ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES (AEC-II)
DELHI UNIVERSITY
 Unit 5 : Global Environmental Issues
and Policies
■ Causes of Climate change, Global warming, Ozone layer depletion, and Acid rain;
Impacts on human communities, biodiversity, global economy, and agriculture
■ International agreements and Programs: Earth Summit, UNFCCC, Montreal and
Kyoto protocols, Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD), Ramsar convention, The
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), UNEP, CITES, etc
■ Sustainable Development Goals: India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change
and its major missions.
■ Environment legislation in India: Wildlife Protection Act, 1972; Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Forest (Conservation) Act 1980; Air (Prevention
& Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; Environment Protection Act, 1986; Scheduled
Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
CLIMATE CHANGE
■ Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions, seasonal variations
and extremes of weather in a region. Such conditions which average over a long period- at least 30
years is called climate.
■ The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990 and 1992 published best available
evidence about past climate change, the green house effect and recent changes in global
temperature.
■ It is observed that earths temperature has changed considerably during the geological times. It has
experienced several glacial and interglacial periods.
■ However, during the past 10,000 years of the current interglacial period the mean average
temperature has fluctuated by 0.5- 1°C over 100 to 200 year period.
■ We have relatively stable climate for thousands of years due to which we have practized agriculture
and increased in population.
■ Anthropogenic (man-made) activities are upsetting the delicate balance that has established
between various components of the environment. Green house gases are increasing in the
atmosphere resulting in increase in the average global temperature.
“In broad terms, the increase in forest fires can be attributed to the rise in temperatures across North
India,” Raman Sukumar, honourary professor at the Centre for Ecological Studies, Indian Institute of
Science, Bengaluru, told Down To Earth.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
■ Even small changes in climatic conditions may disturb agriculture that would lead to migration of animals
including humans.
■ This also may upset the hydrological cycle, result in floods and droughts in different regions of the world,
cause sea level rise, changes in agriculture productivity, famines and death of humans as well as live stock.
■ The global change in temperature will not be uniform everywhere and will fluctuate in different regions. The
places at higher latitudes will be warmed up more during late autumn and winter than the places in tropics.
■ Poles may experience 2 to 3 times more warming than the global average, while warming in the tropics may
be only 50 to 100% on an average.
■ The increased warming at poles will reduce the thermal gradient between the equator and high latitude
regions decreasing the energy available to the heat engine that drives the global weather machine. This will
disturb the global pattern of winds and ocean currents as well as the timing and distribution of rainfall.
■ Shifting of ocean currents may change the climate of Iceland and Britain and may result in cooling at a time
when rest of the world warms. By a temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.5°C the global hydrological cycle is
expected to intensify by 5 to 10%.
■ Disturbed rainfall will result in some areas becoming wetter and the others drier. Although rainfall may
increase, higher temperatures will result in more evapotranspiration leading to annual water deficit in crop
fields.
What's the difference between global warming and
climate change?
■ Global warming refers only to the Earth’s rising surface
temperature, while climate change includes
warming and the “side effects” of warming—like melting
glaciers, heavier rainstorms, or more frequent drought.
■ Said another way, global warming is one symptom of the
much larger problem of human-caused climate change.
 GLOBAL WARMING
■ Troposphere, the lowermost layer of the atmosphere, traps heat by a natural process due to the presence of
certain gases. This effect is called Green House Effect as it is similar to the warming effect observed in the
horticultural green house made of glass. The amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere depends mostly on
the concentrations of heat trapping or green house gases and the length of time they stay in the atmosphere.
■ The major green house gases are carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and water vapours. The average global temperature is 15°C. In the absence of green house gases this
temperature would have been --18°C.
■ Therefore, Green House Effect contributes a temperature rise to the tune of 33°C. Heat trapped by green
house gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm enough to allow us and other species to exist.
■ The two predominant green house gases are water vapours, which are controlled by hydrological cycle, and
carbon dioxide, which is controlled mostly by the global carbon cycle. While the levels of water vapour in the
troposphere have relatively remained constant, the levels of carbon dioxide have increased.
■ Warming or cooling by more than few°C over the past few decades may prove to be disastrous for various
ecosystems on the earth including humans, as it would alter the conditions faster than some species could
adapt or migrate. Some areas will become inhabitable because of drought or floods following a rise in average
sea level.
 Causes of Global Warming
■ According to the EPA, worldwide greenhouse gas emissions attributed to human activities increased
twenty six percent from 1990 to 2005. The rise in carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere
accounts for approximately eighty percent of this increase.
■ Power Plants: majority carbon dioxide emissions stem from electricity production because major
chunk of electric industry emissions result from burning coal.
■ Transportation: major percentage of emissions also come from the transportation of people and
goods.
■ Farming: Industrial farming and ranching releases huge levels of methane and carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere. Farming contributes forty percent of the methane and twenty percent of the carbon
dioxide to worldwide emissions.
■ Deforestation: Deforestation to use wood for building materials, paper and fuel increases global
warming in two ways -- the release of carbon dioxide during the deforestation process and the
reduction in the amount of carbon dioxide that forests can capture.
■ Fertilizers: The use of nitrogen-rich fertilizers releases nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. Nitrogen
oxides can trap up to 300 times more heat than carbon dioxide. Sixty-two percent of nitrous oxide
released comes from agricultural byproducts.
■ Oil Drilling: Burn-off from the oil drilling industry impacts the carbon dioxide released into the
atmosphere. Fossil fuel retrieval, processing and distribution accounts for roughly eight percent
of carbon dioxide and thirty percent of methane pollution.
■ Permafrost: The melting of permafrost releases tons of trapped green house gases which further
speeds up the melting of more permafrost. Scientists calculate that approximately five-hundred
gigatons of carbon is trapped in the Siberian permafrost alone. A single gigaton equals one
billion tons.
■ Garbage: As trash breaks down in landfills, it releases methane and nitrous oxide gases.
Approximately eighteen percent of methane gas in the atmosphere comes from waste disposal
and treatment.
■ Volcanic Eruption: Volcanoes expel large quantities of carbon dioxide when they erupt. Volcanoes
have an overall small effect on global warming and an eruption causes a short-term global
cooling as ash in the air reflects greater amounts of solar energy.
Greenhouse Gases
The phenomenon that worries the environmental scientists is that due to anthropogenic activities there is an increase in the
concentration of the greenhouse gases in the air that absorb infra-red light containing heat and results in the re-radiation of even
more of the out going thermal infra-red energy, thereby increasing the average surface temperature beyond 15°C.
The phenomenon is referred to as the enhanced green house effect to distinguish its effect from the one that has been operating
naturally for millennia
■ Carbon dioxide: It contributes about 56% to global warming from green house gases produced by human activity. CO2 stays in
the atmosphere for about 500 years. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere was 355 ppm in 1990 and now the global average
atmospheric carbon dioxide in 2019 was 409.8 parts per million.
■ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): These are believed to be responsible for 24% of the human contribution to greenhouse gases.
They also deplete ozone in the stratosphere. The main sources of CFCs include leaking air conditioners and refrigerators,
evaporation of industrial solvents, production of plastic foams, aerosols, propellants etc. CFCs take 10-15 years to reach the
stratosphere and generally trap 1500 to 7000 times more heat per molecule than CO2 while they are in the troposphere.
■ Methane (CH4): It accounts for 18% of the increased greenhouse gases. Methane is produced when bacteria break down dead
organic matter in moist places that lack oxygen such as swamps, natural wetlands, paddy fields, landfills and digestive tracts of
cattle, sheep and termites. Methane stays in the atmosphere for 7-10 years. Each methane molecule traps about 25 times as
much heat as a CO2 molecule. Atmospheric concentration of methane is 1.675 ppm and it is increasing at a rate of 1%
annually.
■ Nitrous Oxide (N2O): It is responsible for 6% of the human input of green house gases. Besides trapping heat in the
troposphere it also depletes ozone in the stratosphere. It is released from nylon products, from burning of biomass and
nitrogen rich fuels and from the break down of nitrogen fertilizers in soil, livestock wastes and nitrate contaminated ground
water. Its life span in the troposphere is 140-190 years and it traps about 230 times as much heat per molecule as CO2.
Impacts of Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
■ The enhanced greenhouse effect will not only cause global warming but will also affect various other climatic and
natural processes.
■ (i) Global temperature increase: It is estimated that the earth’s mean temperature will rise between 1.5 to 5.5°C
by 2050 if input of greenhouse gases continues to rise at the present rate. Even at the lower value, earth would
be warmer than it has been for 10,000 years.
■ (ii) Rise in Sea Level: With the increase in global temperature sea water will expand. Heating will melt the polar
ice sheets and glaciers resulting in further rise in sea level.
• Current models indicate that an increase in the average atmospheric temperature of 3°C would raise the
average global sea level by 0.2-1.5 meters over the next 50-100 years.
• One meter rise in sea level will inundate low lying areas of cities like Shanghai, Cairo, Bangkok, Sydney, Hamburg
and Venice as well as agricultural lowlands and deltas in Egypt, Bangladesh, India, China and will affect rice
productivity.
• In India, the Lakshadweep Islands with a maximum height of 4 meters above the level may be vulnerable. Some
of the most beautiful cities like Mumbai may be saved by heavy investment on embankment to prevent
inundation. Life of millions of people will be affected, by the sea level rise who have built homes in the deltas of
the Ganges, the Nile, the Mekong, the Yangtze and the Mississippi rivers.
■ (iii) Effects on Human Health: The global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall pattern in
many areas, thereby affecting the distribution of vector-borne diseases like malaria, filariasis,
elephantiasis etc.
• Areas which are presently free from diseases like malaria, schistosomiasis etc. may become the
breeding grounds for the vectors of such diseases. The areas likely to be affected in this manner
are Ethiopia, Kenya and Indonesia.

■ (iv) Effects on Agriculture: There are different views regarding the effect of global warming on
agriculture. It may show positive or negative effects on various types of crops in different regions of
the world.
• Tropical and subtropical regions will be more affected since the average temperature in these
regions is already on the higher side. Even a rise of 2°C may be quite harmful to crops. Soil
moisture will decrease and evapo-transpiration will increase, which may drastically affect wheat
and maize production.
• Increase in temperature and humidity will increase pest growth like the growth of vectors for various
diseases. Pests will adapt to such changes better than the crops. To cope up with the changing
situation drought resistant, heat resistant and pest resistant varieties of crops have to be
developed.
Measures to Check Global Warming
■ To slow down enhanced global warming the following steps will be important:
■ (i) Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuel.
■ (ii) Use energy more efficiently.
■ (iii) Shift to renewable energy resources.
■ (iv) Remove atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photosynthetic algae
■ (v) Shift from coal to natural gas.
■ (vi) Trap and use methane as a fuel.
■ (vii) Plant more trees.
■ (viii) Adopt sustainable agriculture.
■ (ix) Stabilize population growth.
■ (x) Efficiently remove CO2 from smoke stacks.
ACID RAIN
■ Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and fossil fuel combustion are
the major sources of acid forming gases.
■ Acid forming gases are oxidised over several days by which time they travel several thousand
kilometers. In the atmosphere these gases are ultimately converted into sulfuric and nitric acids..
These acids cause acidic rain.
■ Rain water is turned acidic when its pH falls below 5.6. In fact clean or natural rain water has a
pH of 5.6 at 20°C because of formation of carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO2 in water.
■ The Adirondack Lakes located in the state of New York are known to receive acid rains.
In India acid rain is recorded from certain places:

■ Name of place pH of rainwater

Kodaikanal (TN) 5.18
Minicoy 5.52
Mohanbari (AS) 5.50
Effects of acid rain
■ Acid rain causes a number of harmful effects below pH 5.1. The effects are visible in the aquatic
system even at pH less than 5.5.
■ It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble e.g. monuments like Taj Mahal.
Crystals of calcium and magnesium sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion caused by acid
rain.
■ It damages stone statues. Priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy have been partially
dissolved by acid rain.
■ It damages metals and car finishes.
■ Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake acidification.
■ Aquatic animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium, mercury, manganese, zinc and
lead which leak from the surrounding rocks due to acid rain.
■ It results in reproductive failure, and killing of fish.
■ Many lakes of Sweden, Norway, Canada have become fishless due to acid rain.
■ It damages foliage and weakens trees.
■ Many insects and fungi are more tolerant to acidic conditions and hence they can attack the
susceptible trees and cause diseases.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
■ For the last 450 million years the earth has had a natural sunscreen in the stratosphere called the
ozone layer.
■ This layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sunlight and thus protects various life
forms on the earth.
■ Ozone is a form of oxygen. The molecule of oxygen contains two atoms whereas that of ozone contains
three (O3).
■ In the stratosphere ozone is continuously being created by the absorption of short wavelength
ultraviolet (UV) radiations. Ultraviolet radiations less than 240 nanometers decompose molecular
oxygen into atomic oxygen (O) by photolytic decomposition.
■ The net result of the above reactions is an equilibrium concentration of ozone. Ozone concentration in
about 24 km of the stratosphere i.e. from 16 km to 40 Km away from earth is about 10 ppm (as
compared to 0.05 ppm concentration of harmful tropospheric ozone).
■ This equilibrium is disturbed by reactive atoms of chlorine, bromine etc. which destroy ozone
molecules and result is thinning of ozone layer generally called ozone hole.
 The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by Dobson Spectrometer and is expressed in Dobson
units (DU). One DU is equivalent to a 0.01 mm thickness of pure ozone at the density it would
possess if it were brought to ground level (1atm) pressure.
 Normally over temperate latitude its concetration is about 350 DU, over tropics it is 250 DU whereas
at subpolar regions (except when ozone thinning occurs) it is on an average 450 DU. It is because of
the stratospheric winds which transport ozone from tropical towards polar regions.
Effects of Ozone Depletion
■ Ozone depletion in the stratosphere will result in more UV radiation reaching the earth especially
UV-B (290-320 nm). The UV-B radiations affect DNA and the photosynthetic chemicals. Any change
in DNA can result in mutation and cancer. Cases of skin cancer (basal and squamous cell
carcinoma) which do not cause death but cause disfigurement will increase.
■ Easy absorption of UV rays by the lens and cornea of eye will result in increase in incidents of
cataract.
■ Melanin producing cells of the epidermis (important for human immune system) will be destroyed by
UV-rays resulting in immuno-suppression. Fair people (cant produce enough melanin) will be at a
greater risk of UV exposure.
■ Phytoplanktons are sensitive to UV exposure. Ozone depletion will result in decrease in their
population thereby affecting the population of zooplankton, fish, marine animals, in fact the whole
aquatic food chain.
■ Yield of vital crops like corn, rice, soybean, cotton, bean, pea, sorghum and wheat will decrease.
■ Degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer material will result in economic loss due to effects
of UV radiation resulting from ozone depletion
International agreements
and Programs
United Nations Conference On Environment
And Development (UNCED)
■ Also known as the Rio Summit, Rio Conference, Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992.
■ The issues addressed included:
• Systematic scrutiny of patterns of production — particularly the production of toxic components,
such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive chemicals
• Alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which are linked to global climate
change
• New reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in
cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and smog.
• The growing scarcity of water.
The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents:
• Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
• Forest Principles
• Agenda 21
Agenda 21
■ • Agenda 21 is an action plan of the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable
development and was an outcome of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992.
■ • It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and
locally by organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in
which humans directly affect the environment.
■ • The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st century.
■ Local Agenda 21 :The implementation of Agenda 21 was intended to involve
action at international, national, regional and local levels. Some national and state
governments have legislated or advised that local authorities take steps to
implement the plan locally, as recommended in Chapter 28 of the document.
Such programmes are often known as ‘Local Agenda 21’ or ‘LA21’.
 Rio+5
• In 1997, the General Assembly of the UN held a special session to appraise five years of progress on the
implementation of Agenda 21 (Rio +5).
• The Assembly recognized progress as ‘uneven’ and identified key trends including increasing
globalization, widening inequalities in income and a continued deterioration of the global environment.
 The Johannesburg Summit
• The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, agreed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development
(Earth Summit 2002) affirmed UN commitment to ‘full implementation’ of Agenda 21, alongside
achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and other international agreements.
 Rio +20
• “Rio+20” is the short name for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development which took
place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012 – twenty years after the landmark 1992 Earth Summit in Rio.
• At the Rio+20 Conference, world leaders, along with thousands of participants from the private sector,
NGOs and other groups, came together to shape how we can reduce poverty, advance social equity and
ensure environmental protection on an ever more crowded planet.
• The official discussions focused on two main themes:
1. how to build a green economy to achieve sustainable development and lift people out of poverty; and
2. how to improve international coordination for sustainable development.
• AT Rio+20, more than $513 billion was pledged to build a sustainable future. It signaled a major step
forward in achieving the future we want.
Moreover, three important legally binding agreements

■ 1. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD)

■ 2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC).
■ 3. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD)
UNFCCC
■ UN Summit Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janerio in June
1992 adopted, by consensus, the first multilateral legal instrument on Climate Change, the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change or the UNFCCC.
• In 1992, countries joined UNFCCC, to cooperatively consider what they could do to limit average
global temperature increases and the resulting climate change, and to cope with whatever impacts
were, by then, inevitable. There are now 195 Parties to the Convention.
• The UNFCCC secretariat supports all institutions involved in the international climate change
negotiations, particularly the Conference of the Parties (COP), the subsidiary bodies (which advise
the COP), and the COP Bureau (which deals mainly with procedural and organizational issues arising
from the COP and also has technical functions).
• All subsequent multilateral negotiations on different aspects of climate change, including both
adaptation and mitigation, are being held based on the principles and objectives set out by the
UNFCCC
KYOTO PROTOCOL: COP-3
■ By 1995, countries realized that emission reductions provisions in the Convention were inadequate.
They launched negotiations to strengthen the global response to climate change, and, two years later,
adopted the Kyoto Protocol.
• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997. Due to a complex ratification
process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005.
• In short, the Kyoto Protocol is what “operationalizes” the Convention. It commits industrialized countries
to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions based on the principles of the Convention.
• The major distinction between the Protocol and the Convention is that while the Convention encouraged
industrialized countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the Protocol commits them to do so.
• KP, as it is referred to in short, sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and
the European community in its first commitment period.
• It only binds developed countries because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for the current
high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere, which are the result of more than 150 years of industrial
activity.
• KP places a heavier burden on developed nations under its central principle: that of “common but
differentiated responsibility”.
• Overall, these targets add up to an average five per cent emissions reduction compared to 1990 levels
over the five-year period 2008 to 2012.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
■ CBD is a Legally binding Convention recognized for the first time, that the conservation of
biological diversity is “a common concern of humankind” and is an integral part of the
development process. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
■ Objectives
• The conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by
appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking
into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding.
Three main goals:
• The conservation of biodiversity
• Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity
• Sharing the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources in a fair
and equitable way.
 The Convention acknowledges that substantial investments are required to conserve biological
diversity. It argues, however, that conservation will bring us significant environmental, economic
and social benefits in return.
UNCCD
■ Established in 1994, UNCCD is the sole legally binding international agreement linking
environment and development to sustainable land management.
• The UNCCD is particularly committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local
people in combating desertification and land degradation.
• The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is one of the Rio Conventions that
focuses on desertification, land degradation and drought (DLDD).
• ‘Desertification’ as defined in the UNCCD refers to land degradation in the drylands (arid, semi arid
and dry sub humid regions) resulting from various factors and does not connote spread or expansion
of deserts.
• UNCCD with 194 Parties is a unique instrument that recognises land degradation as an important
factor affecting some of the most vulnerable people and ecosystems in the world.
• The convention aims at adaption and can, on implementation, significantly contribute to achieving
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as well as sustainable development and poverty reduction
by means of arresting and reversing land degradation.
• The convention promotes sustainable land management (SLM) as solution to global challenges
 RAMSAR CONVENTION ON WETLANDS
■ The Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national
action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
■ It was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975, and it is the only global
environmental treaty that deals with a particular ecosystem.
■ Ramsar is not affiliated with the United Nations system of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, but it
works very closely with the other MEAs and is a full partner among the “biodiversity-related cluster” of
treaties and agreements.
■ World Wetlands Day, 2 February every year.
■ Number of Contracting Parties: 163
■ Mission: “The conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and national actions and
international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the
world”
■ Designate suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (“Ramsar List”) and
ensure their effective management
■ The Montreux Record was adopted by the Conference of the Contracting Parties in Brisbane, 1996 and it
is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in
ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological
developments, pollution or other human interference.
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
■ In the early 1960s, international discussion began focusing on the rate at which the world’s wild animals and plants
were being threatened by unregulated international trade.
• The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international
agreement between governments entered into force in 1975, and became the only treaty to ensure that international
trade in plants and animals does not threaten their survival in the wild.
• Currently 176 countries are Parties to CITES.
• CITES is administered through the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). A Secretariat, located in Geneva,
Switzerland, oversees the implementation of the treaty and assists with communications between countries.
Protecting Species from Unsustainable Trade
• Species for which trade is controlled are listed in one of three Appendices to CITES, each conferring a different level of
regulation and requiring CITES permits or certificates.
Appendix I: • Includes species threatened with extinction and provides the greatest level of protection, including
restrictions on commercial trade. Examples include gorillas, sea turtles, most lady slipper orchids, and giant pandas.
Appendix II: • Includes species that although currently not threatened with extinction, may become so without trade
controls. It also includes species that resemble other listed species and need to be regulated in order to effectively
control the trade in those other listed species.
Appendix III: • Includes species for which a range country has asked other Parties to help in controlling international
trade. Examples include map turtles, walruses and Cape stag beetles.
• Until CoP13, these meeting were held every two years; since then, CoPs are held every three years.
• CoP18 is scheduled to occur in 2019 in Geneva, Switzerland. (Next in 2022 in costa rica)
TRAFFIC: THE WILDLIFE TRADE MONITORING
NETWORK
■ TRAFFIC is a joint conservation programme of WWF and IUCN.
• It was established in 1976 by the Species Survival Commission of IUCN, principally as a response to
the entry into force during the previous year of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
• TRAFFIC is an international network, consisting of TRAFFIC International, based in Cambridge, UK
with offices on five continents.
• Since its founding, TRAFFIC has grown to become the world’s largest wildlife trade monitoring
programme, and a global expert on wildlife trade issues.
• This non-governmental organization undertakes its activities in close collaboration with governments
and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
Secretariat. Goal
• To ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.
Vision • trade in wild animals and plants will be managed at sustainable levels without damaging the
integrity of ecological systems and in such a manner that it makes a significant contribution to human
needs, supports local and national economies and helps to motivate commitments to the conservation
of wild species and their habitats.
CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES (CMS)
■ The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (also known as CMS
or Bonn Convention) aims to conserve terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory species
throughout their range.
■ • It is an intergovernmental treaty, concluded under the aegis of the United Nations
Environment Programme, concerned with the conservation of wildlife and habitats on a global
scale.
■ • The Convention’s has membership of 117 Parties from Africa, Central and South America,
Asia, Europe and Oceania.
■ • The only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their
habitats and migration routes, CMS complements and co-operates with a number of other
international organizations, NGOs and partners in the media as well as in the corporate sector.
■ Appendix I • Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix I of the
Convention.
■ Appendix II • Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from international co-
operation are listed in Appendix II of the Convention. For this reason, the Convention
encourages the Range States to conclude global or regional Agreements.
■ India had become a party to the CMS since November 1, 1983. (held 2019 convention in
Gandhinagar)
 IUCN
■ IUCN was founded in October 1948 as the International Union for the Protection
of Nature (or IUPN) following an international conference in Fontainebleau,
France.
■ The organization changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources in 1956 with the acronym IUCN (or UICN) with its
head quarters in Gland, Switzerland.
■ Vision: Just world that values and conserves nature.
■ Missions: To influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to
conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of
natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable.
■ Priority Areas of IUCN
• Biodiversity, Climate change ,Sustainable energy, Human well-being, Green
economy
THE GLOBAL TIGER FORUM (GTF)
■ The Global Tiger Forum (GTF) is an inter-governmental and international body
established with members from willing countries to embark on a worldwide
campaign, common approach, promotion of appropriate programs and controls to
save the remaining sub-species of tigers(Bengal tiger. Amur tiger. South China tiger.
Sumatran tiger. Indochinese tiger. Malayan tiger.) in the wild distributed over 14
tiger range countries of the world.
■ Formed in 1994 with its secretariat at New Delhi, GTF is the only inter-
governmental & international body campaigning to save the TIGER worldwide.
■ The General Assembly of GTF shall meet once in three years.
■ Goal: To highlight the rationale for tiger preservation and provide leadership and
common approach throughout the world in order to safeguard the survival of the
tiger, its prey and its habitat.
Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions (Hazardous Chemicals and Wastes)
The Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions are multilateral environmental agreements, which
share the common objective of protecting human health and the environment from hazardous
chemicals and wastes.
■ The Basel Convention: It came into force in 1992, intended to reduce transboundary movements
of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries (LDCs), and ensure their safe
disposal as closely as possible to the source of generation. India is a member.
■ Rotterdam Convention: It was adopted in September 1998 by a Conference of Plenipotentiaries in
Rotterdam, Netherlands and entered into force in February 2004. India is a member.
• It covers pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely restricted for
health or environmental reasons by Parties and which have been notified by Parties for inclusion
in the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure. The Convention creates legally binding
obligations for the implementation of the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.
■ The Stockholm Convention: It is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment
from Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). India is a member. The Convention entered into force
in May, 2004. POPs are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become
widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic
to humans and wildlife.
VIENNA CONVENTION
 Vienna convention adopted in the year 1985 and entered into force in 1988.
• It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer however it does not
include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs.
• The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and its Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer are dedicated to the protection of the earth’s ozone layer. With 197 parties,
they are the most widely ratified treaties in United Nations history.
 Montreal Protocol
• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was designed to reduce the
production and consumption of ozone depleting substances in order to reduce their abundance in the
atmosphere, and thereby protect the earth’s fragile ozone Layer.
• The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1,
1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in
1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal),
and 1999 (Beijing).
• India became a Party to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer on 19 June 1991 and
the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer on 17 September 1992.
• Consequently, it ratified the Copenhagen, Montreal and Beijing Amendments in 2003.
KIGALI AGREEMENT (2016)
• Twenty-Eighth Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer held in Kigali, Rwanda amended the 1987 Montreal Protocol to phase out Hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs).
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were discontinued under the Montreal Protocol when scientists realised
they were destroying the ozone layer.
• HFCs were introduced in the 1990s as an alternative to replace chemicals that had been found to
erode the ozone layer, but turned out to be catastrophic for global warming.
• HFCs - though they are greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide - are not
dealt with under the Paris Agreement but under the Montreal Protocol.
• The elimination of HFCs could reduce global warming by 0.5 degrees by 2100, according to a 2015
study by the Institute for Governance and Sustainable Development.
• However, swapping HFCs for alternatives such as ammonia, water or gases called hydrofluoroolefins
could prove costly for developing countries with high summer temperatures, such as India.
• The Kigali Agreement for HFCs reduction will be binding on countries from 2019.
• Under legally binding Kigali Amendment, 197 countries have agreed to a timeline to reduce the use
of HFCs by roughly 85% of their baselines by 2045.
Chemical Weapons Convention
 It is a multilateral treaty banning chemical weapons and requiring their destruction within
the stipulated time.
 Negotiations for the CWC began in 1980 at the United Nations Conference on
Disarmament.
 The convention was drafted in September 1992 and opened for signature in January
1993. It became effective from April 1997.
 It makes it mandatory to destroy old and abandoned chemical weapons.
 Members should also declare the riot-control agents (sometimes referred to as ‘tear
gas’) in possession of them.
■ Members: It has 192 state parties and 165 signatories. India signed the treaty in January 1993.
■ Convention Prohibits:
– The development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, or retention of chemical weapons.
– Transferring of chemical weapons.
– Using chemical weapons.
– Assisting other States to indulge in activities that are prohibited by the CWC.
– Using riot-control devices as ‘warfare methods’.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC)
■ Established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization
and the UN Environment Programme, the IPCC surveys world-
wide scientific and technical literature and publishes
assessment reports that are widely recognized as the most
credible existing sources of information on climate change.
■ • The IPCC also works on methodologies and it is independent
of the Convention.
Sustainable Development Goals:
India’s National Action Plan on Climate
Change and its major missions.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
■ The Brundtland Report, published in 1987 by the
United Nations World Commission on
Environment and Development, coined the term
"sustainable development" and defined it as
"development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
■ Goals of sustainable development are to address
the global challenges, including poverty,
inequality, climate change, environmental
degradation, peace and justice.
■ Rio declaration 1992 codified the principle of
sustainable development.
■ The goal of Sustainable Development is to meet the
needs of today, without compromising the needs of
tomorrow.
■ This means we cannot continue using current levels of
resources as this will not leave enough for future
generations.
■ Stabilising and reducing carbon emissions is key to
living within environmental limits.
■ SD is important as it saves national budget, fulfills the
need of people, conserves the natural resources for
future generations.
■ The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as
the Global Goals, were adopted by all United Nations
Member States in 2015 as a Universal call to action to end
poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy
peace and prosperity by 2030.

■ The 17 SDGs are integrated that is, they recognize that action
in one area will affect outcomes in others, and that
development must balance social, economic and
environmental sustainability.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s)
India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution: At a Glance
■ Conference of Parties (COP) of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) at 19th Session held in Warsaw in November 2013 invited all Parties to initiate
domestic preparations for their INDC towards achieving the objective of the Convention and to
communicate them, well in advance of the 21st session of the Conference of Parties.
■ The concept of ‘Nationally Determined Contributions’, taking into account the outcomes of
both Warsaw COP 19 and Lima COP 20 has to (i) reflect the principles of equity and Common
But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) and (ii) the Country’s contributions must be seen in
a balanced and comprehensive context.
■ India declared a voluntary goal of reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20–25%, over
2005 levels by 2020, despite having no binding mitigation obligations as per the Convention.
■ It is a matter of satisfaction that United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in its
Emission Gap Report 2014 has recognized India as one of the countries on course to
achieving its voluntary goal.
■ India has submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
■ Some of the salient points of the INDC are:
• To put forward and further propagate a healthy and sustainable way of living based on traditions and
values of conservation and moderation.
• To adopt a climate-friendly and a cleaner path than the one followed hitherto by others at
corresponding level of economic development.
• To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 from 2005 level.
• To achieve about 40 per cent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel based
energy resources by 2030, with the help of transfer of technology and low cost international finance,
including from Green Climate Fund.
• To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional
forest and tree cover by 2030.
• To better adapt to climate change by enhancing investments in development programmes in sectors
vulnerable to climate change, particularly agriculture, water resources, Himalayan region, coastal
regions, health and disaster management.
• To build capacities, create domestic framework and international architecture for quick diffusion of
cutting edge climate technology in India and for joint collaborative R&D for such future technologies.
 INDIA’S NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE
■ The National Action Plan hinges on the development and use of new technologies.
■ National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) is a Government of
India's programme launched in 2008 to mitigate and adapt to the adverse impact
of climate change.
■ The action plan was launched in 2008 with 8 sub-missions and currently had 9
submissions (9th=National Bio Energy Mission)
■ The implementation of the Plan would be through appropriate institutional
mechanisms suited for effective delivery of each individual Mission’s objectives
and include public private partnerships and civil society action.
■ The focus will be on promoting understanding of climate change, adaptation and
mitigation, energy efficiency and natural resource conservation.
■ There are Eight National Missions which form the core of the National Action Plan,
representing multipronged, longterm and integrated strategies for achieving key
goals in the context of climate change
 NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
The National Solar Mission is a major initiative of the
Government of India and State Governments to promote
ecologically sustainable growth while addressing India’s energy
security challenge.
■ Objective
• To establish India as a global leader in solar energy, by
creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the country
as quickly as possible.
• The Mission will adopt a 3-phase approach,
• spanning the remaining period of the 11th Plan and first year
of the 12th Plan (up to 2012-13) as Phase 1,
• the remaining 4 years of the 12th Plan (2013-17) as Phase 2
and
• the 13th Plan (2017-22) as Phase 3.
• At the end of each plan, and mid-term during the 12th and
13th Plans, there will be an evaluation of progress, review of
capacity and targets for subsequent phases, based on emerging
cost and technology trends, both domestic and global.
THE NATIONAL MISSION FOR ENHANCED ENERGY EFFICIENCY
(NMEEE)
■ Objective
• Promoting innovative policy and regulatory regimes, financing
mechanisms, and business models which not only create, but also sustain
markets for energy efficiency in a transparent manner with clear
deliverables to be achieved in a time bound manner.
■ Mission Goals
• Market-based approaches to unlock energy efficiency opportunities,
estimated to be about Rs. 74,000 Crores by 2014-15:
• Annual fuel savings in excess of 23 million tons
• CO2 emission mitigation of 98 million tons per year
NATIONAL MISSION ON SUSTAINABLE HABITAT
■ “National Mission on Sustainable Habitat” seeks to promote sustainability of habitats through
improvements in energy efficiency in buildings, urban planning, improved management of solid
and liquid waste, shift towards public transport and conservation through appropriate changes in
legal and regulatory framework.
• It also seeks to improve ability of habitats to adapt to climate change by improving resilience of
infrastructure, community based disaster management and measures for improving advance
warning systems for extreme weather events.
• It will broadly cover the following aspects:
• Extension of the energy conservation building code - which addresses the design of new and large
commercial buildings to optimize their energy demand;
• Better urban planning and modal shift to public transport - make long term transport plans to
facilitate the growth of medium and small cities in such a way that ensures efficient and convenient
public transport;
• Recycling of material and urban waste management - a special area of focus will be development
of technology for producing power form waste.
• The National Mission will include a major R&D programme, focusing on bio-chemical conversion,
waste water use, sewage utilization and recycling options.
NATIONAL WATER MISSION (NWM)
■ MISSION OBJECTIVES
• Ensuring integrated water resource management for conservation of water, minimization of wastage and
equitable distribution both across and within states.
• Developing a framework for optimum water use through increase in water use efficiency by 20% through
regulatory mechanisms with differential entitlements and pricing, taking the National Water Policy (NWP)
into consideration.
• Ensuring that a considerable share of water needs of urban areas is met through recycling of waste water.
• Meeting water requirements of coastal cities (with inadequate alternative sources of water) through the
adoption of new and appropriate technologies such as low-temperature desalination technologies allowing
use of ocean water.
• Revisiting NWP to ensure basin-level management strategies to deal with variability in rainfall and river
flows due to climate change, including enhancement of storage both above and below ground,
implementation of rainwater harvesting and establishment of equitable and efficient management
structures.
• Developing new regulatory structures to optimize efficiency of existing irrigation systems, to rehabilitate
run-down systems.
• Promotion of water-neutral and water-positive technologies through the design of a proper incentive
structure combined with recharging of underground water sources and adoption of large-scale irrigation
programme based on efficient methods of irrigation.
NATIONAL MISSION FOR SUSTAINING THE HIMALAYAN ECOSYSTEM (NMSHE)
• The most crucial and primary objective of the mission is to develop a sustainable National capacity to
continuously assess the health status of the Himalayan Ecosystem and enable policy bodies in their
policy-formulation functions and assist States in the Indian Himalayan Region with their
implementation of actions selected for sustainable development.
■ Mission Objectives
• Building Human and Institutional capacities on climate change related aspects
• Network knowledge institutions and develop a coherent database on all knowledge systems
• Detect natural and anthropogenic global environmental changes and project future trends on
potential impacts
• Assess the socio-economic and ecological consequences of global environmental change and design
appropriate strategies for growth in the economy of the region
• Study traditional knowledge systems for community participation in adaptation, mitigation and
coping mechanisms
• Evaluate policy alternatives for regional development plans
• Create awareness amongst stakeholders in the region
• Develop regional cooperation to generate a strong knowledge and database for policy intervention
NATIONAL MISSION FOR A GREEN INDIA
■ Mission Objectives
• Increased forest/tree cover on 5 million hectares (ha) of land and improved quality of forest cover
on another 5 million ha of land (a total of 10 million ha)
• Improved ecosystem services including biodiversity, hydrological services, and carbon sequestration
from the 10 million ha of forest/non-forest lands mentioned above
• Increased forest-based livelihood income of about 3 million households, living in and around the
forests
• Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to 60 million tones in the year 2020
■ Sub Missions
• Sub-mission 1: Enhancing quality of forest cover and improving ecosystem services (4.9 million ha)
• Sub-mission 2: Ecosystem restoration and increase in forest cover (1.8 million ha)
• Sub-mission 3: Enhancing tree cover in urban and periurban areas (including institutional lands):
0.20 million ha
• Sub-mission 4: Agro-forestry and social forestry (increasing biomass and creating carbon sink): 3
million ha
• Sub-mission 5: Restoration of wetlands: 0.10 million ha
NATIONAL MISSION FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (NMSA)
• To enhance agricultural productivity through customised interventions such as use of biotechnology to
develop improved varieties of crops and livestock, promoting efficient irrigation systems, demonstration of
appropriate technology, capacity building and skill development
• To facilitate access to information and institutional support by expanding Automatic Weather Station
networks to the panchayat level and linking them to existing insurance mechanisms including the Weather
Based Crop Insurance Scheme and the National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (NAIS), scaling the returns
at that level
• To promote “laboratory to land” research by creating model villages and model farm units in rainfed and
dryland areas
• To strategise long-term interventions for emission reduction from energy and non-energy uses by way of
introduction of suitable crop varieties and farm practices, livestock and manure management
• To realise the enormous potential of growth in dryland agriculture, through the development of drought
and pest resistant crop varieties, adopting resource-conserving technologies, providing institutional support
to farmers and capacity building of stakeholders.
• The NMSA has identified 10 key dimensions for adaptation and mitigation:
Improved Crop Seeds, Livestock and Fish Culture , Water Efficiency , Pest Management , Improved Farm
Practices , Nutrient Management , Agricultural Insurance , Credit Support , Markets , Access to Information ,
Livelihood Diversification
The National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
(NMSKCC)
• Formation of knowledge networks among the existing knowledge institutions engaged in research and development
relating to climate science and facilitating data sharing and exchange through a suitable policy framework and institutional
support.
Establishment of global technology watch groups with institutional capacities to carry out research on risk minimised
technology selection for developmental choices
• Development of national capacity for modeling the regional impact of climate change on different ecological zones
within the country for different seasons and living standards
• Establishing research networks and encouraging research in the areas of climate change impacts on important socio-
economic sectors like agriculture, health, natural ecosystems, biodiversity, coastal zones, etc.
• Providing an improved understanding and awareness of key climate processes and the resultant climate risks and
associated consequences
• To complement the efforts undertaken by other national missions, strengthen indigenous capacity for the development
of appropriate technologies for responding to climate change through adaptation and mitigation and promote their
utilisation by the government and societies for the sustainable growth of economies
• Creating institutional capacity for research infrastructure including access to relevant data sets, computing and
communication facilities, and awareness to improve the quality and sector specific scenarios of climate change over the
Indian subcontinent
• Ensuring the flow and generation of human resources through a variety of measures including incentives to attract
young scientists to climate science
• Building alliances and partnerships through global collaboration in research & technology development on climate
change under international and bilateral science and technology (S&T) cooperation arrangements
National Bio-Energy Mission

■ The aim of the mission is to push sustainable development of the

renewable energy sector.
■ The national mission will aim at improving energy efficiency in
traditional biomass consuming industries, seek to develop a bio-
energy city project and provide logistics support to biomass
processing units.
■ It will also propose a GIS-based National Biomass Resource Atlas
to map potential biomass regions in the country.
■ According to estimates, biomass from agro and agro-industrial
residue can potentially generate 25,000 MW of power in India.
Environment legislation in India
WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972
■ The act, a landmark in the history of wildlife legislation in our country, came into
existence in 1972. Wildlife was transferred from State list to concurrent list in 1976,
thus giving power to the Central Govt. to enact the legislation. The Indian Board of
Wildlife (IBWL) was created in 1952 in our country, which after the enactment of the
Wildlife (Protection) Act actively took up the task of setting up wildlife National Parks
and sanctuaries. The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up
as follows
(i) It defines the wild-life related terminology.
(ii) It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden, their
powers, duties etc.
(iii) Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wild life species was done for
the first time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned.
(iv) Protection to some endangered plants like Beddome cycad, Blue Vanda, Ladies
Slipper Orchid, Pitcher plant etc. is also provided under the Act.
(v) The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.
(vi) The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
(vii) There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license
for sale, possession, transfer etc.
(viii) The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
(ix) It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.
(x) It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species
■ Several Conservation Projects for individual endangered species like lion (1972)
Tiger (1973), Crocodile (1974) and Brown antlered Deer (1981) were started
under this Act.
■ The Act is adopted by all states in India except J & K, which has it own Act.
■ Some of the major drawbacks of the Act include mild penalty to offenders,
illegal wild life trade in J & K, personal ownership certificate for animal articles
like tiger and leopard skins, no coverage of foreign endangered wildlife, pitiable
condition of wildlife in mobile zoos and little emphasis on protection of plant
genetic resources
FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980
■ This act deals with the conservation of forests and related aspects. Except J & K, the act is adopted
all over India. The Act covers under it all types of forests including reserved forests, protected forests
or any forested land irrespective of its ownership.
■ The salient features of the Act are as follows:
(i) The State Govt. has been empowered under this Act to use the forests only for forestry purposes. If
at all it wants to use it in any other way, it has to take prior approval of central Government, after
which it can pass orders for declaring some part of reserve forest for non-forest purposes (e.g
mining) or for clearing some naturally growing trees and replacing them by economically important
trees (reforestation).
(ii) It makes provision for conservation of all types of forests and for this purpose there is an Advisory
committee which recommends funding for it to the Central Government.
(iii) Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under this Act. Non-
forest activities include clearing of forest land for cultivation of any type of plants/crops or any
other purpose (except re-afforestation). However, some construction work in the forest for wildlife
or forest management is exempted from non-forest activity (e.g. fencing, making water-holes,
trench, pipelines, check posts, wireless communication etc.)
1992 Amendment in the Forest Act
■ In 1992, some amendment was made in the Act which made provisions for allowing some non-forest activities in
forests, without cutting trees or limited cutting with prior approval of Central Govt. These activities are setting of
transmission lines, seismic surveys, exploration, drilling and hydroelectric projects. The last activity involves large
scale destruction of forest, for which prior approval of the Centre is necessary.
■ Wildlife sanctuaries, National Parks etc. are totally prohibited for any exploration or survey under this Act without
prior approval of Central Govt. even if no tree-felling is involved.
■ Cultivation of tea, coffee, spices, rubber and plants which are cash-crops, are included under non-forestry activity
and not allowed in reserve forests.
■ Even cultivation of fruit-bearing trees, oil-yielding plants or plants of medicinal value in forest area need to be first
approved by the Central Govt. This is because newly introduced species in the forest area may cause an imbalance in
the ecology of the forest. If the species to be planted is a native species, then no prior clearance is required.
■ Tusser cultivation (a type of silk-yielding insect) in forest areas by tribals as a means of their livelihood is treated as a
forestry activity as long as it does not involve some specific host treelike Asan or Arjun. This is done in order to
discourage monoculture practices in the forests which are otherwise rich in biodiversity.
■ Plantation of mulberry for rearing silkworm is considered a non-forest activity. The reason is same as described
above.
■ Mining is a non-forestry activity and prior approval of Central Govt. is mandatory. The Supreme Court in a case T.N.
Godavarman Thirumulkpad Vs. Union of India (1997) directed all on-going mining activity to be ceased immediately
in any forest area of India if it had not got prior approval of Central government.
■ Removal of stones, bajri, boulder etc from river-beds located within the forest area fall under non-forest activity.
■ Any proposal sent to central govt. for non-forest activity must have a cost-benefit analysis and Environmental Impact
statement (EIS) of the proposed activity with reference to its ecological and socio-economic impacts. Thus, the
Forests (Conservation) Act has made ample provisions for conservation and protection of forests and prevent
deforestation
WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974
■ It provides for maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by preventing and controlling
its pollution.
■ Pollution is defined as such contamination of water, or such alteration of the physical, chemical or
biological properties of water, or such discharge as is likely to cause a nuisance or render the water
harmful or injurious to public health and safety or harmful for any other use or to aquatic plants and
other organisms or animal life.
■ The definition of water pollution has thus encompassed the entire probable agents in water that may
cause any harm or have a potential to harm any kind of life in any way.
■ The salient features and provisions of the Act are summed up as follows:
(i) It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface and ground water.
(ii) It provides for the establishment of Central and State Boards for pollution control.
(iii) It confers them with powers and functions to control pollution. The Central and State Pollution
Control Boards are widely represented and are given comprehensive powers to advise, coordinate
and provide technical assistance for prevention and control of pollution of water.
(iv) The Act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit of the Central and State Pollution
Control Boards.
(v) The Act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters.
THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
■ Salient features of the act are as follows:
(i) The Act provides for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
(ii) In the Act, air pollution has been defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or
gaseous substance (including noise) in the atmosphere in such concentration as
may be or tend to be harmful to human beings or any other living creatures or
plants or property or environment.
(iii) Noise pollution has been inserted as pollution in the Act in 1987.
(iv) Pollution control boards at the central or state level have the regulatory authority
to implement the Air Act. Just parallel to the functions related to Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, the boards performs similar functions
related to improvement of air quality. The boards have to check whether or not
the industry strictly follows the norms or standards laid down by the Board under
section 17, regarding the discharge of emission of any air pollutant. Based upon
analysis report consent is granted or refused to the industry
(i) Just like the Water Act, the Air Act has provisions for defining the constitution, powers and
function of Pollution Control Boards, funds, accounts, audit, penalties and procedures.
(ii) Section 20 of the Act has provision for ensuring emission standards from automobiles. Based
upon it, the state govt. is empowered to issue instructions to the authority incharge of
registration of motor vehicles (under Motor Vehicles Act, 1939) that is bound to comply with
such instructions.
(iii) As per Section 19, in consultation with the State Pollution Control Board, the state government
may declare an area within the state as air pollution control area and can prohibit the use of
any fuel other than approved fuel in the area causing air pollution. No person shall, without
prior consent of State Board operate or establish any industrial unit in the air pollution control
area. The Water and Air Acts have also made special provisions for appeals.
Under Section 28 of Water Act and Section 31 of Air Act, a provision for appeals has been made.
An Appellate Authority consisting of a single person or three persons appointed by the Head of the
State, Governor is constituted to hear such appeals as filed by some aggrieved party (industry) due
to some order made by the State Board within 30 days of passing the orders.
THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986
■ The Act came into force on Nov. 19, 1986, the birth anniversary of our Late Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi, who was a pioneer of environmental protection issues in our
country. The Act extends to whole of India.
■ Some terms related to environment have been described as follows in the Act:
(i) Environment includes water, air and land and the inter-relationships that exists
among and between them and human beings, all other living organisms and
property.
(ii) Environmental pollution means the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance present in such concentration, as may be, or tend to be, injurious to
environment.
(iii) Hazardous Substance means any substance or preparation which by its physico-
chemical properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human beings, other
living organisms, property or environment. The Act has given powers to the Central
Government to take measures to protect and improve environment while the state
governments coordinate the actions.
The most important functions of Central Govt. under this Act include setting up of:
(a) The standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes.
(b) The maximum permissible limits of concentration of various environmental
pollutants (including noise) for different areas.
(c) The procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances.
(d) The prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in
different areas.
(e) The prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and to carry on
process and operations in different areas.
(f) The procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may
cause environmental pollution and providing for remedial measures for such
accidents.
The power of entry and inspection, power to take sample etc. under this Act lies
with the Central Government or any officer empowered by it.
THANK YOU !!!!