Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

Introduction to Mechanisms of Machinery.

Chapter One
1.1. Basic Definitions;
A. Motions;
B. Planar Mechanisms,
C.Coordinate Systems;
1.2. Links, Joints, and Kinematic Chain.
1.3. Degrees of Freedom.
1.4. Grashof’s Law.
1.5. Mechanical Advantage
1.6. Determining Degree of Freedom.
1.7. Degree of Freedom in Planar Mechanisms.
1.8. Kinematic inversion.
1.9. Intermittent Motion.

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 Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

1.1 Basic Definitions

A. Motion can be thought of as a time series of displacement between successive positions of a
point or particle. A point's position is defined as the vector from the origin of a specified
reference coordinate system to the point.

Some examples of motion

 Rectilinear Motion; Motion With Straight Line

 Plane Motion. When the motion of a body is confined to one plane only, motion
can be either rectilinear or curvilinear.
 Helical Motion. When a body moves each point of the body has motion of
rotation about the fixed axis and at the same time has translation parallel to the
axis of the body.
 Spherical Motion. When a body moves so that each point on the body has motion
about a fixed point and remains at a constant distance from the fixed point, the
motion
 Spacial Motion. When the motion of a body is not confined to a plane, the body is
said to have special motion. Helical and spherical motion are special cases of
space motion.
Transmission of motion
Motion is transmitted from one member to another in three ways
1. by direct contact between two members.
2. through an intermediate link or a connecting rod.
3. by a flexible connector such as a belt or chain.
Cycle: When parts of a mechanism have passed through all possible positions according to prescribed
laws and have assumed their original positions, they are said to have completed a cycle of motion.
Period: A period is the time required to complete a cycle of motion.
Phase: A phase is the relative instantaneous position of a mechanism at a given instant during a cycle

B. Planar Mechanisms.
A planar mechanism is one in which all particles describe planar curves in space, and all
these curves lie in parallel planes; that is, the loci of all points are planar curves parallel
to a single common plane.

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 Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

This characteristic makes it possible to represent the locus of any chosen point of a planar
mechanism in its true size and shape in a single drawing or figure. The motion
transformation of any such mechanism is called coplanar.
The planar four-bar linkage, the slider-crank linkage, the plate cam-and-follower
mechanism, and meshing gears are familiar examples of planar mechanisms.
Planar mechanisms utilizing only lower pairs are called planar linkages; they include
only revolute and prismatic joints.
Although the planar pair might theoretically be included in a planar linkage, this would
impose no constraint on the motion. Planar motion also requires that all revolute axes be
normal to the plane of motion, and that all prismatic joint axes be parallel to the plane.
As already pointed out, it is possible to observe the motions of all particles of a planar
mechanism in true size and shape from a single direction. In other words, all motions can
be represented graphically in a single view. Thus, graphic techniques are well suited to
their analysis, and this background is beneficial to the student once mastered.

C. COORDINATE SYSTEMS.
Coordinates are mathematical ways or models that describe the position and motion of; a dynamic
system or a mechanism.
These are sets of parameters selected to define the position, velocity, and acceleration of a dynamical
system at all times. There are two· types of coordinates in use:

Independent Coordinates.
These are the minimum number of coordinates that describe the position of a system. The number of
independent coordinates is equal to the degree of freedom of the system.

Figure 1.1 Description of mechanisms using independent coordinates

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 Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

Independent coordinates are in general, not acceptable because they do not describe the position of a
mechanism unequivocally.
As can be noted in Fig. 1.3, for the same position of the driver given by the angle θ, the positions of the
follower and connecting rod are different; i.e. the linkage is not defined uniquely.

Dependent coordinates.
 These are the number of coordinates (which are not independent) interrelated through certain
independent equations known as constraint equations.
 The number of dependent coordinates is larger than the degree of freedom.
 For a system defined by using n coordinates and paving m independent constraint equations, the
number of degrees of freedom f is given by
f = n-m

Degree of freedom (DOF)

• The minimum number of coordinates required to fully describe the configuration of
the mechanism is called the number of degrees of freedom.
The degree of freedom of a linkage in a plane is determined using the mobility criterion
proposed by Gruebeler:
f = 3 (n - 1) - 2P1 - P2
Where
• f = number of degrees of freedom of the linkage;
• n = number of links;
• P1 = number of kinematic pairs having one degree of freedom;
• P 2 = number of kinematic pairs having two degrees of freedom.
For example, in the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 1.1 ,
n=4, p1= 4, p2=0 Therefore, the number dof of the system is
f= 3*(4-1) – 2*4 = 1

Grashof's Law is a fundamental principle in the study of four-bar linkage systems, a branch of
mechanical engineering and kinematics.
 A four-bar linkage system consists of four rigid members connected by hinged joints.
 Grashof's Law helps determine whether such a linkage can achieve continuous rotation or
if it results in a limited or oscillatory motion.
By understanding the principles of this law, engineers can design and analyze various mechanical
systems, from simple mechanisms to complex machines, ensuring they operate as intended.

 Grashof's Law plays a pivotal role in guiding the design and optimization of countless
mechanical systems across diverse industries.

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 Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

Definition of mechanisms
A mechanism as an "assemblage of resistant bodies, Connected by movable joints, to
form a closed kinematic chain with one link fixed and having the purpose of transforming
motion“
Mechanism is to utilize these relative internal motions in transmitting power or
transforming motion.
In a mechanism, though it may transmit power or force, the predominant idea in the mind
of the designer is one of achieving a desired motion.
Kinematics is the study of motion, quite apart from the forces which produce that motion.
And also the study of position, displacement, rotation, speed, velocity, and acceleration

Figure 1.2 Slider Crank Mechanism.

A Mechanism (Multibody System).

A mechanism is a combination of rigid to a link, so formed and connected that they may move
upon each other with a relative motion.
The resistant bodies are connected by movable joints or elements.
A mechanism is obtained by fixing one of the links of kinematics the ground or frame.
 A machine is a mechanism or a collection of mechanisms that transmits force from the source of
power to the resistance to be overcome.

An example of a machine is an internal combustion engine which comprises a number of mechanisms like
the slider-crank mechanism, the cam-shaft mechanism, and the flywheel to mention a few among others.

A links;
A link is a rigid body having two or more pairing elements using which it may be connected to
other bodies to transmit force or motion. A simple link has two pairing elements whereas a
compound link has more than two pairing elements.
Figs. 1.2 (a) and (b) show a simple and a compound link, respectively.

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 Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

Fig. 1.3 a) Simple link, (b) Compound links.

Kinematic Pair:
A kinematic pair is a pair of elements or rigid bodies, permanently kept in contact, so that
there exists a relative movement between these elements.
Kinematic pairs are joined by pairing elements which allow the relative motion.
In the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 1.3, links 1 and 2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4, are
kinematic pairs joined by pin joints; links 4 and 1 also form a kinematic pair joined by
the sliding element.
A kinematic pair can have a maximum of five degrees of freedom and a minimum of one
degree of freedom.
When the members are connected by surface of contact the connection is known as a
lower pair.
If the connection is a point or a line contact, it is known as a higher pair.
A kinematic pair or simply a joint, permits certain degrees of freedom of relative motion
and prevents others.
A turning pair, revolute joint, or pin joint permits one link or member to rotate about an
axis in a single plane relative to the other, thus the revolute joint has one degree of
freedom rotation about an axis.
A prismatic joint allows translatory motion along one axis and thus has one degree of
freedom.
A cylindrical pair has two degrees of freedom and allows rotational and translational
motions about an axis.
A spherical joint has three degrees of freedom and allows rotation in space about three
axes.

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 Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

Figure 1.4 kinematics pair.

Kinematics Inversion:
If, in a mechanism, the link that was originally fixed is allowed to move and another link
becomes fixed, the mechanism is said to be inverted.
The inversion of a mechanism does not change the motion of its links relative to each
other but does change their absolute motion.
The number of possible kinematic inversions is equal to the number of links in a
mechanism.

Mechanical Advantages.
In general, the mechanical advantage of a mechanism is defined as the ratio of the force or
torque exerted by the driven link to the necessary force or torque required by the driver. With
the widespread use of the four-bar linkage, a few remarks are in order here that will help us
judge the quality of such a linkage for its intended application. Consider the crank-rocker four-
bar linkage shown in Fig. 1.5, where link 2 is the driver and link 4 is the follower.

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛄 𝑹𝑪𝑫
MA = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛃 𝑹𝑩𝑨

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 Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

Figure 1.5 Crank-rocker four-bar linkage.

Note that this is directly proportional to the sine of the angle γ between the coupler and
the follower, and is inversely proportional to the sine of angle β between the coupler
and the driver. Of course, both these angles and therefore the mechanical advantage,
are continuously changing as the linkage moves.
When the sine of angle β becomes zero, the mechanical advantage becomes infinite; thus,
at such a posture, only a small input torque is necessary to produce a very large output
torque load. This is the case when the driver AB is directly in line with the coupler BC as
shown in Fig. 1.31; it occurs when the crank is in posture AB1 and again when the crank
is in posture AB4. Note that these also define the extreme postures of travel of the rockers
DC1 and DC4. When the four-bar linkage is in either of these postures, the mechanical
advantage is infinite that is, β = 0 ◦ or β = 180◦ and the linkage is said to be in a toggle (or
limit) posture.
The angle γ between the coupler and the follower is called the transmission angle. The
extreme values of the transmission angle occur when crank AB lies along the line of the
frame, AD. The transmission angle is minimal when the crank is in posture AB2 and is
maximal when the crank is in posture AB3 (see Fig. 1.5). Because of the ease with which
it can be visually inspected, the transmission angle has become a commonly accepted
measure of the quality of the design of the four-bar linkage. A double-rocker four-bar
linkage has a dead-center posture when links 3 and 4 lie along a straight line.

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 Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

Example 1. Determine the mechanical advantage of the four-bar linkage in the posture shown in
Figure below. RDA = 180 mm, RBA = 60 mm, RCB = 210 mm, and RCD = 120 mm.

Angles γ and β for Eq. above are as shown in Figure above and can be obtained from trigonometry

Using the law of cosines.

RDB = √ (60 𝑚𝑚) 2 + (180 𝑚𝑚) 2 − 2(60 𝑚𝑚)(180 𝑚𝑚) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60 ◦ = 158.745 mm. (1)

Also, the angles,

(158.745𝑚𝑚)2 −(210𝑚𝑚)2 −(120𝑚𝑚2 )

𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [ ] = 48.65𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 (2)
2(210𝑚𝑚)(120𝑚𝑚)

And

(120𝑚𝑚)2 −(210𝑚𝑚)2 −(158.745𝑚𝑚2 )

∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [ ] = 34.57𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 (3)
2(210𝑚𝑚)(158.745𝑚𝑚)

Finally, the sum of the angles

(180𝑚𝑚)2 −(60𝑚𝑚)2 −(158.74𝑚𝑚2 )

𝛽 + ∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 [ ] = 100.90𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 (4)
2(60𝑚𝑚)(158.745𝑚𝑚)

Subtracting eq (3) from eq (4) gives

𝛽=100.90-34.57=66.33 degree

Then, substituting Eqs. (2) And (5) into Eq. (1.8), the mechanical advantage of the four-bar linkage in the
given posture is

(120𝑚𝑚) sin 48.65

MA=
(60𝑚𝑚) sin 66.33

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 Chapter one: Introduction to mechanisms of machinery

Note that mechanical advantage, toggle posture, transmission angle, and dead-center posture
depend on the choice of the driver and driven links.

 Kinematic inversion example: process of choosing different links of the kinematic chain
to be fixed or ground to obtain new mechanisms. The number of kinematic inversions is
equal to the number of links in the kinematics chain.

Figure 1.6 kinematics inversion

Slider crank mechanism: kinematic Inversions – Process of choosing different links of a
kinematic chain to be fixed or ground to obtain new mechanisms.

Figure 1.7; slider crank mechanism.

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Intermittent Motion Mechanism:

There are different forms of ratchets and escapements used in engineering practices. They are
used in locks, clockworks, jacks, and many other mechanisms requiring some form of intermittent
motion. Fig (a) shows one kind of ratchet which allows the motion of the gear in one direction

Figure 1.8 Rachet mechanism

Geneva mechanism
 It is an intermittent motion mechanism

 Consist of a driving wheel D carrying a pin P which engages in a slot of the follower F.

 During the one-quarter revolution of the diving plate, the pin and follower remain in contact and
hence the follower is turned by one-quarter turn

During the remaining time of one revolution of the driver, the follower remains at rest locked in position
by the circular arc

Figure 1.9 geneva mechanism

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