1.
Repeater:
• Function: Amplifies and regenerates signals to extend transmission distance.
• Layer: Physical (Layer 1).
• Use: Extends network range but doesn’t filter traffic.
2. Hub:
• Function: Broadcasts data to all devices in a network.
• Layer: Physical (Layer 1).
• Limitation: Causes collisions; all devices share bandwidth.
3. Switch:
• Function: Forwards data to specific devices using MAC addresses.
• Layer: Data Link (Layer 2).
• Advantage: Reduces collisions by creating separate collision domains.
4. Bridge:
• Function: Connects and filters traffic between network segments.
• Layer: Data Link (Layer 2).
• Purpose: Reduces collisions and segments large networks.
5. Router:
• Function: Routes data between different networks using IP addresses.
• Layer: Network (Layer 3).
• Advantage: Chooses the best path for data between networks.
Addressing and Framing
• Addressing:
o In networking, addressing ensures that data reaches the correct destination.
o MAC Address (Media Access Control): A hardware address that uniquely
identifies each device on a network.
o IP Address: A logical address assigned to devices for routing data across
networks.
• Framing:
o A process used at the Data Link Layer to format and organize data into units
(frames) for transmission.
IP Addresses
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier assigned to each device connected
to a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It serves two main purposes:
identifying the host or network interface and providing the location of the host in the
network.
Types of IP Addresses
1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
o Consists of four octets, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by periods (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).
o Total of 32 bits, which allows for about 4.3 billion unique addresses.
2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
o Designed to replace IPv4 due to the exhaustion of available addresses.
o Consists of 128 bits, represented by eight groups of four hexadecimal digits,
separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
o Provides an almost unlimited number of addresses.
Classes of IP Addresses (IPv4)
IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes (A, B, C, D, and E) based on the first few bits of
the address, defining how the network and host portions are structured.
1. Class A:
o Range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0
o First Bit Pattern: 0
o Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0
o Purpose: Large networks, up to 16 million hosts.
2. Class B:
o Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0
o First Bit Pattern: 10
o Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
o Purpose: Medium-sized networks, up to 65,000 hosts.
3. Class C:
o Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0
o First Bit Pattern: 110
o Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
o Purpose: Small networks, up to 254 hosts.
4. Class D (Multicast):
o Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
o First Bit Pattern: 1110
o Purpose: Reserved for multicasting (one-to-many).
5. Class E (Experimental):
o Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
o First Bit Pattern: 1111
o Purpose: Reserved for experimental purposes, not used publicly.
SUBNETTING
Subnetting is a process of dividing a large network into smaller, more manageable
subnetworks or subnets. It enhances the organization, security, and efficiency of IP networks
by creating smaller, isolated segments that can communicate internally, while also reducing
network traffic and improving performance.
Why Subnetting is Important
• Efficient IP Address Allocation: Helps avoid wasting IP addresses, especially in
IPv4, where the address space is limited.
• Reduced Network Traffic: Subnetting limits broadcast traffic to smaller subnets
rather than flooding the entire network.
• Improved Security: Isolates sections of a network, making it harder for attackers to
access the entire network if they breach one part.
• Simplified Management: Network administrators can manage smaller segments
more effectively than a large, flat network
Congestion Control:
• What it does: Helps prevent the network from getting overloaded with too much data.
• How it works:
1. TCP Slow Start: Sends data slowly at first, then increases speed until
congestion happens.
2. Congestion Avoidance: Slows down data sending if the network is getting
full.
3. Fast Retransmit & Recovery: Quickly sends lost data again and adjusts the
speed to avoid more congestion.
• Why it matters: It keeps the network from becoming too crowded, which helps avoid
delays and data loss.
Flow Control:
• What it does: Makes sure the sender doesn’t send too much data too fast for the
receiver to handle.
• How it works:
1. Sliding Window: Controls how much data can be sent before the receiver
confirms it received it.
2. Stop-and-Wait: The sender sends one piece of data and waits for a response
before sending more.
• Why it matters: It keeps the sender and receiver in sync so that no data is lost due to
overload.
DNS, HTTP/HTTPS, FTP, SMTP
• DNS (Domain Name System):
o Translates human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP
addresses (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
o Works like a phonebook for the internet to route users to the correct server.
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
o A protocol used for transmitting web pages over the internet.
o Operates without encryption, making it less secure.
• HTTPS (HTTP Secure):
o The secure version of HTTP, using encryption (SSL/TLS) to protect data
during transmission.
o Used for secure communication, such as in online banking and e-commerce.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
o Used to transfer files between a client and a server over a network.
o Can be used to upload or download files but lacks encryption (unless using
FTPS/SFTP).
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
o Used for sending and forwarding emails between servers.
o Primarily handles outbound mail and is paired with IMAP or POP3 for
receiving.
2. Web Communication and APIs
• Web Communication:
o Involves the exchange of data between a client (browser) and a server over the
internet using protocols like HTTP/HTTPS.
• APIs (Application Programming Interfaces):
o Allow communication between different software applications.
o RESTful APIs: Use HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) for web
services.
o SOAP APIs: A protocol-based API with stricter standards, often used in
enterprise applications.
3. Cloud Networking and Services
• Cloud Networking:
o Refers to using cloud-based resources to handle networking functions, such as
routing, load balancing, and firewall services.
• Cloud Services:
o IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Provides virtualized computing resources
over the internet (e.g., Amazon EC2).
o PaaS (Platform as a Service): Offers a platform to develop, run, and manage
applications (e.g., Google App Engine).
o SaaS (Software as a Service): Provides access to software applications via
the internet (e.g., Google Docs, Dropbox).
4. Encryption Basics
• Encryption:
o The process of encoding data so that only authorized users can read it.
o Symmetric Encryption: Uses the same key for both encryption and
decryption (e.g., AES).
o Asymmetric Encryption: Uses a public key for encryption and a private key
for decryption (e.g., RSA).
o TLS/SSL: Protocols used to secure data during transmission on the web (e.g.,
HTTPS).
5. VPNs, Firewalls, and IDS/IPS
• VPN (Virtual Private Network):
o Creates a secure tunnel between your device and the internet, encrypting data
to protect online privacy.
o Useful for secure remote access to a private network.
• Firewall:
o A security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on security rules.
o Protects against unauthorized access to private networks.
• IDS (Intrusion Detection System):
o Monitors network traffic for suspicious activity and alerts administrators if a
potential attack is detected.
• IPS (Intrusion Prevention System):
o Similar to IDS, but takes action (like blocking traffic) to prevent the detected
threats from causing harm.
6. Network Attacks: DoS, DDoS, Spoofing
• DoS (Denial of Service):
o A cyberattack where the attacker overwhelms a network or server with
excessive traffic, rendering it unavailable to legitimate users.
• DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service):
o A type of DoS attack where the traffic comes from multiple sources, making it
harder to stop.
o Often involves using a network of compromised devices (botnets) to flood the
target.
• Spoofing:
o A technique where an attacker disguises their identity by falsifying the source
address in packets to trick the target into thinking the communication is from a
trusted source (e.g., IP spoofing, email spoofing).
