
Boron also has a direct effect on Chandler - Soil Culture - India
membrane integrity, maintaining cell wall
structure. Fruit yield (g/plant) Fruit malformation (% of fruit)

200 - 14 -

Yield 180 -
12 -

Typical requirements are around 5g/t of 10 -

fruit (Figure 20). 160 - 8-

Uptake increases during flowering and 140 -

6-

leads to good accumulation in the fruit. 4-

120 -
2-
The B requirement varies between
100 - 0-
varieties and this needs to be taken Control B foliar Ca + B foliar Control B foliar Ca + B foliar
into account when devising nutrient REF: SINGH - 2007
programmes.

Trials show a clear benefit from boron in Quality Nutrient Interactions

terms of fruit set, fruit number and fruit Boron also plays a key role in fruit quality Foliar boron and calcium are usually more
weight, leading to improved yields (Figures with poor supply leading to smaller, effective when applied together (Figure
76 to 78). This may in part be due to malformed fruit (Figure 78). 78).
boron’s influence on pollen formation and
better pollination.

©Yara | 45
Deficiency Toxicity
Under high pH conditions (>pH 7.5) borate Boron accumulates in the older leaves,
- B(OH)4- is produced and the boron rising to toxic levels, causing marginal,
becomes less available as it competes and progressively interveinal, necrosis.
with the uptake of other anions in the
soil solution. Excessive use of lime can At high application rates toxicity symptoms
exacerbate this problem. can occur in the sepals.

Boron is readily leached in sandy soils, In severe incidences, B toxicity leads to

particularly those with low soil pH, CEC plant death.
(Cation Exchange Capacity) or low organic Boron deficiency in leaf
matter content. Because of this leaching, There is a narrow band between B
it is often difficult to build up and maintain deficiency and toxicity. At leaf contents
levels in in-field cultivation and annual below 20-30ppm, boron deficiency occurs
applications made to the soil or plant can (Table 9) and at levels above 65ppm,
be required. boron becomes toxic. (Note that this can
vary between cultivars).
Leaves may show puckering and marginal
yellowing or tip burn similar to that for Trials confirm this range; levels above
calcium deficiency. This leads to the drying 54µg B/l in the nutrient solution lead to
and deformation of young leaves (heart toxicity issues (Figures 79 & 80).
Boron deficiency in leaf
leaves). Early leaves can also develop a
square shape. Some water sources can contain a high
concentration of B – analysis will help
Growth is reduced at the growing point, confirm where this could be a problem.
flower size restricted and pollen production
is poor. Figure 79
Boron Toxicity
Root growth can also be curtailed, stunted Elsanta – Peat Culture - Belgium
and brown.
Necrotic leaflets (%)

B deficiency results in flower abortion and Boron deficiency in flower 45 -

poor fruit set leading to fruit malformation 40 -
or bumpiness. 35 -
30 -
25 -
Severe deficiency ultimately produces
20 -
smaller, softer fruit and a lower yield. 15 -
10 -
5-
0-
Full bloom Start harvest End harvest
0,162 mg B/l
0,270 mg B/l
0,378 mg B/l REF: LIETEN - 1995

Boron toxicity in leaf

Figure 80
Boron Toxicity
Elsanta – Peat Culture - Belgium

Yield (kg/plant) Fruit weight (g/fruit)

0.4 - 20 -

0.38 - 19 -

0.36 - 18 -

0.34 - 17 -
Boron deficient root (left) control (right)

0.32 - 16 -

0.3 - 15 -
0.054 0.162 0.270 0.378 0.054 0.162 0.270 0.378
B concentration [mg/l] B concentration [mg/l]
REF: LIETEN - 1995

46 | ©Yara
 Copper
Copper is needed for chlorophyll and Virtually two-thirds of all Cu is found in Toxicity symptoms have been observed
phenol synthesis. It is also involved in the roots at harvest (Figure 82). at leaf concentrations above 25ppm
many enzyme systems improving both (Table 9).
growth and production. Applications of 0.05-0.07mg Cu/l
are sufficient for optimum yield from Nutrient Interactions
Less than 1g/t of fruit is taken up by the strongly pollinated crops with well- Uptake of copper is limited by high zinc
crop (Figure 20). Most of this is located shaped, good quality fruit (Figure 83). and phosphorus supply. High nitrogen
in the roots (Figure 21) although copper levels can induce copper deficiencies.
also plays an important role in fruit Too much copper – as in the higher rate
formation. treatments in the trial shown in Figure
83 - leads to toxicity issues. Deficiency Symptoms
Optimum plant contents are between Copper deficiency is rarely seen.
3-20 ppm (Table 9). Leaf norm data confirms that However, where it is, symptoms include
deficiencies occur when the dry matter a wilting and die-back of the younger
Trials show that levels in vegetative content of the younger leaves is below leaves and a higher incidence of
growth decline as fruit matures 3-5ppm. disease.
(Figure 81).
Situations where it can be found are on
acid, organic, or soils where the copper
Figure 81 is bound to insoluble organic complexes.
Copper Distribution Excessive nitrogen rates can exacerbate
Elsanta - Peat Bags - Belgium this deficiency.
Leaf Cu content (mg/kg DW) Root Cu content (mg/kg DW)
9-
Copper becomes strongly adsorbed in
30 -
soils with a pH above 7.0.
8-
25 -
7-
20 -
6-
15 -
5-
10 -
4-

3- 5-

2- 0-
Flowering Start harvest End harvest 0.03 0.16 0.32
0,03 mg Cu/l Cu supply with nutrient solution (mg Cu/l)
0,16 mg Cu/l
0,32 mg Cu/l REF: LIETEN - 1997

Figure 82 Figure 83
Copper Distribution Copper – Plant Growth & Yield
Elsanta - Peat Bags - Belgium Elsanta - Peat Bags - Belgium

Cu content in plant tissue at different sampling dates Pollen germination (%) Fruit yield
(ppm in dry matter) Malformed fruit (%) (g/plant)
30 - 50 - - 600 Copper deficiency

25 -
40 - - 580
20 -
30 - - 560
15 -
20 - - 540
10 -

5- 10 - - 520

0- 0- - 500
0.03 0.16 0.32 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Cu supply with nutrient solution (µmol/l Cu)
Cu supply with nutrient solution (mg Cu/l)
Cu content in the root - end of harvest
Cu content leaves - flowering Pollen germination
Cu content leaves - beginning of harvest Yield (g/plant)
REF: LIETEN - 1997
Cu content leaves - end of harvest Malformed fruit
REF: LIETEN - 1997

©Yara | 47
 Iron
Iron is essential for photosynthesis. Figure 85 Trials on strawberries grown in peat
When deficient, chlorophyll synthesis is Foliar Iron - Leaf Uptake bags showed that use of iron can
inhibited and chlorosis develops. Douglas - Hydroponic Culture increase yields – in this trial by 14%
(Figure 86).
Leaf Fe concentration (mg/kg DW)
Iron is also important to plant 80 -
metabolism as a component of enzymes Foliar applications in soil culture are also
70 -
and proteins, and in nitrate reductase for effective. Trials have shown the highest
reduction of nitrate to ammonium and 60 - yields at 0.2% Fe concentration (Figure
then amino acids. 50 - 87), resulting in an increase in mean
40 - berry number per plant and in individual
Iron is the micronutrient needed in 30 - fruit weight. This application rate also
greatest quantities in strawberries at 20 - gave the longest shelf life.
around 80g/t of fruit (Figure 20). This 10 -
is over three times that of the level of 0-
When calculating rates of iron for use,
uptake of manganese. Start of Full Start of Maturity ignore any non-chelated iron in the
flowering flowering ripening water as this is unavailable. High levels
The greatest proportion of iron within Fe was supplied to the nutrient solution at a rate of iron should be removed in hydroponic
of 1.88mg/l
the crop is found in the roots (Figure 21). situations (e.g. by aeration) to avoid
Fe-EDTA precipitation of iron and blocking of
Fe-EDDHA
Chelates are the key to uptake in Fe polyflavanoids REF: LUCENA - 1990
filters and nozzles.
hydroponics. In trials, use of a chelated
form of iron (Fe-EDDHA) has been Nutrient Interactions
shown to significantly increase plant dry Figure 86 Ca, Mg, K, Mn and Zn all compete with
weight (Figure 84). Iron chelates should Iron - Yield and influence the absorption of iron.
also be used in high pH soils. Elsanta - Peat Bags

Yield (g/plant) Deficiency

Figure 84 660 - Availability of iron declines as pH
Iron – Growth 640 - increases above 6.5. Thus, iron
Selva – Solution Culture - Portugal
620 - deficiency is a problem in calcareous and
600 - non-calcareous high pH soils.
Dry weight (g/plant)
4- 580 -
560 - High substrate moisture, limits the
3.5 -
540 - production of fine root hairs, and lowers
3.0 -
520 - the level of oxygen, restricting Fe
2.5 -
500 - uptake. Therefore, Fe deficiencies are
2.0 -
Control Fe-DTPA common in old, compacted peat and
1.5 -
REF: AKZO NOBEL - 1996 peat-clay substrates.
1.0 -
0.5 -
Typical symptoms include interveinal
0-
0 0.28 0.56 1.12 Figure 87 yellowing of young leaves.
Fe concentration in nutrient solution (mg/l)
Foliar Iron - Yield & Quality
Leaves Chandler - Soil Culture
Crowns
Roots REF: PESTANA ET AL - 2013
Total fruit yield (g/plant) Fruit number/plant Single berry weight (g) Shelf life (days)
150 - 20 - 9- 3-
Fe-EDDHA and Fe-HBED (Bolikel XP)
can be highly effective throughout the 15 - 2.5 -
growth cycle (Figure 85). They are 100 - 8-
stable over a wide pH range, but other 10 - 2-
chelated forms may be more appropriate
50 - 7-
at lower pH’s. For example, Fe-EDTA 5- 1.5 -
in acid soils or Fe-DTPA in neutral soils
can be equally efficient (Figure 100 on 0- 0- 6- 1-
page 53). 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Foliar Fe concentration (%)
REF: CHATURVEDI - 2005

48 | ©Yara
 Manganese
As the deficiency worsens, new, young Manganese is involved in chlorophyll Figure 89
leaves and sepals may be completely production and photosynthesis. Manganese & Mildew
white. Elsanta – Soil Culture - Germany
It acts as a catalyst in many plant
Infestation (% of untreated control)
Leaf blades turn brown. Fruits can also growth processes including the
have a pale colour. metabolism and synthesis of proteins. 80 -
70 -

Manganese also assists molybdenum in 60 -

nitrate reductase activity. 50 -

40 -
Thus, manganese has a direct effect on 30 -
plant development and growth. 20 -
10 -

Yield and Quality 0-

160 320 640
Most manganese accumulates in the Foliar Mn rate (g/ha)
leaves (Figure 21).
REF: BRAZDA - 1999

Uptake is particularly important during

Iron deficiency
vegetative growth and leads to higher Figure 90
yields (Figure 88).
Manganese – Yield
Elsanta - Peat Bags - Belgium
Manganese also helps provide good
tolerance against drought or cold stress Leaf Mn content
Fruit yield (g/plant) (mg/kg DW)
and also diseases such as mildew
(Figure 89). 480 - - 1600

Manganese supply in strawberries is 460 - - 1200

thought to increase levels of sugar in
the fruit. 440 - - 800

In peat bags, 6-7mg/l Mn in the nutrient

420 - - 400
Iron deficiency solution was the optimum level for yield
(Figure 90)
400 - -0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Figure 88 Mn concentration in nutrient solution (mg/l)
Manganese & Yield Yield
Elsanta – Mean of two trials - Soil Culture - Leaf Mn concentration REF: LIETEN - 2004
Germany

Marketable fruit (number/plant)

16 -
14 -
Nutrient Interactions
Too much manganese may induce iron
12 -
Iron deficiency deficiency.
Photo courtesy: Dr Choi, Chungnam National University, South Korea 10 -
8-
6- Deficiency
4- Deficiencies occur with increasing
2- soil pH and aeration, when insoluble
0- Mn oxides are formed, limiting plant
Control 160 320 640 supplies.
Foliar Mn Rate (g/ha)
They can occur when the pH reaches
REF: BRAZDA - 1999
6.0, but most issues arise when the soil
pH is above 8.0.

Iron deficiency induced by waterlogging

©Yara | 49
Typical, initial deficiency symptoms are
a pale greening or yellowing of young
leaves.
Molybdenum Zinc
This then leads to marginal and
interveinal chlorosis when Mn supply is Molybdenum is a co-factor of the nitrate Zinc is important for the regulation of
more restricted. reductase enzyme and involved in protein synthesis and auxin production.
nitrogen metabolism. It plays a key role in the plant’s
Veins remain dark green while the development and needs to be available
interveinal areas yellow and then scorch; Where deficient, molybdenum results to support growth of new tissue over the
leaf blade margins turn upwards. in limited chlorophyll and protein season.
synthesis, so early deficiency symptoms
The scorched areas move inwards to the such as a yellowing of the leaves, are In addition, as an essential component
centre of the leaf as a series of bands very similar to those for nitrogen. of metallo-enzymes, zinc is involved in
running across the veins. carbohydrate metabolism and protein
Mo is only required in very low amounts production.
Fruit can be smaller in size. and levels in plant tissue should be
around 0.5ppm (Table 11). Zinc is found in relatively high quantities
In hydroponics, root mass is reduced. in the flowers and fruits compared to
It is thought that vitamin C and sugar other micronutrients. Over 30% of all
content could be compromised as a zinc is contained in the fruit (Figure 21)
result of insufficient Mo supply. and 2.5g/t is taken up by the plant to
produce 1 tonne of fruit (Figure 20).
Deficiency
Molybdenum is the only micronutrient Zn deficiency usually occurs at leaf
that has increased availability as the pH contents below 10-20ppm Zn. Too
increases. much zinc - at leaf concentrations above
50ppm – results in toxicity (Table 9).
Deficiencies are worst in acid soils,
high in organic matter because Mo, like Applications of zinc can increase fruit
Manganese deficiency phosphate, is easily fixed by iron and numbers per plant leading to higher
aluminum hydroxides, as well as by yields. But too much zinc leads to fruit
organic matter. deformation (Figure 91).

Available soil Mo is anionic in form When insufficient zinc is available, foliar

and therefore leachable in these acid zinc can help increase yield (Figure 92).
soils or on low organic matter sands, In this trial, shelf life was also improved.
or freely drained soils. For this reason
Mo deficiency can be common on sandy Nutrient Interactions
soils as well. Zinc also competes with P, Cu, Fe and
Mn for uptake, so imbalances will create
Leaves become chlorotic and leaf supply issues (Figure 93). Care needs
margins fold upwards. to be taken when a high level of zinc
Manganese deficiency
is present as it will replace iron in a
Fruit size and fruit quality is not affected chelate leading to precipitation of the
by mild molybdenum deficiency. free iron and therefore iron deficiency.

Manganese deficiency

50 | ©Yara
Figure 91
Zinc – Yield & Quality
Elsanta – Peat Bags

Fruit yield (g/plant) Fruit number/plant % Deformed fruits

750 - 80 - 18 -
16 -
700 - 75 -
14 -
70 - 12 -
650 -
10 -
65 -
8-
600 -
60 - 6-

550 - 4- Zinc deficiency

55 -
2-
500 - 50 - 0-
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Zn supply with nutrient solution (mg Zn/l)

REF: LIETEN - 2000

Figure 92
Foliar Zinc - Yield & Quality
Elsanta - Peat Bags

Total fruit yield (g/plant) Shelf life (days)

150 - 3.5 -

3- Zinc deficiency - top older leaves - bottom young leaves

100-
2.5-

2-
50 -

1.5 -

0- 1-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Foliar Zn concentration (%) Foliar Zn concentration (%)
REF: CHATURVEDI - 2005

Figure 93 Deficiency Left: adequate zinc, right: zinc deficient

Zinc & Iron Deficiency problems are worse on high

Elsanta - Peat Bags pH soils (>pH 7.0) and exacerbated in Under severe deficiency, yellowing and
highly or recently limed soils. green veining occurs. Older leaves may
Leaf Zn and Fe (ppm DM) at start of harvest show a reddish tinge between the veins.
300 - In acid, sandy soils with high rainfall,
zinc can be leached. Zinc is also less Flowers are smaller, with short anthers
250 -
available in low organic matter soils. and white pistils. This results in ‘cat-
200 - faced’ berries and fruit abortion.
150 - Growth is stunted and dwarfed – leaves
are smaller and petioles shorter. Toxicity
100 -
The veins of the leaves turn red, and
50 - Leaves can develop a green halo along younger leaves show Fe deficiency
the margins of immature leaf blades. symptoms.
0-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Young leaves became pale green with They become bleached white and show
Zn supply with nutrient solution (mg/l Zn)
Zinc
blades that are narrow at the base and interveinal necrotic lesions.
Iron REF: LIETEN - 2000 folded in a concave manner.
Due to abortion of flowers and fruit
deformation less marketable fruit is
harvested resulting in a yield loss.

©Yara | 51
 Si Silicon
In recent years research has confirmed Figure 94 Figure 97
that silicon can be regarded as beneficial Silicon Uptake Silicon and Yield
element in strawberry production. Hokowase – Nutrient Solution Culture - Japan Belgium

Si content (% DM)
While not essential for plant growth it is Relative yield (%)

actively taken up and transported in the 0.6 - 103 -

xylem throughout the plant. 0.5 - 102 -

Largest quantities are found within the 0.4 -

101 -
leaf where it plays a role in chlorophyll 0.3 -
production and photosynthesis (Figures 100 -

94 and 95). 0.2 -

99 -
0.1 -
Plants with high levels of silicon in 98 -
their tissues are more erect and are 0- Control YaraVita Actisil YaraVita Actisil
Flower bud Beginning of End of - fertigation - foliar
also better at light interception, further formation flowering harvest
increasing their potential productivity. REF: PROEFCENTRUM FOR FRUITTEELT - 2010
Leaves
Crown
Applications of silicon help to boost Roots REF: MIYAKE - 1986
Figure 98
yields with applications made from
Silicon – Fruit Firmness
runner formation through to harvest, Figure 95 Soil Culture - Canada (mean of 6 varieties)
marginally more effective than those Silicon - Chlorophyll Content
from flowering onwards (Figure 96). Earliglow – Peat Substrate - USA Fruit firmness (Durofel units)
88 -
Commercial trials with YaraVita Actisil* Chlorophyll content (µg chl. a+b/cm²) 86 -
84 -
show this yield increase, with silicon 70 -
82 -
applied either via fertigation or by foliar 60 - 80 -
means being effective (Figure 97). 50 - 78 -
76 -
40 -
Silicon also has an effect on fruit quality, 74 -
30 - 72 -
through improving firmness (Figure 98) 70 -
and there are indications that Si can 20 -
68 -
also improve disease tolerance, e.g. to 10 - Control 224 ppm Si 448 ppm Si
powdery mildew (Figure 99). 0- Si concentration (ppm)
0 120 240 360 480
Fruit firmness was measured REF:
Applications of silicon can improve shelf after 7 days of storage at 4°C RODRIGUE -
2007
Si concentration (mg/l)
life. The key benefit of silicon in this
respect is its role in reinforcing the cell REF: WANG - 1998

wall. Figure 99
Figure 96 Silicon & Disease
There are also reports that Si can reduce Hydroponics - Japan
Silicon and Yield
the effects of a range of other stresses Hokowase – Solution Culture - Japan
Powdery mildew severity
as well, e.g. pest, salinity and heavy
18 -
metal toxicity. Marketable fruit yield Fruit number/plant
(g/plant) 16 -

600 - - 60 14 -
* YaraVita Actisil is based on
12 -
choline-stabilized ortho-silicic acid 500 - - 50 10 -
increasingly used for strengthening 8-
400 - - 40
plant tissues and supporting plant 6-
growth. 300 - - 30 4-
2-
200 - - 20
0-
0 25 50 100
100 - - 10
SiO2 rate (mg/l)
0- -0
Without Si With Si from With Si from Disease severity calculated from classification of
runner to flowering to the leaves into 4 categories, and then relating
harvest harvest
Fruit yield them to the total no. of leaves
Fruit number REF: KANTO - 2004
REF: MIYAKE - 1986

52 | ©Yara
Micronutrient Form

Within fertigation and hydroponic Figure 100

culture, micronutrient availability is
directly affected by pH. Fe Chelate pH Stability

For this reason, is it important to choose CHELATES ACIDITY

formulations that will be effective in drip
irrigation systems. Fe-HBED

Invariably, because of the many diverse

reactions that occur in the wetted bulb,
chelates of copper, iron, manganese and
zinc will give the best performance.

For iron, it is important to choose the

correct chelate for the appropriate
conditions, for example Fe-HBED or
Fe-EDDHA should be chosen in high pH
conditions (>6.5).
The anionic micronutrients, boron and
Fe-EDDHA and derivates can become molybdenum are normally applied as
bound to organic material and borate or molybdate salts.
hydroxides in the soil, reducing their
mobility. It is important to remember that under
fertigation, soil nutrient dynamics occur
EDTA chelates are commonly used much more quickly than under rain-fed
when fertigating cationic micronutrients soil conditions. It is essential to monitor
on both acid and alkaline soils. Where the changes in nutrient concentration
pH’s are alkaline, other iron chelates within the wetted bulb to ensure
are more stable and efficient e.g. Fe- consistent plant growth.
EDDHA (Figure 100).

Ensuring that all cationic micronutrients

are applied in chelated from, ensures
a more stable supply of nutrients
to the roots and avoids problems
with precipitation of iron due to its
replacement in the chelate by other
cations.

©Yara | 53
Nutritional Programme
Showing nutrient requirements at key growth stages

Post Harvest to New Growth or Establishment Vegetative Growth

Nutrient Effects Nutrient Effects

Nitrogen – to build reserves in the crown for recycling Nitrogen – main doses are required at this stage for leaf and
and subsequent growth of new leaves in the spring plant expansion

Phosphorus, calcium, boron and zinc - to maximize Phosphorus – to meet uptake needs through to flowering
strong root development and support new growth
Potassium – to promote strong leaf growth and build a
strong plant development
Potassium – for good plant development
Calcium – to build levels in the plant and maintain a steady
supply to developing tissues

Sulfur and magnesium – maintain vigorous, healthy leaf

growth and to improve plant supplies

Micronutrients – ensure photosynthetic growth is not limiting

54 | ©Yara
Flowering To Fruit Set Fruiting To Maturity

Nutrient Effects Nutrient Effects

Potassium – peak demand for berry development and to Potassium – to maximize fruit quality, particularly TSS,
build fruit quality acidity and taste

Nitrogen – in reduced amounts so as not to compromise Phosphorus – to top up levels being redistributed to the fruit
fruit stability
Nitrogen – in limited quantities to balance other nutrients
Phosphorus – for strong flower bud formation – excessive N at this stage can spoil fruit, but too little N
reduces fruit size
Calcium and magnesium – to support new tissue
development and boost fruit integrity, reduce disease and Boron and calcium – for fruit strength
maximize shelf life

Boron – for good pollen production, seed formation and fruit set

Other micronutrients – as needed to maintain growth

©Yara | 55
Glossary

Albinism: Mottled white fruit that Hill (Plasticulture) System: See page
is insipid and tasteless in flavor – a 10.
condition usually associated with excess
nitrogen use. Some varieties are more Matted Row System: See page 10.
sensitive.
Necrosis: Injury that results in the
Anthocyanin: A pigment that reflects premature death of cells.
the red to blue range of the visible
spectrum and which colors fruit. Petiole: The stalk attaching the leaf
blade to the stem.
Antioxidants: Molecules that inhibit
the oxidation of other molecules and Phenol: Natural compounds (including
so prevent or delay cell damage. anthocyanins) that have antioxidant type
Antioxidant-rich fruits in the diet help effects and which have been linked with
strengthen the ability to fight infection improved health.
and disease in humans.
Proximal: The part of the fruit closest
Calyx: The outer ring of the flower to the calyx.
parts attached to the stalk.
Pistils: The female parts of the flower.
Crown: The short thickened stem
(called a “crown”) which has a growing Runners/Stolons: The stolons that
point at the upper end and which forms branch out from the mother plant crown
roots at its base (see Figure 1 – page 8). on which daughter plants are formed
(see Figure 1 – page 8).
Day Neutral Strawberry: See page 9
and Everbearer, below. Sepal: The leaves below the flower
petals on the calyx.
Distal: The end of the strawberry
furthest away from the calyx and stem. Short Day Strawberry: see page 9.

Everbearer: Also known as day-neutral Stolon: See ‘runners’ above.

strawberries, these types produce
‘perpetual’ berries right though from Total Soluble Solids (TSS): The sum
early summer to autumn. of the solids in solution. For practical
reasons (it is an instant and easy
Folate: Folic acid - also known as assessment) the °Brix is usually used to
vitamin M, vitamin B9, vitamin Bc (or approximate TSS content because the
folacin), pteroyl-L-glutamic acid, and soluble sugars usually represent more
pteroyl-L-glutamate) - is a form of the than 99% of the soluble solids.
water-soluble vitamin B9.

56 | ©Yara
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©Yara | 57
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in nutrient solution culture using inert 45 55
media; African Journal of Biotechnology, Faby R, 2004; Mineralstoffgehalte Same as Figure 18.
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Optimum; Obstbau vol. 1, p.20-21. 56 & 57
34 Same as Figure 53 & 54.
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Kim HG, 2006; Effects of nitrogen, Same as Figure 44. 58
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385-392. calcium mobility in strawberry fruit;
50 Proc. Vth Int. Strawberry Symposium,
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58 | ©Yara
64 76 & 77 91
Chéour F, Willemot C, Arul J, Makhlouf Lieten P, 2002; Boron deficiency of Lieten F, 2000; Zinc nutrition of
J, Desjardins Y, 1991; Postharvest strawberries grown in substrate culture; strawberries grown on peat bags;
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vol. 26(9), p. 1186-1188. 2002, p. 451-454.
92
65 78 Same as Figure 87.
Wojcik P, Lewandowski M, 2003; Effect Same as Figure 66.
of calcium and boron sprays on yield and 93
quality of ‘Elsanta’ strawberry; Journal of 79 & 80 Same as Figure 91.
Plant Nutrition, vol. 26(3), p. 671-682. Lieten F; 1995; Boron nutrition of
strawberries grown in peat bags; 94
66 Advances in Strawberry Research, vol. Miyake Y, Takahashi E, 1986; Effect
Singh R, Sharma RR, Tyagi SK, 2007; 14, p. 36–41. of silicon on the growth and fruit
Pre-harvest foliar application of calcium production of strawberry plants in a
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disorders, fruit yield and quality of Lieten F, 1997; Effect of copper Nutrition, vol. 32(2), p. 321-326.
strawberry; Scientia Horticulturae, vol. concentration in the nutrient solution on
112, p. 215-220. the growth of strawberries in peat and 95
perlite; Proc. Int. Symp. on Growing Wang SY, Galletta GJ, 1998; Foliar
67 Media and Plant Nutrition; ed. Roeber application of potassium silicate induces
Kaya C, Kirnak H, Higgs D, Saltali RU, Acta Hort. 450, ISHS 1997, p. metabolic changes in strawberry plants;
K, 2002; Supplementary calcium 495-500. Journal of Plant Nutrition, vol. 21(1), p.
enhances plant growth and fruit yield 157-167.
in strawberry cultivars grown at high 84
(NaCl) salinity; Scientia Horticulturae, Pestana M, Correia PJ, Saavedra 96
vol. 93, p. 65-74. T, Gama F, Dandlen S, Nolasco G, Same as Figure 94.
Varennes A de, 2013; Root ferric
68 & 69 chelate reductase is regulated by iron 97
Same as Figure 51. and copper in strawberry plants; Journal PCfruit; Samenvating von experimenten
of Plant Nutrition, vol. 36(13), p. 2035- op aardbei mit Yara Vita Actisil
70 2047. gedurende 7 jaar (2003 – 2010);
Same as Figure 52. Tongeren, Belgium.
85
71 Lucena JJ, Garatte A, Ramon AM, 98
Lieten F, 2002; Tipburn in strawberries; Manzanares M, 1990; Iron nutrition of Rodrigue J, 2007, thesis: Effets de
The Grower, June, p. 14-15; cited in: a hydroponic strawberry culture supplied l‘application foliaire de silicate de
Relab den Haan, 2011, Newsletter - Tip with different Fe chelates; Plant and potassium sur l‘entreposage post-
Burn in Strawberry. Soil, vol. 123, p. 9-15. récolte, la pourriture grise et la valeur
nutraceutique de la fraise; université
72 87 Laval, Québec, Canada.
Same as Figure 50. Chaturvedi OP, Singh AK, Tripathi VK,
Dixit AK, 2005; Effect of zinc and 99
73 iron on growth, yield and quality of Kanto T, Miyoshi A, Ogawa T, Meakama
Same as Figure 26. strawberry cv. ‘Chandler’; Proc VIIth on K, Aino M, 2004; Suppressive effect of
TZFTS, eds. Chahan JS et al., Acta Hort potassium silicate on powdery mildew
74 696, ISHS 2005, p. 237-240. of strawberry in hydroponics; J. Gen.
Same as Figure 51. Plant Pathology; vol. 70, p. 207-211.
88 & 89
75 Brazda, 1999; Mangan-Blattdüngung;
Santos BM, Ramirez-Sanchez M, Spargel- und Erdbeerprofi 2/1999, p.
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Fla. State Hort. Soc. vol. 122, p.240– 90
242. Lieten F, 2004; Manganese nutrition of
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Berry Symposium – COST Action 836
Final Workshop, Acta Hort. 649, ed.
Simpson DW, p. 227-232.

©Yara | 59
Tables 5.
2006; Ohio State University; Bulletin
Hancock JF, 1999; Strawberries; Crop
Number 926.
1. production in horticulture series, vol.
Pritts & Handley – 1998: Pritts
FAO – Food and Agriculture 11; CABI publishing, CAB International,
MP, Handley D, 1998; Strawberry
Organization of the United Nations, Wallingford, UK.
Production Guide for the Northeast, Mid
2011. FAO statistics. http://faostat. West and Eastern Canada. NRAES-88.
fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault. 6.
Northeast Regional Agricultural
aspx?PageID=567#ancor. Maas V and Hoffman GJ, 1977 - Crop
Engineering Service, Ithaca, New York.
salt tolerance – current assessment.
2. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage
9.
International Standardisation of Fruit Division ASCE, vol. 103(IR2), p. 115-
Same as Table 8.
and Vegetables – Strawberries, 2005; 134.
OECD; OECD publications, Paris, 10.
France; ISBN 92-64-01322-9 No. 7.
Faby R, 2004; Mineralstoffgehalte
54276. Same reference as Figure 18.
in Erdbeerfruechten - Wo liegt das
Optimum; Obstbau vol. 1, p.20-21.
3. 8.
USDA Agriculture and Marketing Ullio L, 2010; NSW Government
Service – United States Standards Primefact 941 – April 2010 - http://
for grades of strawberries – Effective www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/
February 23, 2006. pdf_file/0020/333362/Strawberry-
fertiliser-guide.pdf.
4. Lieten – 2003: Same as Figure 18.
A&L Canada Laboratories Small Fruit Ohio State University, USA – 2006:
Newsletter vol 2, April 10, 2000. Mid West Strawberry Production Guide,

60 | ©Yara
Units

The units used within this manual are Converting elemental form to Converting mmol/l and mg/l
largely those used and quoted by the oxides
authors or the source in their country mmol/l = mg/l / atomic weight
of origin. Where applicable metric Multiply by
equivalents have been used. mg/l = mmol/l * atomic weight
P to P2O5 2.29
Thus a yield expressed as Tonnes relates K to K2O to K 1.20
to Metric Tonnes (1000kg), unless the
country of origin is the USA when this S to SO3 2.5
figure is an American Ton, which is S to SO4 3.13
equivalent to 907kg.
Ca to CaO 1.40
1 lb/acre = 1.12kg/ha Mg to MgO 1.66

1kg/ha = 0.89lbs/acre
Atomic weight of plant
Converting Oxides to nutrients
Elemental Form Nitrogen 14

Phosphorus 31
Multiply by
Potassium 39
P2O5 to P 0.437
Calcium 40
K2O to K 0.83
Magnesium 24.3
SO3 to S 0.4
Sulfur 32
SO4 to S 0.32
Boron 10.8
CaO to Ca 0.715
Copper 63.5
MgO to Mg 0.603
Iron 55.8

Manganese 54.9

Molybdenum 96

Zinc 65.4

Sodium 23

Chlorine 35.5

©Yara | 61
 Inserted here are local Yara
fertilizer recommendations.
If this sheet has been
removed, please contact
your local distributor.

Unless acknowledged otherwise,

Yara staff took the photographs
used in this manual.

62 | ©Yara