CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS ON

INTRODUCTION TO
AQUACULTURE
Adrian C. Dela Cruz, RFP
College of Fisheries
Central Luzon State University
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
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Aquaculture Environment
• Freshwater – a water body originating
from lakes, reservoirs, streams and rivers
having a salinity from 0 to 0.5 parts per
thousand.
• Brackishwater – a mixture of seawater
and freshwater with salinity less than 30
parts per thousand.
• Marine water – salinity typically averages
around 35 ppt, meaning that in every liter
of seawater, there are about 35 grams of
dissolved salts.
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Aquaculture in the Philippines

• Most of the total fish produced by the country in 2015 is from the aquaculture
sector, which accounted for 2.35 million t or 51 percent of the total, valued at
US$1.85 billion (DA-BFAR 2015).
• Oysters, mussels and seaweeds account for 1.60 million t (68 percent) of
aquaculture production.
• Philippine mariculture is primarily seaweed farming; seaweeds account for 1.57
million out of 1.60 million t (98 percent).
• By sheer quantity, seaweeds are the top aquaculture product of the country,
making up 67 percent of all aquaculture fisheries production in 2015.

Reference: Cruz, Ronald Allan L., Kumar, Vikas, Ragaza, Janice A.. (2019). Some Current Trends and Challenges in
Philippine Aquaculture, with an Emphasis on Synergies with Biodiversity Initiatives (pp. 35-42). World Aquaculture.
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Aquaculture in the Philippines

• The Philippines was third after China and Indonesia in production of aquatic
plants, including seaweeds.

Reference: Cruz, Ronald Allan L., Kumar, Vikas, Ragaza, Janice A.. (2019). Some Current Trends and Challenges in
Philippine Aquaculture, with an Emphasis on Synergies with Biodiversity Initiatives (pp. 35-42). World Aquaculture.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Aquaculture in the Philippines

• Among the three environments for aquaculture (freshwater, brackishwater,
marine), the greatest production is in brackish water, which contributes 325,633
t or 14 percent of the total. Of this production, 99 percent is from ponds.
• Fresh water is the second most common environment for Philippine
aquaculture, contributing 303,126 t of production (13 percent of total), most of it
also in ponds.
• Most marine aquaculture systems are fish cages. In 2014, the Philippines ranked
fifth in the world in terms of total aquaculture production of finfishes, molluscs,
crustaceans, other aquatic animals and aquatic plants (FAO 2016).

Reference: Cruz, Ronald Allan L., Kumar, Vikas, Ragaza, Janice A.. (2019). Some Current Trends and Challenges in
Philippine Aquaculture, with an Emphasis on Synergies with Biodiversity Initiatives (pp. 35-42). World Aquaculture.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Aquaculture in the Philippines

• Brackishwater fishpond systems are primarily used to grow milkfish Chanos
chanos; 227,815 out of the total 323,629 t (70 percent) produced in these
environments are milkfish (DA-BFAR 2015).
• Milkfish production also dominates brackishwater fish cages and fish pens.
• Milkfish also accounts for most of the production in marine fish pens at 104,924
out of 105,606 t or 99 percent.
• Tilapia production comprises 142,339 out of 147,569 t (96 percent) of freshwater
fishponds and tops all other freshwater systems.

Reference: Cruz, Ronald Allan L., Kumar, Vikas, Ragaza, Janice A.. (2019). Some Current Trends and Challenges in
Philippine Aquaculture, with an Emphasis on Synergies with Biodiversity Initiatives (pp. 35-42). World Aquaculture.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Seaweeds (Caulerpa)
• Seaweeds belonging to the genus Caulerpa
(Class Chlorophyceae) are all eaten fresh
in many parts of the Philippines as a tangy
salad that goes well with seafood.
• Perhaps it is not surprising that of all the
marine algae, Caulerpa, specifically C.
lentillifera, is the first species to have been
commercially cultivated.
• According to Trono (1988), the culture of
“lato”, as the species is known in the
Visayan islands in Central Philippines,
started in the island of Mactan, province of
Cebu, in the early 1950s.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Seaweeds (Caulerpa)
• Its culture was attributed to its accidental introduction with some other
seaweed species (most likely Enteromorpha, another green algae) in fishpond
as fish food.
• Existing milkfish ponds can be used for Caulerpa farming.
• Cuttings are used as planting material.
• These are planted one meter apart.
• After planting the only activities involve water management and weeding.
• After the cuttings shall have taken roots, frequent water exchange is necessary
to maintain a fresh supply of nutrients.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Seaweeds (Caulerpa)
• Fertilization is not even necessary until at an advanced stage when the algae are
almost harvestable, and the natural nutrients may no longer be able to support
the algal biomass.
• The farmers can tell when the color of the algae appear light green or yellowish
instead of its normal healthy green color.
• The “teabag” method of fertilizer application which involves suspending sacks
of fertilizers over strategic points of the ponds with the sack only partially
submerged, has been found to be sufficient.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Seaweeds (Caulerpa)
• In the Philippines, there are two common sea grape species, C. lentillifera and
C. racemosa, locally known in the southern regions of the archipelago as “lato”
and in the northern regions as “ar-arusip” (Delan et al. 2013; Dumilag 2019;
Estrada et al. 2020).
• Earlier records show that wild harvesting started in Siquijor in 1984.
• Supplemental video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NcSeGMpVFmM
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Seaweeds (Eucheuma)
• The farming of Eucheuma in the Philippines was developed deliberately as a
response to a strong world market demand in the 1960s.
• Eucheuma is also one of the marine algae
used as human food, but the local demand
is never that high.
• It is as a source of the phytocolloid,
carrageenan, that made Eucheuma have
the huge global market.
• Carageenan has multiple uses in the food,
pharmaceutical and other industries.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Seaweeds (Eucheuma)
• Farming in earnest started only in 1973.
• This reportedly came after the discovery of mutant cultivar by a certain Mr.
Tambalang which could double itself in volume every 20 days of culture and the
strain became known as the “tambalang” variety.
• The tambalang was later recognized as a totally different species (and genus)
and renamed Kappaphycus alvarezii in honor of Mr. Vicente Alvarez, a biologist
of the BFAR Research Division who was responsible for BFAR’s early effort in
farming and assisting the first group of farmers in Sulu.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Seaweeds (Gracilaria)
• Like Caulerpa and Eucheuma the red algae Gracilaria is also eaten in the
Philippines.
• However, its biggest use is as a source of
agar.
• The farming of Gracilaria is said to have
started in Taiwan in 1962 (Trono 1988).
• However, even earlier than that, some
milkfish farmers around Manila Bay used
to deliberately cultivate this seaweed in
their ponds to serve as natural food for
milkfish.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Seaweeds (Gracilaria)
• According to Trono (1988), Gracilaria can be cultivated in brackishwater ponds
(salinity range: 20 to 28 ppt) using basically the same technique as that
described for Caulerpa.
• It has also been found out that Gracilaria also grows well inside net cages set
either in ponds or in open waters, (Guanzon and de Castro, 1992; de Castro and
Guanzon, 1993).
• There does not seem to be a “recommended” or preferred species for culture.
• However, Hurtado-Ponce and Pondevida (1997) found Gracilariopsis balinae a
good species for cultivation because it produces strong, firm and rigid agar gels.
• Trial farming also shows a potentially high yield using the fixed bottom long line
method similar to what is used for Eucheuma or Kappaphycus.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Seaweeds
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SyC3v_8P8ZY&t=444s
✓https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YVJdxMpZojw
✓https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XsJ2WFKJhpA
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Milkfish (Chanos chanos)
• It is generally accepted that the earliest fishponds were brackish water fishponds
and the earliest species to be grown was bangus or milkfish, Chanos chanos
Förskal, using naturally occurring fry that came in with tidal waters.
• In the early 70s, milkfish farming operation
expanded to include culture in bamboo and
net pens set in Laguna de Bay - the
country’s largest freshwater lake
(Delmendo and Gedney, 1974).
• Then in the early 1990s, milkfish culture in
fishpens spread as well to shallow marine
bays and estuaries particularly in the
Lingayen Gulf area.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Milkfish (Chanos chanos)
• In 1996, the first Norwegian cages, used for salmon, were tried in Sual Bay,
Pangasinan along the western coast of Luzon.
• The results exceeded expectations.
• The introduction of the marine cages has greatly expanded the range of culture
systems under which milkfish is now being produced: brackishwater ponds, fish
pens in freshwater lakes, fishpens in shallow bays, lake-based cages whether
fixed or floating, and sea-based cages.
• No other aquaculture species probably has a wider range of environment and
culture systems under which it is being produced.
• The culture of milkfish in cages depended upon and was hastened by the
development and marketing of commercial feed by the feed millers (Yap, 1999).
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Milkfish (Chanos chanos)
• Major Production Areas
• Based on PSA data in 2020, Region 1 has the most abundant harvest of
125,913.09 MT milkfish, majority from marine fish cages and brackishwater
fishponds which is about 30% out of the total 416,317.35 MT national milkfish
production.
• This was followed by Region 6 with 98,326.85 MT wherein brackishwater ponds
was their major source. It contributed about 24% of total production.
• Production from brackishwater fishponds and marine cages made Region 3 the
third leading milkfish producer with 78,015.63 MT or 19% contribution to the
milkfish production.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Milkfish (Chanos chanos)
• Major Production Areas
• The country’s top five milkfish producing provinces are Pangasinan, Capiz,
Zambales, Pampanga, and Quezon.
• While Pangasinan had the biggest share of the production at 28.8%, Capiz,
comes next contributing about 10.19% and then Zambales accounting for about
7.31%.
• Ranked fourth is the province of Pampanga with 6.40 % followed by Quezon with
5.86% contribution to total milkfish production in 2020.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Milkfish (Chanos chanos)
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/ZckvmW9ERFg?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/1HlNj7CWCSY?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/4Ht-qOXy8es?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/Zo9NIDseB5E?feature=shared
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia (mainly Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus)
• In 1950 the late Dr. Deogracias Villadolid, Director of the then Bureau of Fisheries,
brought in the first tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) from Thailand (Villaluz,
1953).
• Breeds so easily that anyone can be a fish farmer
without having to worry about fry supply every
time as is necessary with milkfish
• They proliferated inside the ponds and once
over-crowded became stunted.
• It losed its appeal very fast and when they did,
the stock that were let loose became a pest.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia (mainly Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus)
• In brackishwater ponds where they were also capable of breeding, the tilapia is
considered both a competitor for food and as a predator of newly stocked milkfish
or shrimps.
• It is generally held that it was only with the introduction of the faster growing Nile
tilapia (O. niloticus) in the early 1970s that freshwater aquaculture progressed
beyond the sporadic backyard scale or seasonal operations in the past (Aypa,
1992).
• Later, the introduction of monosex culture as a means of greatly minimizing if not
totally eliminating uncontrolled reproduction further made tilapia farming a
profitable venture.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia (mainly Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus)
• It is however believed that the real expansion in tilapia production can come only
with the development of saline-tolerant tilapia because the fishpond industry in the
Philippines is virtually synonymous with brackishwater culture.
• Molobicus is a coined word to
describe a complex tilapia hybrid
developed from a programmed
crossbreeding between Oreochromis
niloticus and O. mossambicus, hence
its name. Molobicus combined two
desired production traits of two
parental species, fast growth of O.
niloticus and high salinity tolerance of
O. mossambicus.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia (mainly Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus)
• Major Production Areas
• In 2020, 85.96% or 261,608.38 MT of 304,326.59 MT of tilapia were accounted from
five (5) key regions.
• These are Region III (45.71%), Region IV-A (23.84%), Bangsamoro Autonomous
Region of Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) (6.37%), Region I (5.84%) and Region II
(4.17%) while the 14.06% were produced from remaining regions.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial
Strains
• Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
• The Nile tilapia is the most popular,
globally farmed tilapia species.
• It has vertical black bands on the
body and caudal or tail fin.
• The dorsal fin (or the fin on the top
part of the fish) has a black outline
and the caudal fin has a red margin.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
• Nile tilapia is most preferred because it grows fast, is hardy, and well adapted
for farming in warm tropical countries like the Philippines.
• Nile tilapia comprises about 70-80% of the world’s tilapia production.
• In the late 1990s, there were several genetically improved strains or stocks of
Nile tilapia that were developed in the Philippines, for example, the Genetically
Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) strain, Genetically Male Tilapia (GMT), Genomar
Supreme Tilapia (GST) among others.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and
Commercial Strains
• Genetic Strains of Nile
tilapia
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)
• The Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia is generally black in color.
• The underside of the head is white, and dorsal and caudal fins have red margins.
• The O. mossambicus can thrive in
freshwater, brackishwater and/or seawater
and it is the most common tilapia found in
coastal waters upstream of the surf zone.
• This tilapia breeds in short and successive
cycles.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Mozambique or ‘Java’ tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)
• It is a commercial food fish, and the small-sized Mozambique tilapias are also used
as forage fish for carnivorous marine fishes like groupers, snappers, and sea bass.
• This fish accounts for about 10% of world tilapia production.
• Oreochromis mossambicus is commonly mated with other tilapia species to
produce all-male fingerlings.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Red tilapias (Oreochromis spp. hybrids)
• The red tilapias are hybrids produced from crosses between Oreochromis
mossambicus and O. niloticus (Taiwanese red tilapia) or O. mossambicus
hornorum and O. niloticus (Philippine red tilapia).
• Red tilapias have no stripes on the caudal
fin.
• Red tilapia fingerlings are produced and
sold to fishfarmers by BFAR,
SEAFDEC/AQD and a few private
hatcheries.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Red tilapias (Oreochromis spp. hybrids)
• Red tilapias grow as fast as the Nile tilapia and can grow even better in brackish
water ponds and sea cages.
• They have become a popular choice for farming especially in some Latin American
countries.
• In most parts of Southeast Asia, red tilapia enjoys a good market in fresh, chilled,
or live form.
• Red tilapia is marketed as a premium fish in supermarkets and upscale Chinese
restaurants (for freshly cooked seafood-based meals), where the red tilapias are
given other fancy names as ‘King fish’ or ‘Pearl fish’.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Red tilapias (Oreochromis spp. hybrids)
• Red tilapias have good prospects in the export market.
• In Japan and the USA, the red tilapia is sold as fillets or in some other processed
forms.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus)
• The blue tilapia looks similar to the Nile tilapia with black blotches on the body and
the caudal fin. An obvious distinguishing characteristic of the blue tilapia is its
yellow underside and yellow margins on the caudal and pectoral fins.
• The blue tilapia grows fast and thrives in
colder waters, such as those found in
mountain lakes and reservoirs.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus)
• At present, the blue tilapia is maintained for experiments undertaken at research
and academic institutions such as the Freshwater Aquaculture Center of the
Central Luzon State University, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, and
some private companies.
• One such study is on the improvement of cold tolerance in the Nile tilapia through
hybridization with the blue tilapia.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Black chinned or Blackchin tilapia (Sarotherodon melanotheron)
• The main difference between this and the other tilapia species mentioned earlier is
that the black-chin tilapia is a paternal mouthbrooder.
• Tilapias classified under the genus
Oreochromis (e.g. Nile tilapia, Mozambique
tilapia, red tilapia etc.) are known as maternal
mouthbrooders, meaning the female parent
incubates the fertilized tilapia eggs in their
mouth for these to hatch into swim-up fry.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia Species and Commercial Strains
• Black chinned or Blackchin tilapia (Sarotherodon melanotheron)
• The S. melanotheron found in the Philippines have black blotches on the lower
part of the head and this character has become the basis for farmers to call this
species as “tilapyang Gloria” or in some areas, the fish is called “molmol”.
• This fish is highly carnivorous and when found in aquaculture ponds where
milkfish, tilapia or shrimp are farmed, they tend to feed on smaller fish larvae, eggs
and insects.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Tilapia (mainly Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus)
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/QVVjCbQ8AoQ?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/YH6EIeJ549I?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/V4FMm7WzCH0?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/7x4jfx368ow?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/2ntp0bSYT-k?feature=shared
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Prawns (Penaeus monodon)
• The culture of penaeid shrimps in brackishwater ponds is probably as old as the
culture of milkfish since they always occur together especially when the fish
farmers were still merely dependent on the entry of wild fry.
• Normally it will be a mixed
harvest milkfish, the jumbo
tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon
(sugpo); the white shrimps P.
indicus and P. merguiensis and
perhaps the greasy-back
shrimp, Metapenaeus ensis.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Prawns (Penaeus monodon)
• But because only a relatively small quantity can be harvested with the milkfish, it
was always considered only a secondary species.
• It was only in 1951 when the culture of P. monodon as a primary species was first
advocated by Villadolid and Villaluz (1951).
• Even after that, P. monodon remained in its position as a secondary species to be
stocked with milkfish.
• The industry just could not develop fully with the meager supply of wild-caught fry.
• Its full commercialization has to wait for the development of hatchery technology.
• This was not to happen until the mid 1970s after the successful reproduction of P.
monodon in captivity (Villaluz et al, 1972).
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Prawns (Penaeus monodon)
• However, it was during the 1980s that the industry really took off.
• Fueled by a booming Japanese market, large business concerns, many with no prior
exposure to aquaculture, ventured into hatchery and grow-out operation.
• No other aquaculture species has so captured the interest of big business.
• The jumbo tiger became the Philippines top marine product export earning at its
peak in 1992 some USD 300 million.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Prawns (Penaeus monodon)
• With so many hatcheries being put up fry supply ceased to be a major constraint.
• For a short while, the problem shifted to the adequate supply of quality feed.
• But with many feed mills getting equipped to produce prawn feed often through tie-
ups with Taiwan-based companies, commercial feed became widely available.
• Some milkfish ponds were converted fully to shrimp farming.
• Others retained their fish production area or stocked shrimps together with the
milkfish, or rotated shrimps with milkfish depending on the prevailing salinity.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Prawns (Penaeus monodon)
• Many growers particularly in the province of Negros Occidental equipped
themselves for intensive monoculture.
• While many more, particularly in the Central Luzon provinces of Bulacan and
Pampanga, were content with low-density culture.
• In Negros Occidental, the rise of the prawn industry happened to occur when sugar,
the province’s major industry, collapsed when the Philippines lost its dominance in
the world sugar market.
• Without any second thoughts shrimp ponds were carved out of portions of the
sugar cane plantation, even if it involved the bringing in of saltwater.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Prawns (Penaeus monodon)
• Soon after, during the early 1990s, the ill effects of pushing production to the limits
using high stocking densities led to diseases, mainly luminous vibriosis.
• Initially the diseases could be managed with the use of antibiotics.
• However, with unmitigated use of wide spectrum antibiotics the disease bacteria
developed resistance and no amount of antibiotics would work anymore.
• One intensive farm after another collapsed particularly in the province of Negros
Occidental, the center of intensive shrimp farming.
• Elsewhere many of the shrimp farms remain largely extensive.
• It was these farms which prevented the shrimp culture industry in the Philippines
from total collapse as it did in Taiwan.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Prawns (Penaeus monodon)
• Major Production Areas
• In 2020, the top five producing provinces for P. monodon already contributed the
lion share of 89.48% to the total national production of the same species.
• Topping the list are:
▪ Pampanga (50.40%)
▪ Lanao del Norte (29.52%)
▪ Camarines Norte (4.15%)
▪ Pangasinan (2.72%)
▪ Misamis Occidental (2.66%)
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Prawns (Penaeus monodon)
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/uYk7msOCPPc?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/H09_Ipq2YVQ?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/nPwtT4_SO7c?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/sL0OPFCpMmU?feature=shared
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Shrimps (Litopenaeus vannamei)
• Litopenaeus (Penaeus) vannamei, “Pacific white shrimp”, “suahe”, is one of the
most popular shrimp species for culture.
• This species became well-known in
tropical countries for its desirable
characteristics, such as its short
culture period and fast growth, and it
has made inroads in the global market.
• Its production has grown tremendously
in past years because of its high
economic returns, although it has also
been ravaged by diseases.
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Shrimps (Litopenaeus vannamei)
• Major Production Areas
• For 2020, the top five L. vannamei producing provinces are:
• Sarangani (22.15%)
• Cebu (11.37%)
• Zambales (10.51%)
• Cagayan Province (9.81%)
• Bohol (8.10%)
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Shrimps (Litopenaeus vannamei)
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/YVAApeQcjq8?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/h6FTLFJjEXk?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/q9p66cC7Nm4?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/9heUsDNuOyA?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/CFn2zOr7hLw?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/-mAIolx1R4g?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/6tPxjm-rYYg?feature=shared
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Oysters)
• The farming of oyster (talaba) in the Philippines was said to have started as early as
1931 when an oyster farm was established in Hinigaran, Negros Occidental
employing the broadcast method of culture (Rosell, 1992).
• Then either in 1932 (Ronquillo, 1992) or
1935 (Rosell, 1992) the then Bureau of
Science introduced improved methods
in Binakayan, Cavite.
• Until now Binakayan is still a major
oyster producing center
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Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Oysters)
• For a long while, oyster farms were confined largely to the Manila Bay area with only
isolated and sporadic operations found in a few localities
• The broadcast method wherein empty oyster shells are merely scattered on the
bottom of a known oyster bed is still practiced particularly in certain areas, but
most farms now use off-bottom techniques.
• The cultch, or type of substrate used range from empty shells of oysters and other
bivalves to bamboo alone or in some cases used automotive rubber tires.
• The structure used could be as simple as bamboo stakes or could be a more
elaborate set up using racks from which the cultches that are strung together with
nylon monofilament fishing lines are suspended.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Oysters)
• Four species of oysters are cultured:
✓the slipper-shaped oyster Crassostrea iredalei (Magallana bilineata),
✓the subtrigonal oyster C. (Saccostrea) malabonensis,
✓and the curly or palm rooted oysters C. palmipes and Saccostrea cucullata.
• The species receiving particular attention in terms of culture are M. bilineata and
the moderately sized C. malabonensis.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Mussels)
• The farming of mussels started 20 years after the oyster, in 1955 when the Bureau of
Fisheries oyster farming station in Binakayan, Cavite established a 300 m2
demonstration mussel farm (Rosell, 1992).
• Prior to this the green mussels, Perna viridis
were regarded by the oyster farmers as pests.
• The fisheries personnel however realized the
potentials of the species as a primary crop in
itself and decided to put up the demonstration
farm.
• With a ready market in Manila, it did not take
long for the mussel industry to grow.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Mussels)
• It was only in the middle to late 1970s however that mussel farming spread outside
the Manila Bay area.
• This was mainly due to the green mussels’ limited occurrence.
• Prior to the 1970s they were never reported outside Metro Manila.
• The most widespread mussel species in the Philippines is the brown mussel,
Modiolus metcalfei.
• The brown mussel occurs as a dense mat on the bottom of shallow bays.
• Unlike the green mussel, it is not known to settle on artificial substrates, but instead
prefers to settle on the valves of the grown mussels (Yap, 1979).
• Because of such settlement habit, it has a low potential for aquaculture and in fact
has never been farmed.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Mussels)
• Probably due to increased communication between islands, the green mussel
eventually became established in other bays.
• They could have been unintentionally introduced through the bilge water of the
ships plying the islands.
• During recent years mussel and oyster farmers have been faced with the red tide
problem.
• Extremely rare before, red tide is now occurring with increasing regularity.
• It has also spread outside Manila Bay.
• It seems all the major mussel producing areas are now regularly having red tide
blooms. Due to several deaths in the past the government has a regular red tide
monitoring program.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Mussels)
• Three species of mussels in the Philippines that are used as food:
✓the green mussel Perna viridis,
✓the brown mussel Modiolus metcalfei,
✓and M. philippinarum
• Invasive species of mussel:
✓Charru mussel Mytella charruana (Mytella strigata)
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Oysters and Mussels)
• Major Production Areas
• 10-year production data showed that the top producing regions are Region VI
(21,388.62 MT), Region III (11,425.52 MT), Region IV-A (6,424.42 MT), Region VIII
(5,373.93 MT), and Region I (2,049.61 MT).
• Meanwhile, based on the 2020 PSA data of production alone, Region III (39,004.17
MT) ranked first and switched places with Region VI (21,538.45 MT).
• This was followed by Region VIII (4,089.98 MT), Region IV-A (5,752.11 MT), and
Region I (1,250.74 MT),
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Oysters and Mussels)
• In terms of culture practices, the methods remain traditional for most of the
production areas which still make use of broadcast and stake or tulos methods.
• Raft and longline methods are also present in the provinces as BFAR initiated the
dissemination and promotion of these culture methods through the provision of
livelihood technology packages in 2016.
• This is under the National Shellfish Industry Development Program wherein the
livelihood component has proposed raft units to be distributed as an additional
source of income for the fisherfolk especially in the coastal areas
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Molluscs (Oysters and Mussels)
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/lHf9_glcisM?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/8cmi9oqKkVA?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/pP55ufKYtO8?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• The mud crab or mangrove crab, Scylla spp, like the penaeid shrimp is also one of
the species that may be harvested together with milkfish in brackishwater ponds.
• However, its culture as a crop in itself is
fairly recent and probably dates back only
to the 1960s.
• This was when bamboo fencing were used
around a brackishwater pond to prevent
them from crawling out.
• Culture density is typically low (20,000
per ha or lower).
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• Feed used ranges from dead chickens from poultry houses to “trash fish” from
capture fisheries or from brackishwater ponds such as naturally occurring tilapia
which is considered a pond pest.
• There is no trash fish as such in the Philippines since almost all species, big or
small, are utilized as direct human food.
• Occasionally on a seasonal basis, the catch may be so much that the selling price
drops below a threshold level that makes the fish affordable as feed.
• Often times what passes for trash fish are those which are no longer suitable for
human consumption due to poor handling.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• The uncertainty of trash fish supply and their often high cost forces growers to be
creative in sourcing their animal protein for feeding a carnivorous species such as
crabs.
• With increasing demand both from both domestic and export market, more and
more brackishwater fishpond operators are engaging in crab cultivation.
• Some operations are no more than fattening of already grown but emaciated crabs,
or on-growing half-grown crabs.
• Some enterprising growers actually purchase the “rejects” (under-sized or under-
weight), which remain unsold from the public market for this purpose.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• One of the most recent method of growing crab that has emerged is mudcrab pen
culture in a mangrove area.
• This is considered a “mangrove-friendly” aquaculture system in that it does not
require the cutting of any mangrove trees or extensive excavation and dike
construction.
• Basically, a net pen is installed within the mangrove forest to serve as enclosure for
the crabs.
• Shallow trenches are dug inside the pen area to serve as refuge of the crabs during
low tide, (Baliao and de los Santos, 1998; Triño and Rodriguez, 1999).
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• The biggest constraint to its full expansion is the supply of crab juveniles or
seedstock locally called “crablets”.
• Work on crab larval rearing in the Philippines started as early as the mid 1970s but
past attempts were at most sporadic rather than sustained, and survival rates had
always been low and inconsistent.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• Three known species of mangrove crab in the Philippines are:
✓Scylla serrata
✓S. tranquebarica
✓S. olivacea.
❖S. paramamosain - usually found in countries like Indonesia and Vietnam.
• Differences in claw color:
❑S. serrata : blue-ish claws
❑S. tranquebarica : dark brown or purple (violet) claws
❑S. olivacea : red-coloured claws
❑S. paramamosain : green claws
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• Major Production Areas
• In 2020, PSA reported the Philippines’ total mangrove crab production at 20,766.25
MT.
• Northern Mindanao is the leading region with 7,759.36 MT, of which 6,812.38 MT
came from the province of Lanao del Norte.
• Other notable provinces, with over 4,000 MT mangrove crab production each are
Pampanga and Quezon.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• Soft-shell mud crab production
• Production of soft-shell crabs is done by
allowing the hard-shelled crabs held
individually in perforated plastic boxes or
communally in big cages in ponds or in
tanks to molt.
• In the communal rearing, the limbs of the
crabs are removed to prevent
cannibalism.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• Soft-shell mud crab production
• Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and recently the Philippines
are producing soft-shell crabs.
• The greatest number of soft-shell crab farms is in Ranong, Thailand, where
farmers can market the crabs daily at the numerous seafood processing plants
in the area.
• In soft shell crab farming, feeding is not done daily because it is laborious and
expensive.
• When crabs are fed daily, many boxes contain uneaten food which needs to be
removed to prevent organic load.
• Removal of excess food is laborious and time consuming.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Crabs
• Soft-shell mud crab production
• Majority of the crabs molt during the night and early morning.
• The peak of molting for 80-100 g crabs in the intermolt stage is normally within
the 3rd week after stocking.
• The newly molted crabs must be retrieved immediately after molting because
the shell starts to harden in less than 5 hours.
• Once the shell hardens, the crabs cannot be sold to the processor.
• The next molting will take longer since crabs have grown bigger.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Major Aquaculture Species

• Mud crabs
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/LpZRWoalG8g?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/AVsrO7iYjto?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/8Q-mCrszELE?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/6nabyH7PvXA?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/8XoTEh08KUM?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/vfCWHfcW4PY?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Catfish
• Catfish, Clarias spp. (hito, paltat, pantat, and ito locally) is one of the most
important freshwater food fishes in Southeast Asia. Catfish farming does not
require a large area, can thrive in poor water quality conditions, can be raised at
high stocking densities using formulated diet, is not susceptible to diseases and
less labor intensive.
• Catfish are usually cultured in earthen
ponds or pens, either in monoculture or
polyculture with other fishes, especially
tilapia.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Catfish
• Preparation of ponds include drying the pond bottom for 7-10 days until the soil
cracks, and application of hydrated lime and chicken manure at 1 ton per ha.
• Before stocking of the fish, 60% of the rearing water is changed, and increased to a
depth of 60 cm upon stocking of juvenile catfish.
• Uniform-sized and healthy fingerlings are selected for stocking.
• Swamp cabbage and water hyacinth are grown at 20-30% of the pond area to serve
as shelter for the fish.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Catfish
• In the Philippines, six species are documented but only three are found in the
market today:
• African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) - introduced
• Walking catfish (C. batrachus) - native
• Bighead catfish (C. macrocephalus) - native and near threatened
❖The others, C. nieuhofii, C. meladerma, and C. fuscus, have not been reported in
recent years.
❑Reference: Santos, Brian & Peter, Francis & Vesagas, C & Timothy, Marc & Tan, C & Jumawan,
Joycelyn & Quilang, Jonas. (2015). Status Assessment of Clarias Species in the Philippines: Insights
from DNA Barcodes. Science Diliman. 27:2, 21-40. 21-40.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Catfish
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Catfish
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/-wiIMitebas?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/0F59dBId-Ys?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/1X7xqV1Ae0M?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/sqHCPrGGLts?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Giant Freshwater Prawn (Ulang)
• Giant freshwater prawns live in freshwater environments, but berried females
migrate downstream to brackishwater where the eggs hatch into larvae.
• The ideal salinity of brackishwater for
larvae to survive is 12 ppt.
• These crustaceans are common in the
tropical and sub-tropical waters of the
Indo-Pacific region and are reported to
grow to a length of 25.5 cm.
• Based on breeding trials, they take at least
six months to mature.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Giant Freshwater Prawn (Ulang)
• Giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) is considered the world’s
largest freshwater prawn with a relatively large head.
• It has a pair of conspicuously elongated leg with claws and has bright blue to rich
yellow with brown striped colored shells.
• It could grow to over a foot long, reaching 13 inches and weighing over a pound.
• In the Philippines, this shrimp is abundant in the rivers, lakes and other tributaries
of the whole archipelago.
• In Ilocos, Cagayan and other parts of Northern Luzon it is called udang; in
Pangasinan it is called kising-kissing; paje in Palawan and Zamboanga, padao in
Cotabato, kalig (big) and urang (small) in Leyte, budsang in Bicol and ulang in most
parts of the country including Bulacan, Laguna, Zambales and Bicol.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Giant Freshwater Prawn (Ulang)
• Although not nearly as valuable as tiger shrimp, freshwater prawns currently do not
face the same risks of diseases as their distant crustacean cousin due to lower
density culture practices.
• Unlike tiger shrimp which require regular screening for diseases and facilities to
keep out viruses and bacteria, freshwater prawns in extensive culture are mostly
content with proper nutrition and good water quality.
• However, prawns are carriers of shrimp viral diseases as well, and thus farmers
should still be careful not to pass on viruses to nearby shrimp farms.
• The bottleneck in Philippine production is not in the number of prawn-growing
ponds and cages but in the production of postlarvae.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Giant Freshwater Prawn (Ulang)
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://www.youtube.com/live/D0FH9B8TCuo?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/dAInWYBUcy8?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/nAxvsYs_k0Y?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Australian Redclaw Crayfish
• ARC crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus) are known to be natural breeders; there is no
high maintenance needed to help these species during mating.
• The owner must provide hides, which can be made of
PVC pipes, mesh bundles, driftwood, and other
materials, since it will serve as the area for the ARC
crayfish to breed.
• Another thing to know about ARC crayfish is that they
are nocturnals.
• Awake in the evening while at rest during the daytime.
Too much exposure to the light can harm them, which
is why it is important for them to avoid overexposure.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Australian Redclaw Crayfish
• For those who are planning to start a business with ARC crayfish, they must be fully
aware of the most stressful and critical period of keeping them.
• ARC crayfish have shells, which limit their growth; they undergo a molting process
where they shed their own shells.
• This process makes them vulnerable to predation and cannibalism and prone to
dying since they cannot fight back for themselves.
• There is a cannibalism characteristic of ARC crayfish.
• It is the nature of this species to be a predator of other ARC crayfish, especially
those who are laying eggs and undergoing the molting process.
• And this results in a low survival and production rate for ARC crayfish.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Australian Redclaw Crayfish
• Supplemental videos:
• https://youtu.be/ZrBL_j9SM7Y?feature=shared
• https://youtu.be/gHDP3BgvKxQ?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Pangasius (Cream dory)
• Pangasius farming in the Philippines has emerged as a
promising venture for those seeking profitable
aquaculture opportunities.
• Pangasius farming, also known as catfish farming,
involves cultivating freshwater fish called Pangasius
hypophthalmus.
• These fish are widely farmed due to their rapid growth
and adaptability to various environments.
• In aquaculture, Pangasius are raised in controlled
ponds or tanks.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Pangasius (Cream dory)
• They are fed a balanced diet, typically pellets, to support their growth.
• Pangasius farming contributes significantly to the global seafood market,
particularly in regions like the Philippines.
• While Pangasius is considered a pest in Laguna Lake and Taal Lake, its potential
for profitability emerges when harnessed through aquaculture, serving as
valuable livestock feed due to its protein-rich composition.
• Originating from the Mekong River in Southeast Asia, it boasts various monikers
like Vietnamese River Cobbler, Swai, or Tra.
• Rising demand has propelled Pangasius farming's popularity, especially given its
firm, white flesh that graces dishes like fishcakes and curries.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Pangasius (Cream dory)
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/pY5c9b_MZPk?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/fV-yBfCKnbs?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Eel (igat or palos)
• Eel aquaculture is an important activity in Southeast Asian countries such as
Indonesia, Philippines, and Vietnam.
• In the Philippines, species of anguillid eels
cultured are mainly the Pacific shortfin eel
Anguilla bicolor pacifica and the giant
mottled eel A. marmorata.
• Anguilla bicolor pacifica is now being
considered as an alternative to A. japonica
(Muthmainnah et al., 2016), being the most
preferred eel species for consumption in East
Asian countries.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Eel (igat or palos)
• Eel farming is still dependent on wild glass eels collected from estuaries and tidal
rivers (Liao et al., 2002).
• Several fishing grounds in the Philippines are potential sources of glass eels for
nursery culture.
• Wild eel stocks, mostly A. marmorata, are sourced from the Cagayan River.
• This eel species also comprised the bulk of the wild glass eel catch from the Pangi
River (Valdez and Castillo, 2016).
• Lagonoy Gulf is also considered a potential glass eel fishing ground with a higher
abundance of A. bicolor pacifica than A. marmorata (Nieves and Nolial, 2019).
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Eel (igat or palos)
• In Southern Mindanao, glass eel collection areas for A. bicolor pacifica include Rio
Grande de Mindanao, Davao Gulf, and Sarangani Bay (E.C. Ame, personal
communication, 17 December 2021).
• The Philippine Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) disclosed that
eels are cultured in 23 provinces (E.C. Ame, personal communication, 17
December 2021).
• In these eel culture areas, farming techniques of the Philippine native eels are
adopted mainly from the culture of European and Japanese eel species, which are
commonly done in concrete tanks or ponds.
• A culture of glass eels or elvers in cages inside a concrete pond is not common,
although this culture practice has been documented in the southern Philippines
(Surtida, 2000).
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Eel (igat or palos)
• Supplemental video:
✓https://youtu.be/TVGY5ZWnq8A?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/J9PfdIc2zdg?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/nucF4ACSTf8?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Japanese weather loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus)
• This type of loach was introduced in the Philippines by the Japanese and used to
thrive in the rice terraces and shallow portions of rivers and creeks in the Cordillera
region.
• It was also a common sight during
market days.
• Interviews from farmers reveal that
“yu-yu” (also called Dojo) played a
significant role in supplying nutrition
for the people in the upland areas
being the major source of protein,
until the tremendous decline of catch
in recent years.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Japanese weather loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus)
• With the loach price ranging from Php 1,500.00 to 1,800.00 per kilogram (kg), the
cultivation of loach has also helped the fisherfolk generate income for their daily
essentials and as source of food during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Supplemental video:
✓https://youtu.be/KQzoo2pVRL4?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Carp
• Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) was introduced into the Philippines from Hong
Kong in 1915. Other species of carps were later introduced.
• Their culture in fish pens and cages started in the
second half of the 1980s.
• The Philippine government has long tried to promote
carp culture by establishing hatcheries in several
regions.
• But they never became popular due to relatively low
consumer acceptability.
• Many Filipinos do not find carp palatable, but
bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) has recently
become a dominant species in Laguna Lake fish
pens (Yap, 2002a).
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Carp
• Supplemental video:
✓https://youtu.be/73Jtq0GG6GA?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Gourami (Giant gourami Osphronemus gourami)
• In the Philippines, the gourami has been cultured in rice fields and freshwater
ponds, particularly in Central Luzon, usually with fingerlings from the wild and with
other fish.
• It is also caught by fisherfolk in rivers and
lakes where it has become established
throughout the country.
• Although the fish is well accepted by local
consumers, its production has not been
commercialized because of the lack of
fingerlings and culture technology.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Gourami (Giant gourami Osphronemus gourami)
• Supplemental video:
• https://youtu.be/ZIdnIRX1veQ?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Rabbitfish (Siganids)
• Rabbitfish or siganids belong to the Family Siganidae and are usually found in the
Indo-Pacific Region. They are locally known as “samaral,” “malaga,” “danggit,”
“kitong,” “mobead,” “ngisingisi” or “balabis.”
• This fish species is herbivorous and feed on
filamentous algae and seaweed.
• In captivity, siganids are omnivorous,
ingesting a ready variety of food.
• Siganids are generally active during the day
(diurnal), whereas Siganus guttatus are
active at night (nocturnal).
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Rabbitfish (Siganids)
• Siganids have a total of 28 species belonging to the genus of Siganus.
• One of the promising potential species for aquaculture is the Siganus guttatus
because of its faster growth rate, large size, hardiness, and tolerance to physical
factors.
• According to some research, this species can be reared in brackishwater ponds,
cages, and pens.
• Fish fed only filamentous algae had a slower growth rate and a longer culture
period, but fish fed a formulated diet performed better.
• Furthermore, siganids fed a combination of filamentous algae or Gracilaria
seaweed “gulaman” and commercial diet had comparable growth results to
formulated diet alone, thus lowering farm feed costs, as practiced by traditional
growers in Region 1 and 2, Philippines.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Rabbitfish (Siganids)
• Philippines and Indonesia are the top producers of siganid Siganus spp. both from
the wild-caught and cultured environment since 2000 (FAO 2018).
• In 2018, siganid aquaculture production in the Philippines was higher in mariculture
fish cages, mainly from Region XI, than in brackishwater ponds that were mostly
from Region I & II (PSA 2019).
• The two most commonly cultured are the Siganus guttatus (spotted variety) and
Siganus vermiculatus (striped variety).
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Rabbitfish (Siganids)
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/lf5y5FY7vmQ?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/Qd0l1F0K_dM?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/8DRUX6ACebg?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/8DRUX6ACebg?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Grouper
• Groupers (Epinephelus spp.), locally known as lapu-lapu or inid, are high-value
species with great potential in aquaculture.
• They are valued for their excellent texture and
flavor.
• The demand for grouper in the local and
international market is fast-growing particularly
in Hongkong, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and
Singapore.
• Fry is also potentially available any time of the
year since broodstock spawn all year round.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Grouper
• Live grouper sold in the market fetch a higher price compared to other fishes grown
in Southeast Asia.
• The demand is year-round, and the live fish trade is expanding.
• However, the local supply has been very limited due to overfishing, destruction of
habitats, and higher price offered in the international market.
• In the Philippines, the current local market price for live grouper is ₱350 per
kilogram or higher.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Grouper
• There are around 40 species of groupers distributed in tropical waters, but so far,
only two are popularly cultured commercially:
✓The orange-spotted grouper Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton 1822)
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Grouper
• There are around 40 species of groupers distributed in tropical waters, but so far,
only two are popularly cultured commercially:
✓The black-spotted grouper Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider 1891)
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Grouper
• Supplemental videos:
• https://youtu.be/zrBUeArc85U?feature=shared
• https://youtu.be/vZztBJDtU1g?feature=shared
• https://youtu.be/cLW6aNt9Pnc?feature=shared
• https://youtu.be/K1eCOQlrgfc?feature=shared
• https://youtu.be/E9S-37jt_X4?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Mangrove Red Snapper
• Mangrove red snapper, Lutjanus argentimaculatus, is an important marketable
species throughout the Indo-Pacific region, but it is never found in large quantities.
• It is an excellent food fish, and
a good aquaculture species
because it doesn't get rancid
easily when frozen.
• In the Philippines, it can be
found all over the country but
is more known in Negros and
Iloilo areas.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Mangrove Red Snapper
• Mangrove red snapper is a euryhaline species; it can tolerate freshwater,
brackishwater, and marine water.
• Juvenile and young adult are found in mangrove estuaries and in the lower reaches
of freshwater streams.
• An adult is often found in groups around coral reefs.
• Modular culture is the common system in snapper production.
• Stocking density is 4,000 fry per cropping.
• Fry from the wild or hatchery is cultured in nursery cages for three months.
• On the fourth month, fry are transferred to grow-out pens for four months.
• Thus, a culture period of seven months.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Mangrove Red Snapper
• Supplemental video:
✓https://youtu.be/GcP-s1UkKtU?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Asian sea bass
• Sea bass (Lates calcarifer, giant perch or apahap, also barramundi) is an
economically important food fish in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of Asia
and the Pacific.
• It is a highly carnivorous fish but can be
trained to feed on formulated diets.
• It can tolerate a wide range of salinity
from freshwater to full seawater.
• Improved growth has been generally
observed when fish is cultured at low
salinity (10-20 ppt).
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Asian sea bass
• Sea bass is easy to culture in cages or in brackishwater ponds.
• It is hardy, and the seedstock can be easily sourced from the hatchery.
• There is a need, however, to implement a nursery before the grow-out so that sea
bass can be easily sorted and size-graded to reduce competition for space and
food, thus controlling cannibalism.
• Survival in the 45 to 50-day nursery phase can be as high as 96%.
• Sea bass has a high market value, particularly sold in fine dining restaurants.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Asian sea bass
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/aF5V4J3KluA?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/rskJOOuOGq0?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/aaIXOTZRW7s?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Pompano
• Pompano is a good candidate for aquaculture because it can easily adapt to captive
conditions in ponds and cages.
• This species can also readily accept
formulated feed (pellet) and can be
grown at lower salinity (15–18 ppt).
• It is a pelagic fish that is easy to
domesticate in marine and
brackishwater environments.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Pompano
• A delectable fish that needs no seasoning, no need for scaling, has few bones, fits
perfectly on a pan, and whose mild and sweet flavor suits almost any recipe.
• It’s no wonder that the pompano is called by some to be the “world’s most edible
fish.”
• This silvery fish, with a pearly-white meat when cooked, is known as “apahan” or
“dawis lawin” in the Philippines.
• Its market price is between P300 and P500 per kilogram, depending on size, which
is usually between 250 to 500 grams.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Pompano
• However, despite its proven culinary and aquaculture value worldwide, pompano is
yet to take off in the Philippines.
• This is mainly because of the lack of pompano fingerlings to stock into cages and
ponds, and sea lice infections.
• SEAFDEC/AQD has been raising pompano in marine fish cages since 2008, feeding
them formulated feeds. A stocking density of 35 fish per cubic meter is used in the
sea cages which are 10 meters wide, 10 meters long, and 4 meters deep.
• In fish cage culture, fish can be stocked at higher densities, harvest is easier, and
predation is more easily controlled. The constantly flowing water also provides
abundant dissolved oxygen and flushes away waste products and unconsumed
feeds.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Pompano
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/qulNJAHM4a0?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/7waFReArxrA?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Lobsters
• Currently, lobsters are mainly captured in traps or hand-caught by divers.
• Unfortunately, due to their high value,
indiscriminate gathering occurred,
particularly among spiny lobsters
(Panulirus spp.), prompting the
Department of Agriculture in the
Philippines to establish collection and
trade restrictions in 2020.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Lobsters
• Expansion of the lobster industry is thus set on farming, or aquaculture, of the
commodity.
• However, the absence of viable hatcheries to produce lobster seed poses a major
roadblock to a lobster bonanza.
• At present, lobster farms still rely on fishers supplying them with wild-sourced
juveniles under the eye of regulators.
• Breeding and producing domesticated spiny lobsters have been actively pursued
for decades, but they grow slowly, and their larval development is complicated,
making the pursuit technically challenging.
• This is where the more affordable slipper lobster captures the hopes of sea farmers
and aquaculture researchers.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Lobsters
• The slipper lobster may not be as famous
as their cousins, the spiny lobsters, nor
the “true” clawed lobsters of the north
Atlantic.
• They are, however, a fraction of the price,
costing only PHP 500 to PHP 700 ($9.50
to $13.20) per kilogram in the Philippines
compared to PHP 1,500 to PHP 6,000
($28.40 to $113.50) for a kilogram live
catch of spiny lobster.
• In short, the slipper lobster is a delicious
bargain.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Lobsters
• Tasting somewhere between a clawed lobster and shrimp, the slipper lobster
(Thenus orientalis) offers a good value on the seafood menu and is a sought-
after local delicacy.
• It also holds a good potential of being sustainably farmed.
• While spiny lobsters take their time with larval development, taking up to 300
days, the slipper lobster larvae are reared within 30 days.
• Likewise, the spiny lobster goes through up to 11 larval development stages,
while the slipper lobster only has four.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Lobsters
• According to Dr. Shelah Mae Ursua, the project leader at SEAFDEC/AQD, they
chose to study the slipper lobster not just because of its shorter larval stages
but because its larvae are also hardier than the spiny lobster.
• Also, to its credit, slipper lobster’s culture period from hatching to reaching
market size is 14–16 months, trumping the 22–24-month period for the spiny
lobster.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Lobsters
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/zqXGGGe84Ys?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/mu7G_FrZgHY?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Abalone
• Abalone are herbivorous marine gastropods
belonging to the genus Haliotis, meaning “sea ear.”
• There are 100 species worldwide with around 15
species being cultured commercially.
• It can spawn spontaneously in captivity throughout
the year.
• Abalone are considered a delicacy especially in
China and Japan and are in demand in countries
like Hong Kong, Australia, Taiwan, Korea and
Singapore.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Abalone
• Abalone is locally known as sobra-sobra (Ilonggo) and lapas or kapinan
(Cebuano). It has a broad, ovate and over-sized foot muscle, which is not totally
covered by its single shell.
• There are four species of abalone in the Philippines, the Haliotis asinina
(Donkey’s ear abalone), H. varia, H. ovina, and H. glabra.
• H. asinina is popularly cultivated in the country due to its bigger size, faster
growth, and developed hatching and culture technology.
• Given a seaweed diet of Gracilariopsis heteroclada, it can achieve a harvestable
size of 50-55 mm within six months after transfer from a nursery.
• The seaweeds serve as natural feeds for abalone and are available given the
country’s vast Gracilaria areas, either in the wild or farmed.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Abalone
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/maqg9dbdm_w?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/jWiApRskh8E?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/eHNjRqLcT-k?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/cZeonRvKfkA?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Sea Cucumber
• Sea cucumbers are highly valued marine
commodities, with prices reaching up to US$
2,000 per kilo, when processed, dried, and
packaged well into trepang or beche-de-mer.
• A great majority of traded sea cucumbers comes
from wild harvest causing severe decline in natural
stocks.
• Sea cucumber mariculture using hatchery-bred
juveniles can offer an alternative income source
especially for coastal communities, while
protecting the remaining wild populations.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Sea Cucumber (Sandfish)
• Sandfish is the common English name for one particular tropical species of sea
cucumber called Holothuria scabra.
• It is one of the most threatened tropical species because of its high price and
ease in collection.
• It is typically found in shallow intertidal sandy-muddy shores, commonly
associated with seagrass beds and sand flats.
• Sandfish has one of the highest potential for aquaculture because hatchery
production technology of this species is established.
• SEAFDEC/AQD is one of the leading institutions developing the production
technologies for sandfish.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Sea Cucumber
• Low-cost ocean nursery systems were developed to reduce the cost and
diversify systems for juvenile production.
• These are made of inexpensive and readily available materials not only to
commercial hatcheries but to small-scale growers as well.
• Floating hapas are used for mass rearing of post settled juveniles to release
size.
• The viability and adaptability of the floating hapa system for small-scale growers
were demonstrated by field trials conducted with community partners in Anda,
Pangasinan; Coron, Palawan and Maasim, Sarangani Province.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Sea Cucumber
• The development of ocean floating hapa system has opened up possibilities for
involving small-scale growers in the scaling-up of the production of sandfish
juveniles.
• The bottom-set hapa cages and bottom-set trays are being developed to
address the seasonal constraints in the use of the floating hapa system.
• These are established near the sea floor making it less susceptible to salinity
and temperature fluctuations and mechanical stress brought about by strong
wave and wind action at the water surface.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Sea Cucumber
• Supplemental videos:
✓https://youtu.be/osH-Godo-xA?feature=shared
✓https://www.youtube.com/live/n86LZrlY2vE?feature=shared
✓https://youtu.be/94YfX7Mrpik?feature=shared
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Other Aquaculture Species

• Ornamental fishes
• The ornamental fish business is a lucrative industry worldwide with huge prospects
for livelihood and trade, but the Philippines has not developed this industry to its
full potential due to some constraints.
• The bulk of marine ornamental fish supply
came from regions with coral reef areas
teeming with marine ornamentals, namely:
Regions IV-A (65.56%), III (23.18%), and VII
(4.63%).
• Freshwater ornamental fish were produced
mainly by Regions IV-A (34.29%), XI
(35.41%), VI (11.96%) and III (10.43%)
which have existing local markets.
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Other Aquaculture Species

• Ornamental fishes
• The center of trade for marine ornamental fish is Metro Manila and Cebu City due to
the presence of international airports.
• Meanwhile, freshwater ornamental trade is concentrated in major cities and
municipalities given the significant number of local hobbyists.
• An ornamental fish development program is needed to attain the full potential of
the industry with an emphasis on (1) captive breeding of marine ornamental and
freshwater indigenous fish, (2) tapping the export market for freshwater ornamental
fish, and (3) promoting the sustainability of wild-caught marine ornamental fish.

Reference: Muyot et al. (2019) Status of Ornamental Fish Industry in the Philippines: Prospects for Development.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Summary of Aquaculture Species

Species Culture Environment Culture Type
Seaweeds Brackishwater, Marine Floating lines, Stakes
Milkfish Freshwater, Brackishwater, Marine Ponds, Pens, Cages
Tilapia Freshwater, Brackishwater, Marine Ponds, Pens, Cages, Tanks
Tiger Prawn Brackishwater Ponds
Pacific White Shrimp Freshwater, Brackishwater, Marine Ponds, Pens, Cages
Oysters Brackishwater, Marine Stakes, Lines, Rafts
Mussels Marine Stakes, Lines, Rafts
Mud crabs Brackishwater, Marine Ponds, Cages, Pens, RAS
Catfish Freshwater Ponds, Tanks
Giant Freshwater Prawn Freshwater Ponds, Tanks
Australian Redclaw Crayfish Freshwater Ponds, Tanks
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Summary of Aquaculture Species

Species Culture Environment Culture Type
Pangasius Freshwater Ponds, Pens,
Eel Freshwater Ponds, Tanks
Japanese Weather Loach Freshwater Ponds, Tanks, Rice Paddy Fields
Carp Freshwater Ponds, Tanks
Giant Gourami Freshwater Ponds, Tanks
Rabbitfish Brackishwater, Marine Ponds, Pens, Cages
Grouper Brackishwater, Marine Ponds, Pens, Cages, Tanks
Mangrove Red Snapper Freshwater, Brackishwater, Marine Ponds, Pens, Cages
Asian Sea Bass Freshwater, Brackishwater, Marine Ponds, Pens, Cages
Pompano Marine Ponds, Pens, Cages
Lobster Marine Pens, Cages, Tanks
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Summary of Aquaculture Species

Species Culture Environment Culture Type
Abalone Marine Tanks, Cages
Sea Cucumber Marine Tanks, Pens
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Environmental Issues
1. Destruction of mangrove, wetlands, and other sensitive aquatic habitat by
aquaculture projects and conversion of agricultural land to ponds.
2. Water pollution resulting from pond effluents.
3. Excessive use of drugs, antibiotics, and other chemicals for aquatic animal
disease control.
4. Inefficient utilization of fishmeal and other natural resources for fish and shrimp
production.
5. Salinization of land and water by effluents, seepage, and sediment from
brackishwater ponds.
6. Excessive use of ground water and other freshwater supplies for filling ponds.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

Environmental Issues
7. Spread of aquatic animal diseases from culture of organisms to native
populations.
8. Negative effects on biodiversity caused by escape of non-native species
introduced for aquaculture, destruction of birds and other predators, and
entrainment of aquatic organisms in pumps.
9. Conflicts with other resource users and disruption of nearby communities.
2024 CF-CLSU FPLE REVIEW CLASS

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