20IT701 COMPUTATIONAL BIOLOGY

STUDY MATERIAL
1. Structure and function of major organelles in Prokaryotic cell with a neat
diagram.
• The cellular components are called Cell Organelles.
• Cell Organelles include both membrane and non-membrane bound organelles,
present within the cells and are distinct in their structures and functions.
• They coordinate and function efficiently for the normal functioning of the cell.
• A few of them function by providing shape and support, whereas some are involved
in the locomotion and reproduction of a cell.
There are various organelles present within the cell and are classified into three
categories based on the presence or absence of membrane.
Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are non-
membrane-bound cell organelles. They are present both in the prokaryotic cell and the
eukaryotic cell.
Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus,
Endoplasmic Reticulum are single membrane-bound organelles present only in a
eukaryotic cell.
Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are
double membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.
Cell Organelles and their Functions:
Plasma Membrane:
• The plasma membrane is also termed as a Cell Membrane or
Cytoplasmic Membrane. It is a selectively permeable membrane of the cells, which
is composed of a lipid bilayer and proteins.
• The plasma membrane is present both in plant and animal cells. It functions as the
selectively permeable membrane, by permitting the entry of selective materials in
and out of the cell according to the requirement.
• In an animal cell, the cell membrane functions by providing shape and protects the
inner contents of the cell.
• Based on the structure of the plasma membrane, it is regarded as the fluid mosaic
model.
• According to the fluid mosaic model, the plasma membranes are subcellular
structures, made of a lipid bilayer in which the protein molecules are embedded.

Cytoplasm

• The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells. They are jelly-like
substances, found between the cell membrane and nucleus.
• Cytoplasm are mainly composed of water, organic and inorganic compounds.
• The cytoplasm is one of the essential components of the cell, where all the cell
organelles are embedded.
• These cell organelles contain enzymes, mainly responsible for controlling all
metabolic activity taking place within the cell and are the site for most of the chemical
reactions within a cell.

Nucleus
• The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. It is the
largest organelle, which functions as the control centre of the cellular activities and is
the storehouse of the cell’s DNA.
• By structure, the nucleus is dark, round, surrounded by a nuclear membrane. It is a
porous membrane (like cell membrane) and forms a wall between cytoplasm and
nucleus. Within the nucleus, there are tiny spherical bodies called nucleolus. It also
carries an essential structure called chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are thin and thread-like structures which carry another important
structure called a gene. Genes are a hereditary unit in organisms i.e., it helps in the
inheritance of traits from one generation (parents) to another (offspring).
• Hence, the nucleus controls the characters and functions of cells in our body. The
primary function of the nucleus is to monitor cellular activities
including metabolism and growth by making use of DNA’s genetic information.
Nucleoli in the nucleus are responsible for the synthesis of protein and RNA.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They are
the transport system of the cell, involved in transporting materials throughout the cell.
There are two different types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae, tubules, and
vesicles, which are found throughout the cell and are involved in protein
manufacture.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage organelle, associated
with the production of lipids, steroids, and also responsible for detoxifying the cell.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce energy-rich
molecules for the cell. The mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally in several
organisms.
It is a double membrane-bound, sausage-shaped organelle, found in almost all eukaryotic
cells.
The double membranes divide its lumen into two distinct aqueous compartments. The
inner compartment is called a ‘matrix’ which is folded into cristae whereas the outer
membrane forms a continuous boundary with the cytoplasm.
They usually vary in their size and are found either round or oval in shape. Mitochondria
are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cell, produces energy in the form of ATP and
helps in the transformation of the molecules.
Plastids
Plastids are large, membrane-bound organelles which contain pigments. Based on the
type of pigments, plastids are of three types:

• Chloroplasts – Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles, which usually

vary in their shape – from a disc shape to spherical, discoid, oval and ribbon. They
are present in mesophyll cells of leaves, which store chloroplasts and other carotenoid
pigments.
• These pigments are responsible for trapping light energy for photosynthesis. The inner
membrane encloses a space called the stroma.
• Flattened disc-like chlorophyll-containing structures known as thylakoids are arranged
in a stacked manner like a pile of coins.
• Each pile is called a granum (plural: grana) and the thylakoids of different grana are
connected by flat membranous tubules known as stromal lamella.
• Chromoplasts – The chromoplasts include fat-soluble, carotenoid pigments like
xanthophylls, carotene, etc. which provide the plants with their characteristic color –
yellow, orange, red, etc.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are non-membrane-bound and important cytoplasmic organelles found in

close association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are found in the form of tiny
particles in a large number of cells and are mainly composed of 2/3rd of RNA and 1/3rd of
protein.
Golgi Apparatus:
Golgi Apparatus is also termed as Golgi Complex. It is a membrane-bound organelle,
which is mainly composed of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae.
This cell organelle is primarily responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging
proteins and lipids to targeted destinations.
Golgi Apparatus is found within the cytoplasm of a cell and is present in both plant and
animal cells.
Cilia and Flagella:

Cilia are hair-like projections, small structures, present outside the cell wall and work like
oars to either move the cell or the extracellular fluid. Flagella are slightly bigger and are
responsible for the cell movements. The eukaryotic flagellum structurally differs from its
prokaryotic counterpart.

2. The process of Meiosis and fertilization and justify, how they contribute to
genetic diversity and the information of a new organism.
Meiosis and fertilization are two fundamental processes in sexual reproduction that
contribute significantly to genetic diversity and the formation of a new organism. Here's
a detailed explanation of each process and how they contribute to genetic diversity:
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half,
resulting in four haploid cells (gametes), each genetically distinct from the parent cell
and from each other. Meiosis consists of two successive divisions: meiosis I and
meiosis II.
1. Meiosis I:
o Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic
material through a process called crossing over. This recombination creates
new combinations of alleles on each chromosome.
o Metaphase I: Paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads) align at the
metaphase plate. The orientation of each pair is random, leading to
independent assortment.
o Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the
cell, ensuring that each daughter cell receives a mix of maternal and
paternal chromosomes.
o Telophase I and Cytokinesis: The cell divides into two haploid cells, each
with half the original chromosome number.
2. Meiosis II:
o Prophase II: Chromosomes condense again.
o Metaphase II: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
o Anaphase II: Sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles.
o Telophase II and Cytokinesis: The two cells divide, resulting in four
genetically distinct haploid gametes.
Contribution to Genetic Diversity in Meiosis
1. Crossing Over: During prophase I, homologous chromosomes exchange genetic
material, creating new allele combinations.
2. Independent Assortment: The random orientation of homologous chromosome
pairs during metaphase I leads to a mix of maternal and paternal chromosomes in
gametes.
3. Reduction to Haploid Cells: Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half,
ensuring that fertilization restores the diploid number, combining genetic material
from two parents.
Fertilization
Fertilization is the process where two haploid gametes (sperm and egg) unite to form
a diploid zygote. This process introduces genetic variation in the following ways:
1. Combining Genetic Material: Each parent contributes half of the genetic material,
leading to a unique combination of genes in the offspring.
 2. Random Fertilization: Any sperm can fertilize any egg, adding another layer of
genetic diversity. The combination of two genetically distinct gametes results in a
unique zygote.
Contribution to the Formation of a New Organism
The combination of meiosis and fertilization ensures that each new organism is
genetically unique. Here’s how:
1. Unique Genetic Makeup: Due to the random assortment of chromosomes and
crossing over during meiosis, and the random nature of fertilization, each zygote
has a unique set of genetic instructions.
2. Variability in Offspring: Genetic diversity is essential for evolution and
adaptation. It provides a pool of genetic variations that may offer selective
advantages in changing environments.
3. Inheritance of Traits: Offspring inherit a mix of traits from both parents,
contributing to the diversity of characteristics within a population.

3. Explain the factors influencing biodiversity and discuss its impacts of

biodiversity loss in ecosystem
Biodiversity, or biological diversity, refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth,
encompassing all levels of biological organization from genes to ecosystems. It is
influenced by a variety of factors, and its loss can have profound impacts on
ecosystems. Let's explore these aspects in detail:
Factors Influencing Biodiversity
1. Habitat Diversity: The range of habitats available in a region directly affects the
diversity of species that can inhabit it. Diverse habitats support a greater variety of
species adapted to different environmental conditions.
2. Climate: Climate influences the distribution of species by affecting temperature,
precipitation patterns, and seasonality. Different climates support different species
assemblages, contributing to overall biodiversity.
3. Geography: Geographical factors such as latitude, altitude, and proximity to water
bodies influence biodiversity. Regions with varied landscapes and geological
formations often support higher biodiversity due to diverse habitats and
microclimates.
4. Human Activities: Human impacts, both direct and indirect, play a significant role
in shaping biodiversity:
o Habitat Destruction: Deforestation, urbanization, and land conversion for
agriculture reduce available habitats for many species.
 o Pollution: Chemical pollutants, such as pesticides and industrial effluents,
can degrade habitats and harm species directly.
o Overexploitation: Unsustainable hunting, fishing, and harvesting of natural
resources can deplete populations and disrupt ecosystems.
o Climate Change: Alterations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and sea
levels due to climate change can shift habitats and impact species survival.
5. Species Interactions: Biodiversity is influenced by ecological interactions such as
competition, predation, mutualism, and parasitism. These interactions shape
community structure and species diversity.
Impacts of Biodiversity Loss
1. Ecosystem Functioning: Biodiverse ecosystems tend to be more resilient and
stable. They perform essential ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling, water
purification, and carbon sequestration. Loss of biodiversity can disrupt these
functions, leading to ecosystem degradation.
2. Food Security: Many human societies depend on diverse ecosystems for food
resources. Loss of biodiversity reduces the availability of wild foods and genetic
diversity in agricultural crops and livestock, posing risks to food security.
3. Medicinal Resources: Biodiversity provides a vast array of plant, animal, and
microbial species that serve as sources of medicines and pharmaceutical
compounds. Extinction of species can limit future medical discoveries and
treatments.
4. Aesthetic and Cultural Value: Biodiversity enriches human experiences through
aesthetic enjoyment, recreation, and cultural practices. Loss of species diminishes
these values and cultural connections to nature.
5. Economic Impacts: Biodiversity loss can have economic consequences through
reduced ecosystem services, increased costs for ecosystem restoration, and
potential loss of tourism revenue associated with natural areas and wildlife.
6. Global Impact: Biodiversity loss contributes to global environmental changes,
including climate change and alteration of biogeochemical cycles. These changes
can have cascading effects on global ecosystems and human well-being.
Conservation and Management
Efforts to conserve biodiversity include establishing protected areas, sustainable
land use practices, restoration of degraded habitats, and international agreements to
combat illegal wildlife trade and address climate change. Conservation strategies aim to
maintain ecosystem resilience and ensure the continued provision of ecosystem services
critical for human survival and well-being.
4. Analyze the characteristics and types of stem cells and discuss the potential
applications of stem cells in regenerative medicine and disease treatment.
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the unique ability to differentiate into
various specialized cell types and self-renew to produce more stem cells. They play a
critical role in development, tissue repair, and maintenance of the body's organs and
tissues. Stem cells can be broadly categorized into two main types based on their
origin and differentiation potential:
Types of Stem Cells
1. Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs):
o Source: Derived from the inner cell mass of blastocysts (early-stage
embryos).
o Pluripotency: Can differentiate into cells derived from all three germ layers
(endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm).
o Application: Used extensively in research for studying early development
and disease modeling due to their ability to generate a wide range of cell
types.
2. Adult Stem Cells (also known as Somatic or Tissue-specific Stem Cells):
o Source: Found in specific tissues and organs throughout the body (e.g.,
bone marrow, adipose tissue, neural tissue).
o Multipotency: Can differentiate into a limited range of cell types related to
their tissue of origin.
o Function: Maintain and repair the tissue where they reside, contributing to
tissue homeostasis and regeneration.
3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs):
o Source: Reprogrammed from adult somatic cells (e.g., skin cells) using
genetic reprogramming techniques.
o Pluripotency: Similar to embryonic stem cells, iPSCs can differentiate into
cells from all three germ layers.
o Application: iPSCs provide a patient-specific model for studying disease
mechanisms, drug screening, and potential for personalized regenerative
therapies.
Potential Applications in Regenerative Medicine and Disease Treatment
Stem cells hold immense potential in regenerative medicine and the treatment of
various diseases due to their ability to replace damaged or diseased cells with healthy
ones. Some key applications include:
1. Tissue Regeneration and Repair:
o Stem cells can be used to regenerate tissues and organs damaged by
injury, disease, or aging. For example, stem cell therapies are being
explored for repairing heart muscle after a heart attack, restoring nerve
function in spinal cord injuries, and regenerating bone and cartilage.
2. Cell Replacement Therapies:
o Stem cells can differentiate into specific cell types needed to replace
dysfunctional or diseased cells. This approach is being investigated for
treating conditions such as Parkinson's disease (replacing dopaminergic
neurons), diabetes (replacing insulin-producing beta cells), and retinal
degenerative diseases (replacing retinal pigment epithelial cells).
3. Drug Testing and Disease Modeling:
o iPSCs derived from patients with genetic diseases can be used to model
disease processes in the laboratory, providing insights into disease
mechanisms and enabling drug screening for personalized medicine
approaches.
4. Immunotherapy:
o Stem cells are being explored as a platform for developing new
immunotherapies, including genetically engineered stem cells for cancer
treatment (e.g., CAR-T cell therapy).
5. Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effects:
o Some types of stem cells, such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), have
potent anti-inflammatory properties and can modulate immune responses.
This characteristic is being studied for treating autoimmune diseases and
conditions involving excessive inflammation.
Challenges and Considerations
While stem cell research holds great promise, several challenges remain, including
ethical considerations (especially with embryonic stem cells), potential for tumor
formation (particularly with pluripotent stem cells), and issues related to immune
rejection in allogeneic transplant settings. Addressing these challenges through
rigorous research, ethical guidelines, and technological advancements will be crucial
 for realizing the full therapeutic potential of stem cells in regenerative medicine and
disease treatment.
5. Discuss the cell theory and the scientific method in the science of biology.
The cell theory was proposed by two scientists- Schleiden (1838)and Schwann
(1839). It says that all the plants and animals are composed of cells and the cell is the
basic unit of life. The cell theory was further expanded by Virchow (1855) by
suggesting that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Main points of the Cell Theory as proposed by Schlieden and Schwann are:
• The Cell is the smallest living unit of life.
• It is so small that it is not visible to the naked eye.
• The shape of the cell varies in different organisms and within an organism.
• Size of cells also differs.
• All living cells exhibit certain basic properties like respiration, growth, metabolism
etc.
• All living organisms are made up of cells or their products.
• Cells originate from a pre-existing cell. A mother cell divides to produce daughter
cells. Hence, cells exhibit cell division.
Cell Theory
The cell theory is a fundamental principle in biology that states:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells: Cells are the basic
structural and functional units of life. They vary widely in size, shape, and function
but share common characteristics such as the presence of genetic material and
the ability to metabolize.
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms: Cells
organize into tissues, tissues into organs, and organs into organ systems,
ultimately forming complex multicellular organisms.
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells by division: New cells are produced through
the process of cell division (such as mitosis or meiosis), where one cell divides to
form two daughter cells. This principle underscores the continuity of life and the
inheritance of genetic information.
The development of the cell theory was driven by observations and experiments
conducted by scientists such as Robert Hooke, who first described cells in 1665, and
later by Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow in the 19th century.
The theory revolutionized biology by providing a unifying explanation for the structure
 and function of living organisms, laying the groundwork for modern cell biology and
molecular biology.

Scientific Method
The scientific method is a systematic approach to research that aims to acquire
knowledge through empirical evidence and logical reasoning. It typically involves the
following steps:
1. Observation: Scientists observe natural phenomena or gather data through
experiments or surveys.
2. Hypothesis: Based on observations, scientists formulate a testable explanation
(hypothesis) that seeks to answer a specific question or address a phenomenon.
3. Prediction: Hypotheses generate predictions about what will happen under
certain conditions if the hypothesis is correct.
4. Experimentation: Scientists design and conduct experiments to test the
predictions and gather data. Experiments are often controlled to isolate variables
and minimize bias.
5. Analysis: Researchers analyze the data collected during experiments to
determine whether the results support or refute the hypothesis.
6. Conclusion: Based on the analysis, scientists draw conclusions and interpret the
findings in the context of existing knowledge. These conclusions may lead to
revisions of hypotheses or further experiments.
7. Communication: Scientists communicate their findings through publications,
conferences, and peer-reviewed journals, allowing others to review, replicate, and
build upon their work.
Integration in Biology
Both the cell theory and the scientific method are integral to the practice of biology:
• Cell theory provides a framework for understanding the structure and function of
organisms at the cellular level, emphasizing the unity of life despite its diversity.
• Scientific method guides biological research by promoting systematic inquiry,
evidence-based reasoning, and the iterative process of hypothesis testing and
refinement.

6. Infer how genetic information is used in the synthesis of proteins and explain
the structure of protein.
The synthesis of proteins, guided by genetic information, is a fundamental biological
process that involves transcription and translation. This process relies on the structure
of DNA, RNA, and the mechanisms by which these molecules interact to produce
functional proteins. Proteins themselves have a complex structure that enables them
to perform a wide range of functions in the cell.
Genetic Information and Protein Synthesis
1. DNA Structure and Genetic Code:
o DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) consists of two strands forming a double helix,
with each strand composed of nucleotides. Each nucleotide includes a
phosphate group, a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base
(adenine [A], thymine [T], cytosine [C], or guanine [G]).
o The sequence of these nitrogenous bases encodes genetic information. A
set of three bases, called a codon, specifies a particular amino acid or a
stop signal during protein synthesis.
2. Transcription:
o The process begins in the cell nucleus where DNA is transcribed into
messenger RNA (mRNA). During transcription, the enzyme RNA
polymerase binds to the DNA at the promoter region and unwinds the DNA
strands.
o RNA polymerase synthesizes a single-stranded mRNA molecule by reading
the template DNA strand and incorporating complementary RNA
nucleotides (uracil [U] replaces thymine).
o The mRNA strand undergoes processing, including the addition of a 5' cap
and a poly-A tail, and splicing to remove non-coding regions (introns).
3. Translation:
o Processed mRNA is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where
it associates with ribosomes, the cellular machinery for protein synthesis.
o Translation involves the decoding of mRNA into a polypeptide chain.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, each carrying a specific amino acid,
recognize and bind to the corresponding codons on the mRNA through their
anticodons.
o The ribosome facilitates the binding of tRNA to the mRNA and catalyzes the
formation of peptide bonds between the amino acids, elongating the
polypeptide chain until a stop codon is reached.
4. Post-Translational Modifications:
 o After translation, the newly synthesized polypeptide may undergo various
modifications such as folding, cutting, and addition of chemical groups to
become a functional protein.
Structure of Proteins:
Proteins have complex structures that are essential for their function, categorized into
four levels of organization:
1. Primary Structure:
o The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
chain, determined by the genetic code. The specific order of amino acids
dictates the protein's properties and function.
2. Secondary Structure:
o Secondary structure refers to local folding patterns within the polypeptide
chain, stabilized by hydrogen bonds. Common secondary structures include
α-helices and β-pleated sheets.
o An α-helix is a right-handed coil where each backbone N-H group forms a
hydrogen bond with the backbone C=O group of the amino acid four
residues earlier.
o A β-pleated sheet consists of strands that lie side by side, with hydrogen
bonds forming between the backbone atoms in different strands.
3. Tertiary Structure:
o The tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of a single
polypeptide chain. It results from interactions between the side chains (R
groups) of the amino acids, including hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds,
hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bridges.
o The tertiary structure determines the protein's functionality by positioning
key residues in the active site or binding regions.
4. Quaternary Structure:
o Some proteins consist of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) that
associate to form a functional unit. The quaternary structure refers to the
arrangement and interaction of these subunits.
o Hemoglobin, for example, has a quaternary structure composed of four
subunits, each with an iron-containing heme group.
Important Note:
The synthesis of proteins from genetic information involves the transcription of DNA
to mRNA and the translation of mRNA to a polypeptide chain, followed by folding and
 modification to achieve functional protein structure. The four levels of protein
structure—primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary—are essential for the diverse
range of functions that proteins perform in biological systems. Understanding these
processes and structures is crucial for insights into cellular function, disease
mechanisms, and biotechnological applications.

7. Explain the process of protein synthesis and steps involved in the process to
convert it into useful form essential for cellular function.
Protein synthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins based on the
genetic information encoded in DNA. It involves two main stages: transcription and
translation. These processes are essential for converting genetic information into
functional proteins that perform a wide variety of roles in cellular function.
Process of Protein Synthesis
1. Transcription
Location: Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm
of prokaryotic cells.
Steps involved in Transcription:
1. Initiation:
o RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of the DNA, which signals
the start of a gene.
o The DNA double helix unwinds, exposing the template strand.
2. Elongation:
o RNA polymerase synthesizes a complementary mRNA strand using the
template strand of DNA.
o RNA nucleotides (adenine [A], cytosine [C], guanine [G], and uracil [U]) pair
with their complementary bases on the DNA template (A with U, C with G).
o As RNA polymerase moves along the DNA, it adds nucleotides to the
growing mRNA strand in a 5' to 3' direction.
3. Termination:
o Transcription continues until RNA polymerase reaches a termination
sequence in the DNA.
o The mRNA transcript is released, and RNA polymerase detaches from the
DNA.
2. RNA Processing (in Eukaryotes)
Steps involved in RNA Processing:
1. Capping:
o A 5' cap (modified guanine nucleotide) is added to the 5' end of the mRNA
transcript.
o The cap protects the mRNA from degradation and helps in the binding of
mRNA to ribosomes during translation.
2. Polyadenylation:
 o A poly-A tail (a sequence of adenine nucleotides) is added to the 3' end of
the mRNA transcript.
o The poly-A tail aids in mRNA stability and transport out of the nucleus.

3. Splicing:
o Introns (non-coding regions) are removed from the mRNA transcript by
spliceosomes, leaving only exons (coding regions).
o The spliced mRNA, composed of exons, is ready for translation.
3. Translation
Location: Translation occurs in the cytoplasm, specifically on ribosomes.
Steps involved in Translation:
1. Initiation:
o The mRNA transcript binds to a ribosome, and the ribosome starts scanning
for the start codon (usually AUG).
o Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, each carrying a specific amino acid,
recognize and bind to the complementary codons on the mRNA through
their anticodons.
2. Elongation:
o The ribosome moves along the mRNA in a 5' to 3' direction, and amino acids
are added to the growing polypeptide chain.
o Each tRNA molecule brings its amino acid to the ribosome, where peptide
bonds form between adjacent amino acids, catalyzed by ribosomal RNA
(rRNA).
3. Termination:
o Translation continues until a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) is reached on
the mRNA.
o Release factors bind to the ribosome, causing the completed polypeptide
chain to detach from the ribosome.

Conversion into Useful Form for Cellular Function

After translation, the newly synthesized polypeptide undergoes further processing to
become a functional protein:
1. Folding: The polypeptide chain folds into its three-dimensional structure, driven
by interactions between amino acid side chains (hydrophobic interactions,
hydrogen bonds, disulfide bridges, etc.).
2. Post-Translational Modifications: Some proteins undergo modifications such as
phosphorylation (addition of phosphate groups), glycosylation (addition of sugar
molecules), and cleavage (removal of amino acids) to become fully functional.
3. Transport and Targeting: Proteins destined for specific locations within or outside
the cell may undergo targeting sequences or modifications to ensure they reach
their correct destinations.
 4. Assembly into Functional Complexes: Many proteins function as part of larger
complexes or as multimeric structures, where multiple polypeptide chains come
together to perform specific functions.

NOTE:
Protein synthesis is a highly coordinated process involving transcription, RNA
processing (in eukaryotes), and translation. Each step ensures that genetic
information encoded in DNA is accurately transcribed into mRNA and then translated
into functional proteins. Post-translational modifications and proper folding are crucial
for proteins to attain their final functional forms, enabling them to carry out essential
roles in cellular metabolism, signaling, structure, and regulation.

8. Explain the cell growth and cell division; also illustrate how protein synthesis
involved in it.
Cell growth and cell division are essential processes in the life cycle of cells, crucial
for growth, development, and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Protein
synthesis plays a fundamental role in both processes by providing the necessary
machinery for cellular growth and replication.
Cell Growth
Cell growth refers to the increase in size and mass of a cell, which occurs mainly
during the interphase of the cell cycle. During interphase, cells prepare for division
by:
1. G1 Phase (Gap 1):
o Cells increase in size, synthesize new proteins, and accumulate
organelles needed for cellular functions.
o Protein synthesis during this phase includes enzymes and structural
proteins necessary for metabolism and maintaining cell structure.
2. S Phase (Synthesis):
o DNA replication occurs, producing identical copies of each chromosome
(sister chromatids).
o This phase requires a significant amount of protein synthesis, including
enzymes involved in DNA replication and histones (proteins that DNA
wraps around) for chromatin structure.
3. G2 Phase (Gap 2):
o Cells continue to grow and prepare for division.
 o Protein synthesis continues to produce proteins necessary for spindle
formation (microtubule proteins) and regulatory proteins that control the
cell cycle progression.
Cell Division (Mitosis)
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells,
each genetically identical to the parent cell. The process of mitosis involves several
stages:
1. Prophase:
o Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes.
o The nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers form from
centrioles.
o Protein synthesis is crucial during this phase to produce the proteins that
form the mitotic spindle and organize the chromosomes.
2. Metaphase:
o Chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate (equatorial plane of the
cell).
o Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of each chromosome.
o Protein synthesis contributes to the assembly of kinetochore proteins and
microtubule-associated proteins essential for chromosome alignment and
movement.
3. Anaphase:
o Sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell.
o Microtubules depolymerize, pulling the chromatids apart.
o Protein synthesis is involved in producing motor proteins (e.g., kinesins
and dyneins) that move chromosomes along microtubules.
4. Telophase:
o Chromatids reach the poles and decondense back into chromatin.
o The nuclear envelope re-forms around each set of chromosomes.
o Protein synthesis resumes to produce proteins needed for the formation of
the nuclear envelope and cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm, typically overlaps with the latter stages of
mitosis. It involves the formation of a cleavage furrow (in animal cells) or a cell plate
(in plant cells) to physically divide the cytoplasm and organelles between the two
daughter cells. Protein synthesis contributes to the production of contractile proteins
 (actin and myosin in animal cells) and cell wall components (cellulose and other
polysaccharides in plant cells) required for cytokinesis.
Protein Synthesis and Cell Growth/Division Integration
Protein synthesis is tightly regulated throughout the cell cycle to ensure that cells
have the necessary proteins for growth, DNA replication, chromosome segregation,
and cell division. Key roles of protein synthesis in cell growth and division include:
• Enzymes and Structural Proteins: Synthesized during interphase to support
metabolic activities, maintain cell structure, and prepare for DNA replication and
cell division.
• Regulatory Proteins: Control progression through the cell cycle, ensuring that
cells only proceed to division when conditions are favorable and necessary
proteins are synthesized.
• Spindle Proteins: Essential for chromosome alignment and segregation during
mitosis, ensuring accurate distribution of genetic material to daughter cells.
• Cytokinesis Proteins: Involved in the formation of the cleavage furrow or cell
plate, facilitating the physical separation of daughter cells.

Detailed Comparison of Cell Organelles:

Cell
Structure Functions
Organelles

Cell A double membrane Provides shape, protects

membrane composed of lipids and the inner organelles of the
proteins. Present both in plant cell and acts as a selectively
and animal cells. permeable membrane.

Centrosomes Composed of centrioles and It plays a major role in

found only in the animal cells. organizing the microtubule
and cell division.

Chloroplasts Present only in plant cells and Sites of photosynthesis.

contains a green-coloured
pigment known as chlorophyll.
Cytoplasm A jelly-like substance, which Responsible for the cell’s
consists of water, dissolved metabolic activities.
nutrients and waste products
of the cell.

Endoplasmic A network of membranous Forms the skeletal

Reticulum tubules, present within the framework of the cell,
cytoplasm of a cell. involved in the
detoxification, production of
lipids and proteins.

Golgi Membrane-bound, sac-like It is mainly involved in

apparatus organelles, present within the secretion and intracellular
cytoplasm of the eukaryotic transport.
cells.

Lysosomes A tiny, circular-shaped, single Helps in the digestion and

membrane-bound organelles, removes wastes and digests
filled with digestive enzymes. dead and damaged cells.
Therefore, it is also called
as the “suicidal bags”.

Mitochondria An oval-shaped, membrane- The main site of cellular

bound organelle, also called respiration and also
as the “Powerhouse of The involved in storing energy in
Cell”. the form of ATP molecules.

Nucleus The largest, double Controls the activity of the

membrane-bound organelles, cell, helps in cell division
which contains all the cell’s and controls the hereditary
genetic information. characters.

Peroxisome A membrane-bound cellular Involved in the metabolism

organelle present in the of lipids and catabolism of
cytoplasm, which contains the long-chain fatty acids.
reducing enzyme.
Plastids Double membrane-bound Helps in the process of
organelles. There are 3 types photosynthesis and
of plastids: pollination, imparts colour
to leaves, flowers, fruits and
1. Leucoplast –Colourless
stores starch, proteins and
plastids.
fats.
2. Chromoplast–Blue, red,
and yellow colour
plastids.
3. Chloroplast – Green
coloured plastids.

Ribosomes Non-membrane organelles, Involved in the synthesis of

found floating freely in the proteins.
cell’s cytoplasm or embedded
within the endoplasmic
reticulum.

Vacuoles A membrane-bound, fluid-filled Provide shape and rigidity

organelle found within the to the plant cell and help in
cytoplasm. digestion, excretion, and
storage of substances.