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The Importance And Applications Of Mathematics In Architecture

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19605.29923

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The Importance And Applications Of Mathematics

In Architecture
𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑎 𝐴𝑒𝑗𝑎𝑧 #1 ,𝐴𝑦𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑎 𝑌𝑎𝑠𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑛#2

Abstract

In this project, we are showcasing the connections between mathematics and architecture.
Architectures has its unique relationship with mathematics. Here we are incorporating the study of such
mathematical concepts as ratio, proportion, scales and symmetry.
Also, many ancient architectural achievements continue to strike any keen observer with both their
grandeur and structural stability such structural stability had resulted due to following the principles of
mathematics to obtain equilibrium and aesthetics in a balanced proportion. In this project, we see all these
architectural achievements and many fundamental principles of math have been used.

Keywords: Mathematics in Architecture, Golden Section, Fractal Geometry, Religious Architecture,

Architectural Geometry.
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Intentionally or unintentionally, from ages, architects, builders and construction experts have used
mathematics as a very basic yet important tool for the soulful purpose of design, execution and finalization of
building projects. In the history, architects were mathematicians and also some mathematicians were architect
too [16].

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Architecture has its unique relationship with mathematics, incorporating the study of such mathematical
concepts as ratio, proportion, scales and symmetry. Put up definitions and explanations of the mathematical
concepts of elementary geometry, stating their connection to architecture and ratio and proportion relate to
architectural plan with mathematical accuracy in measuring. In this paper showing the connections between
geometry and architecture with what appears to be an obvious example from various styles, architectural
works which are also derived from basic geometric figures.

Historically, architecture was part of mathematics, and in many periods of the past, the two
disciplines were indistinguishable. In the ancient world, mathematicians were architects, whose constructions
- The tombs, mosques, temples, pyramids and ziggurat. In Classical Greece and ancient Rome, architects were
required to also be mathematicians. When the Byzantine emperor Justinian wanted an architect to build the
Hagias Sophia as a building that surpassed everything ever built before, he turned to two professors of
mathematics (geometers), Isadora’s and Anthemius, to do the job. This tradition continued into the Islamic
civilization. Islamic architects created a wealth of two-dimensional tiling patterns centuries before western
mathematicians gave a complete classification.

Geometry was the study of shapes and shapes were determined by numbers. Here geometry
becomes the guiding principle. Geometric principles such as those used in triangles (the ratio between base
and height, how they are related to the area of the triangle) have been used in many ancient architectural
constructions [4].

In the twenty-first century, mathematical ornamentation is again being used to cover public buildings.

1.1. History of Use of Geometry in Architecture

Men in ancient time built to accommodate his spatial needs. Royal men used buildings as a royalty.
Along with ornamental highlights their dwellings possessed a natural geometry- based in part on the structural
characteristics of the materials that we available in appropriate diameter. As an example, we take the Sumer
Reed house around 4000 B.C. The strong tall reeds of Euphrates delta were used as standard structural
elements. These were bunched into bundles and bent to form either a circular or pointed arch. Reed matting
was used as filler and the whole house was skinned with mud. House in its simplicity with geometric elements
contains all the structural elements of the Romanesque or Gothic cathedral styles. The pyramids of Egypt are
the best example of Egyptians’ Understanding of Geometry. Pyramids reflect their attempt to model their
human world on “cosmic order” to symbolize their stability. Geometry there was strongly related to religion
and astronomy. The whole architecture of that time was based on “occult geometry system”. This was a
system of measurements, dimensions and proportion, which were considers as sacred and divine by religious
leaders. In the Greek Period the tapering of columns and manifestation of proportion and visual effects of
building according to the dimension of columns of different order was the main concept of building design.
The geometrical and technical achievements of Gothic Period were in brief, Differentiating between bearing
columns and nonbearing walls, utilizing the pointed arch, use of vault supporting ribs, development of flying
buttresses, large use of glass and tracery in various forms and shapes. The 13th century mason did not solve
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his structural problems with software and analysis as a modern engineer would, but by very skilful and
insightful trial-and-error, aided by experience and geometric rules of design. The design depended more on
getting the shape and then calculate the magnitude of forces acting on it. In the same way Renaissance Period
also seen its own use of geometry in design of buildings. That was the period of start of architectural and
engineering drawings. The development of projective geometry (orthographic and perspective) was an event
that was of both architectural and geometrical importance. On the other hand the Modern idea of building
Design focused on the functionality of building using materials like concrete, steel and glass and is reflected
on building of period of Modernism and even after, which makes smart use of geometry and shape to get
more and more from any piece of land without wasting any inch square [4].

Chapter 2

CONCEPTS OF ARCHITECTURAL GEOMETRY

2.1 Importance of Geometry in Architecture

Geometry is a basic science for architecture. Since time immemorial there have been various evaluations of
the role of geometry in architecture. Some geometrical aspects have been developed as concepts which have
been used since ages.

2.1.1Golden Mean Ratio and Math in Architecture

Figure 2.1: The Golden Section( Golden Mean and Golden Ratio)
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We use math in architecture on a daily basis to solve problems. We use it to achieve both functional
and aesthetic advantages. By applying math to our architectural designs through the use of the Golden Section
and other mathematical principles, we can achieve harmony and balance. As you will see from some of the
examples below, the application of mathematical principles can result in beautiful and long-lasting
architecture which has passed the test of time.

Using Math in Architecture for Function and Form

We use math in architecture every day at our office. For example, we use math to calculate the area of
a building site or office space. Math helps us to determine the volume of gravel or soil that is needed to fill a
hole. We rely on math when designing safe building structures and bridges by calculating loads and spans.
Math also helps us to determine the best material to use for a structure, such as wood, concrete, or steel.

“Without mathematics there is no art.” – Luca Pacioli, De divinaproportione, 1509

Architects also use math when making aesthetic decisions. For instance, we use numbers to achieve
attractive proportion and harmony. This may seem counter-intuitive, but architects routinely apply a
combination of math, science, and art to create attractive and functional structures. One example of this is
when we use math to achieve harmony and proportion by applying a well-known principle called the Golden
Section.

There is a relationship between math and beauty. By applying math to our architectural designs
through the use of the Golden Section and other mathematical principles, we can achieve harmony and
balance.

The Golden Section is one example of a mathematical principle that is believed to result in pleasing
proportions. It was mentioned in the works of the Greek mathematician Euclid, the father of geometry. Since
the 4th century, artists and architects have applied the Golden Section to their work.

The Golden Section is a rectangular forms that, when cut in half or doubled, results in the same
proportion as the original form. The proportions are 1: the square root of 2 (1.414) It is one of many
mathematical principles that architects use to bring beautiful proportion to their designs

Famous Buildings Influenced By Mathematical Principles

Here are some examples of famous buildings universally recognized for their beauty. We believe
their architects used math and the principals of the Golden Section in their design

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Parthenon

The classical Doric columned Parthenon was built on the Acropolis between 447 and 432 BC. It was
designed by the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates. The temple had two rooms to shelter a gold and ivory statue
of the goddess Athena and her treasure. Visitors to the Parthenon viewed the statue and temple from the
outside. The refined exterior is recognized for its proportional harmony which has influenced generations of
designers. The pediment and frieze were decorated with sculpted scenes of Athena, the Gods, and heroes .

Figure 2.2: Parthenon Golden Section

Derivation of golden rectangle

Step- 1 Construct a unit square.
Step-2 Draw a line from the midpoint of one side to an opposite corner.
Step-3 Use that line as the radius to draw an arc that defines the long Dimension of the rectangle [16].

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Figure 2.3: Parthenon faced proportion ratio

Figure 2.4: Parthenon

TajMahal

The world-renowned monument displays a golden ratio in the width of its facade with a grand central
arch and the heights of the windows. Mughal architecture has a particular mathematical order and astounding
aesthetics with perfect symmetry and harmony.

Built in Agra between 1631 and 1648, the TajMahal is a white marble mausoleum designed by
Ustad-Ahmad Lahori. This jewel of Indian architecture was built by Emperor Shah Jahan. The square tomb is
raised and is dramatically located at the end of a formal garden. On the interior, the tomb chamber is
octagonal and is surrounded by hallways and four corner rooms. Building materials are brick and lime
veneered with marble and sandstone.

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Figure 2.5: TajMahal Designed by Ustad- Ahmad Lahori

As we can see from the above examples, the application of mathematical principles can result in some pretty
amazing architecture. The architects’ work reflects eye-catching harmony and balance. Although these
buildings are all quite old, their designs have pleasing proportions which have truly passed the test of time.

2.1.2 Geometry and Architecture Space Concepts

The architectural space is based on a geometric space concept. Especially in the creation process architecture
is thought in relation to a geometric space. Robin Evans analyses the relationship between geometry and
architecture: "The first place anyone looks to find the geometry in architecture is in the shape of buildings,
then perhaps the shape of the drawings of the buildings. These are the locations where geometry has been
used, on the whole, stolid and dormant. But geometry has been active in the space between and the space at
either end"[4].

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Figure 2.6: Hagia Sophia broken down into geometric aspects for better understanding of structure

Figure 2.7: Hagia Sophia basic massing explained through Geometry.

2.1.3 Geometry for Strength

Foundations being most important part of building for strength are generally simple rectangular cubes, which
are not only easy to build, but also provide maximum efficiency and function well on not only to the shape but
also to the overall structure. On the other side, pile foundations are built as they are perforated inside ground

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where low friction is required and at the same time it provide same volume and lesser surface area for which
cylinder as forms suits the best. Triangle as a geometric shape is said to be the most stable and balanced
shape, and for the same reason it is used as most reliable members of building when it comes to load bearing.
Examples of which can be observed in geodesic domes or big trusses[4].

Figure 2.8: Rectangular and Pile foundation

2.2 Fractal Geometry

The emergence of chaos and complexity sciences had an influence on philosophy, art and
architecture. Scientists and mathematicians found that fractal geometry provides some explanation for nature
complexities. This paradigm resulted in a shift in thought which appeared in architecture. Architects have
been interested to connect their work to the universe as Frank Lloyd Wright and Peter Eisenman, and tended
to design architecture that is based on fractals. Architects created attractive cellular patterns, growing grains
like in natural creations and subdividing elements to smaller units. Fractal geometry with its characteristics of
self-similarity, scaling had a hand in architecture as a formative idea and form generator. Architects, when
designing using fractal geometry, tend to use it aesthetically, creating decorative complex patterns which can
be perceived by the public. This resulted in use of fractal geometry to design attractive facades [3].

Fractal geometry is one of the most exciting frontiers in the fusion between mathematics and
information technology. A fractal could be defined as a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be
subdivided in parts, each of which is approximately a reduced-size copy of the whole. The term fractal was
coined by the Polish-born French mathematician Benoit B. Mandelbrot (b. 1924) from the Latin verb fringier,
“to break”, and from the related adjective fractus, “fragmented and irregular”. This term was created to
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differentiate pure geometric figures from other types of figures that defy such simple classification. The
acceptance of the word “fractal” was dated in 1975[19].

2.2.1. Self-Similarity in Architecture

When we write about the presence of the self-similarity in architecture, we refer to a same shape
repeated in different scales more than four times.

Figure 2.8: Virupaksha temple in Hampi

Hindu temples present a fractal structure. The temple is the most characteristic artistic expression of
Hinduism [19]. Traditionally, temples have been the most prominent religious institution in India and fractals
form an integral part of those temples. A single gaze at a temple and you will find fractal-like spires
(shikharas) or a tower surrounded by smaller towers, surrounded by still smaller towers, and so on, for eight
or more levels. Each part of the facade is designed to look like a miniature reproduction of the whole.

The temple is a fractal part of the whole of Hinduism, and that the use of fractal geometry has a
special symbolic meaning in the forms of Hindu temples. Like the whole is reflected and celebrated in each
part.

Temples are of different sizes populated by sculptures and images of deities, animals, mythical beings and
varied symbols to create a distinctive visual and spiritual experience.Not all Hindu temples are based on

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sacred geometry but many.

Figure 2.9: Indian temples are like 3-dimensional structure based on fractal geometry

2.2.2. Fractal Architecture in Modern Architecture

Contemporary Fractal examples

The Grand Egyptian museum winning project by HeneghanPeng architects is designed with number
of mega-frames which are composed of decreasing fractured similar

components (figure 2.10) Sierpinski triangle was used to cover the 750m length by 46m height translucent
wall to wrap the building. Sierpinski gasket was founded by WaclawSierpinski in 1919. It is generated by
equilateral triangle which recursively subdivided to its instances by number of iterations (figure 2.11).
Architect used the Sierpinski triangles as inspiration from the great pyramids shape in the vicinity and to
present it in a modern version.

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Figure 2.10: Grand Egyptian Museum (Heneghan-Peng- Architects 2014)

Figure 2.11: Sierpinski Gasket Generation after (Bovill, 1996)

Similar to Grand Egyptian Museum, Lab architectures project Federation square is located In
Melbourne. The iconic design of the civic center made it distinctly differentiated from other buildings located
on the square (Figure 2.12). The designs complexity is powerfully achieved by geometry. Architect chose
fractal geometry to create geometrical patterns that are composed of simple component that allow for
repetition and differentiation.

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The fractal façade is represented by an incremental self-similar triangular system. The construction
module of mega-panel is composed of five panels which each are composed of five tiles (figure 2.14) [3].

Figure 2.12: Federation Square, Australia.

Figure 2.13: Federation Square atrium from outside

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Figure 2.14: Federation square façade, mega-panels composed of sub-panels that are composed of elements
which are a reduced sized of the whole.

Figure 2.15: Glazed atrium structure.

The same geometrical motif extends to the glazed atrium (figure 2.13). The generative pattern is
extruded inside and outside and bracing members have been added to enhance the complex structure of the
atrium (figure 2.15) .The fractal envelope was designed three dimensional to be used in the environmental
solution. Yet the fractal geometry was used as a motif on the extruded structure.

Since the 1990’s the use of fractal geometry was presented more in façade designs and building skin
as shown in Grand Egyptian museum and Federation Square. Architects depended on fractal geometry
aesthetically which can be perceived by users and public. As presented in examples, the use of fractal
geometry became in designing of mega-panels which consist of sub-panels which contains elements that have

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the same shape. This prototyping makes it easily in fabrication, cost and assembling. The use of fractal
geometry in architecture and skin design became more economically efficient method because of prototyping
[3].

Chapter 3

IMPORTANCE OF MATHEMATICS IN RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

3.1 Islamic architecture

Figure 3.1: Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey

The historian of Islamic art Antonio Fernandez-Puertas suggests that the Alhambra, like the Great
Mosque of Cordoba, was designed using the Hispano-Muslim foot or codo of about 0.62 metres (2.0 ft) [17]. In
the palace's Court of the Lions, the proportions follow a series of surds. A rectangle with sides 1 and √2 has
(by Pythagoras's theorem) a diagonal of √3, which describes the right triangle made by the sides of the court;
the series continues with √4 (giving a 1:2 ratio), √5 and so on. The decorative patterns are similarly
proportioned; √2 generating squares inside circles and eight-pointed stars, √3 generating six-pointed stars.
There is no evidence to support earlier claims that the golden ratio was used in the Alhambra. The Court of

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the Lions is bracketed by the Hall of Two Sisters and the Hall of the Abencerrajes, a regular hexagon can be
drawn from the centres of these two halls and the four inside corners of the Court of the Lions [2].

The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey, was built by MimarSinan to provide a space where
the mihrab could be seen from anywhere inside the building. The very large central space is accordingly
arranged as an octagon, formed by eight enormous pillars, and capped by a circular dome of 31.25 metres
(102.5 ft) diameter and 43 metres (141 ft) high. The octagon is formed into a square with four semidomes, and
externally by four exceptionally tall minarets, 83 metres (272 ft) tall. The building's plan is thus a circle,
inside an octagon, inside a square[20].

Figure 3.2: Inside View Of Selimiye Mosque In Edrine,Turkey.

Figure 3.3: Plan of Selimiye Mosque.

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3.2 Christian Architecture

The Christian patriarchal basilica of HaghiaSophia in Byzantium (now Istanbul),first constructed in 537
(and twice rebuilt), was for a thousand years the largest cathedral ever built. It inspired many later buildings
including Sultan Ahmed and other mosques in the city. The Byzantine architecture includes a nave crowned
by a circular dome and two half-domes, all of the same diameter (31 metres (102 ft)), with a further five
smaller half-domes forming an apse and four rounded corners of a vast rectangular interior. This was
interpreted by mediaeval architects as representing the mundane below (the square base) and the divine
heavens above (the soaring spherical dome). The emperor Justinian used two geometers, Isidore of
Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles as architects; Isidore compiled the works of Archimedes on solid geometry,
and was influenced by him.

The 1971 Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption, San Francisco has a saddle roof composed of eight
segments of hyperbolic paraboloids, arranged so that the bottom horizontal cross section of the roof is a
square and the top cross section is a Christian cross. The building is a square 77.7 metres (255 ft) on a side,
and 57.9 metres (190 ft) high.[95] The 1970 Cathedral of Brasília by Oscar Niemeyer makes a different use of
a hyperboloid structure; it is constructed from 16 identical concrete beams, each weighing 90 tonnes, arranged
in a circle to form a hyperboloid of revolution, the white beams creating a shape like hands praying to heaven.
Only the dome is visible from outside: most of the building is below ground [1].

Several medieval churches in Scandinavia are circular, including four on the Danish island of Bornholm. One
of the oldest of these, Osterlars Church from c. 1160, has a circular nave around a massive circular stone
column, pierced with arches and decorated with a fresco. The circular structure has three storeys and was
apparently fortified, the top storey having served for defence .

Figure 3.4: Haghia Sophia, Istanbul

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Figure 3.5: Inside View of Haghia Sophia, Istanbul

Figure 3.6: Plan of Haghia Sophia, Istanbul

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3.3 Hindu Architecture

Figure 3.7: Gopuram of the Hindu Virupaksha Temple has a fractal-like structure where the parts resemble
the whole

VaastuShastra, the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning, employs symmetrical drawings
called mandalas. Complex calculations are used to arrive at the dimensions of a building and its components.
The designs are intended to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the
structure, and ancient beliefs utilizing geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry
and directional alignments. However, early builders may have come upon mathematical proportions by
accident. The mathematician Georges Ifrah notes that simple "tricks" with string and stakes can be used to lay
out geometric shapes, such as ellipses and right angles.

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Figure 3.8: Plan of Meenakshi Amman Temple, Madurai, from 7th century onwards. The four gateways
(numbered I-IV) are tall gopurams.

The mathematics of fractals has been used to show that the reason why existing buildings have universal
appeal and are visually satisfying is because they provide the viewer with a sense of scale at different viewing
distances. For example, in the tall gopuram gatehouses of Hindu temples such as the Virupaksha
Temple at Hampi built in the seventh century, and others such as the KandariyaMahadev Temple
at Khajuraho, the parts and the whole have the same character, with fractal dimension in the range 1.7 to 1.8.
The cluster of smaller towers (shikhara, lit. 'mountain') about the tallest, central, tower which represents the
holy Mount Kailash, abode of Lord Shiva, depicts the endless repetition of universes in Hindu
cosmology. The religious studies scholar William J. Jackson observed of the pattern of towers grouped among
smaller towers, themselves grouped among still smaller towers.

The ideal form gracefully artifices suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and consciousness,
expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above, and at the same time housing the sacred deep within
[13][21].

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The Meenakshi Amman Temple is a large complex with multiple shrines, with the streets
of Madurai laid out concentrically around it according to the shastras. The four gateways are tall towers
(gopurams) with fractal-like repetitive structure as at Hampi. The enclosures around each shrine are
rectangular and surrounded by high stone walls.3.4

Ancient Egypt

Figure 3.9: Base: hypotenuse (b: a) ratios for pyramids like the Great Pyramid of Giza could be: 1: φ (Kepler
triangle), 3:5 (3:4:5 triangle), or 1:4/π

The pyramids of ancient Egypt are tombs constructed with mathematical proportions, but which
these were, and whether the Pythagorean theorem was used, are debated. The ratio of the slant height to half
the base length of the Great Pyramid of Giza is less than 1% from the golden ratio. If this was the design
method, it would imply the use of Kepler's triangle (face angle 51°49'), but according to many historians of
science, the golden ratio was not known until the time of the Pythagoreans. The Great Pyramid may also have
been based on a triangle with base to hypotenuse ratio 1:4/π (face angle 51° 50').

The proportions of some pyramids may have also been based on the 3:4:5 triangle (face angle 53° 8'), known
from the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (c. 1650 –1550 BC); this was first conjectured by historian Moritz
Cantor in 1882. It is known that right angles were laid out accurately in ancient Egypt using knotted cords for
measurement, that Plutarch recorded in Isis and Osiris (c. 100 AD) that the Egyptians admired the 3:4:5
triangle, and that a scroll from before 1700 BC demonstrated basic square formulas. Historian Roger L. Cooke
observes that "It is hard to imagine anyone being interested in such conditions without knowing the
Pythagorean Theorem," but also notes that no Egyptian text before 300 BC actually mentions the use of the
theorem to find the length of a triangle's sides, and that there are simpler ways to construct a right angle.
Cooke concludes that Cantor's conjecture remains uncertain; he guesses that the ancient Egyptians probably
knew the Pythagorean Theorem, but "there is no evidence that they used it to construct right angles [15].

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3.5 Ancient Greece

Figure 3.10: The Parthenon was designed using Pythagorean Ratios.

Ancient Greek architecture remains an illustration of ancient Greeks’ beliefs concerning chaos and
cosmos and their desire to achieve the highest degree of perfection. The Parthenon, as well as many other
temples, is still regarded as a marvel created by human civilization. One of the pillars of the art of architecture
has been mathematics, and the development of this science in Ancient Greece enabled Ancient Greek
architects to create beautiful buildings.

Geometry provided architects with the tools necessary for proper design and construction. Such
concepts as the golden ratio, proportion, and grid, as well as the ability to generalize, were instrumental in the
development of Ancient Greek architecture.

Ancient Greeks placed considerable value on order and harmony in many aspects of their life.
Pythagoras, influenced by Persian and Egyptian mathematical advances, developed the concept of proportion
that was employed in Ancient Greek architecture. Symmetry was one of the architects of the significant
principles followed, which enabled Ancient Greeks to create numerous outstanding buildings. It is essential to
add that numerical symbolism, which was created within the field of mathematics, contributed significantly to
the development of Ancient Greek architecture.

Pythagoras played a significant role in the development of concepts that were later used in various
spheres. For example, the Parthenon is a conspicuous example of the way symmetry was utilized in
architecture. The temple construction was based on the use of such ratios as 2:3 and 4:9. Moving from more

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minor parts to more significant amounts was the fundamental strategy based on the essence of symmetry. This
design led to the construction of buildings characterized by such concepts as symmetry and harmony.

The concept of symmetry and proportion was further refined, which led to the development of a
mathematical proportion widely employed in architecture. The use of the golden ratio became a manifestation
of Ancient Greeks’ focus on harmony. The golden ratio is credited to Pythagoras, but it is believed that the
Ancient Greek mathematician developed his theorem based on the knowledge he gained in the Near East.
Ancient Greeks adopted many rules and concepts, but they were specifically interested in proportions and
ratios due to their search for harmony.

The Parthenon is one of the most famous temples that can be regarded as an illustration of the benefits of
mathematical symbolism for architecture development. This is the temple where the use of the golden ratio is
exemplary. The value of this ratio is approximately 1.618, and it is calculated as follows: (√5+1)/2 [10].

Figure 3.11: Floor plan of the Parthenon

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The façade of the Parthenon is characterized by the use of the golden ratio, which makes the temple
seem perfectly symmetrical. The golden ratio was used for the construction of columns that were especially
common in the Doric period. Ancient Greeks divided the top surface of a column drum by radius, which can
be seen in Parthenon. The floor plan of this grand building also has several examples of the way this
mathematical concept was incorporated into the design and construction process.

In conclusion, it is necessary to note that Ancient Greek architects managed to achieve high mastery
of mathematical concepts and principles, which resulted in the development of architecture. Pythagoras and
other mathematicians refined or further developed the ideas of numerical symbolism, the golden ratio,
symmetry, proportion, and grid. Significantly, the knowledge these philosophers used was accumulated
throughout the centuries[10].

3.6 Mughal Architecture (Ancient India)

Figure 3.12: The TajMahal Mausoleum with part of the Complex's Gardens at Agra.

Mughal architecture, as seen in the abandoned imperial city of FatehpurSikri and the TajMahal complex, has a
distinctive mathematical order and a strong aesthetic based on symmetry and harmony[9].

The TajMahal exemplifies Mughal architecture, both representing paradise and displaying the Mughal
Emperor Shah Jahan's power through its scale, symmetry and costly decoration. The white
marble mausoleum, decorated with pietradura, the great gate (Darwaza-irauza), other buildings, the gardens
and paths together form a unified hierarchical design. The buildings include a mosque in red sandstone on the

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west, and an almost identical building, the Jawab or 'answer' on the east to maintain the bilateral symmetry of
the complex. The formal charbagh ('fourfold garden') is in four parts, symbolising the four rivers of paradise,
and offering views and reflections of the mausoleum. These are divided in turn into 16 parterres.

Figure 3.13: Site plan of the TajMahal complex. The great gate is at the right, the mausoleum in the centre,
bracketed by the mosque (below) and the jawab. The plan includes squares and octagons.

The TajMahal complex was laid out on a grid, subdivided into smaller grids. The historians of
architecture Koch and Barraud agree with the traditional accounts that give the width of the complex as 374
Mughal yards or gaz, the main area being three 374-gaz squares. These were divided in areas like the bazaar
and caravanserai into 17-gaz modules; the garden and terraces are in modules of 23 gaz, and are 368 gaz wide
(16 x 23). The mausoleum, mosque and guest house are laid out on a grid of 7 gaz. Koch and Barraud observe
that if an octagon, used repeatedly in the complex, is given sides of 7 units, then it has a width of 17 units,
which may help to explain the choice of ratios in the complex [7].

Chapter 4

APPLICATIONS

4.1 Hindu Architecture

The concept of a Hindu temple goes back thousands of years and the building information and the
wisdom on which it is based has been orally passed on from generation to generation. The ancient
Marundheswarar temple in Thiruvanmayur, South Chennai, has a series of pillars with beautiful geometric
designs that are quite surprisingly fairly sophisticated mathematical motifs of contemporary scientific
interest.The motifs surround the sanctum of the goddess "Tripurasundari", the "belle of the three cities". The
number three is crucial in the motifs and the irreducible tripartite nature of the divinity is emphasized through

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links and knots, which have their usual meanings as well as precise mathematical ones. The first of the
patterns is a set of three identical overlapping equilateral triangles at whose center is a four petalled flower.
Unlike the two-dimensional Vantras which typically have several overlapping triangles, this one is sculpted
with the third dimension in mind. We can make out when one triangle goes over another. The three triangles
overlap in a very specific and remarkable way: no two of the three triangles are linked to each other, but the
three are inextricably collectively linked; if any one of the triangles is removed the other two falls apart as
well.

4.1.1 Evaluation of basic geometrical formulas in Indian context –Aryabhata Sutra for ‘Pi’

Mathematics played a vital role in Aryabhata’s revolutionary understanding of the solar system. His
calculations on pi, the circumference of the earth (62832 miles) and the length of the solar year (within about
13 minutes of the modern calculation) VaastuShastra prescribes desirable characteristics for sites and
buildings based on flow of energy. Many of the rules are attributed to cosmological considerations - the sun's
path, the rotation of the earth, magnetic field, etc., the morning sun is considered especially beneficial and
purifying and hence the East is a treasured direction. The body is considered a magnet with the head, the
heaviest and most important part, being considered the North Pole and the feet the South Pole.

Figure 4.1: Vastu Mandala

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Upapitha (25 squares)

Corresponds to Pancha-pada (five divided site)
Ugrapitha (36 squares)
Corresponds to Shashtha-pada (six divided site)
Sthandila (49 squares)
Corresponds to sapta-pada (seven divided site)
Manduka/ Chandita (64 square)
Corresponds to Ashta-pada (eight divided site)
Paramasaayika (81 squares)
Corresponds to Nava-pada (nine divided site)
Aasana (100 squares)
Corresponds to Dasa-pada (ten divided site) [16].

4.2 Islamic Architecture

Islamic architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the
foundation of Islam to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures
within the sphere of Islamic culture. The principle architectural types of Islamic architecture are; the Mosque,
the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived
and used for buildings of lesser importance such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture.

4.2.1. Mathematical system in the design of FatehpurSikri

The spirit and guiding force of the design of FatehpurSikri was in the tireless efforts of Akbar and
his architects to bring to light once more the beauty and purity of Islamic artistic wisdom. The design
rationalism was developed on the basis of mathematical system-proportions, rules and measures - in which the
use of the axis and the square predominates. It is important to realize presence of the two mosques, the
SalimChisti’s mosque and the Centric Mosque (respectively in Fig. 4.2). The first mosque ties constructed by
the local stonecutters around the little cave of SalimChisti, as a grateful gesture to the saint. The second
mosque (centric mosque) was already in existence, not very far away from the days of SalimChisti. This
mosque as the focal point of the city as shown in fig. 4.2 together with the SalimChisti’s mosque marked the
beginning of a rational design approach of FatehpurSikri [16].

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Figure 4.2: SalimChisti Mosque, FatehpurSikri, Agra

Figure 4.3: Geometry Patterns used in SalimChisti Mosque

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Figure 4.4: Planning Pattern in FatehpurSikhri

Mihrab, 1354; post-Ilkhanid period

The most important interior element in an Islamic religious building is the mihrab, a wall niche that
indicates the direction of Mecca, toward which the faithful must face during the daily prayers. This mihrab is
from the MadarsaImami, a religious school founded in Isfahan in 1354. It is made of glazed earthen ware cut
into small pieces and embedded in plaster. Three kinds of Islamic designs can be found here —vegetal,
calligraphic, and geometric. The calligraphic inscription in the back of the niche reads: “The Prophet (peace
be upon him!) Said the mosque is the dwelling place of the pious”. Calligraphy is the most revered art form in
Islam because it conveys the word of God Note the way in which straight-lined geometric shapes have been
made to fit the curved space. Observe the varied and complex decorative elements that cover every visible
surface of the mihrab. All directly illustrate geometric, calligraphic, or plant forms [16].

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Figure 4.5: Mihrab of Post Ilkhanid Period

Islamic decoration makes great use of geometric patterns which have developed over the centuries.
Many of these derived from various earlier cultures: Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Central Asian, and Persian.
They are usually distinguished from the arabesque, the term for decoration in Islamic art based on curving and
branching vegetal forms. But sometimes foliage and linear geometric patterns are combined in a single design,
and some purely abstract linear patterns adopt designs that seem clearly derived from vegetal arabesque ones.
The geometric designs have evolved into beautiful and highly complex patterns, still used in many modern
day settings.

The square and rectangle play a significant role in Islamic architecture. Some of the reason for this is
façades built from rectangular bricks. This ornamental brickwork casts shadows in the strong desert sunlight
and creates a three dimensional effect. A recurring motif is a small central square turned 45 degrees within a
larger square. Another source for the square motif is woven baskets[4].

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Figure 4.6: Cosmic Geometric Patterns in Islam

Pierced screens (Jali in India) are another common location for geometric decoration.

Figure 4.7: Geometry in Jali Designs

Going Beyond Geometry

Parametric design is a process based on algorithmic thinking that enables the expression of parameters and
rules that, together, define, encode and clarify the relationship between design intent and design response.
Parametric design is a paradigm in design where the relationship between elements is used to manipulate and
inform the design of complex geometries and structures.

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The term 'Parametric' originates from mathematics (Parametric equation) and refers to the use of
certain parameters or variables that can be edited to manipulate or alter the end result of an equation or
system. Parametric design is not a new concept and has always formed a part of architecture and design. The
consideration of changing forces such as climate, setting, culture, and use has always formed part of the
design process[4].

Figure 4.8: Example of Parametric Design

Parametric modeling systems can be divided into two types of systems:

 Propagation based systems where you compute from known to unknowns with a dataflow model.
 Constraint systems which solve sets of continuous and discrete constraints [4].

4.3 Modern Architectural Decoration

Towards the end of the 20th century, novel mathematical constructs such as fractal geometry and
aperiodic tiling were seized upon by architects to provide interesting and attractive coverings for buildings. In
1913, the Modernist architect Adolf Loos had declared that "Ornament is a crime", influencing architectural
thinking for the rest of the 20th century [12].In the 21st century, architects are again starting to explore the use
of ornament.21st century ornamentation is extremely diverse. Henning Larsen's 2011 Harpa Concert and
Conference Centre, Reykjavik has what looks like a crystal wall of rock made of large blocks of glass.
Foreign Office Architects' 2010 Ravensbourne College, London is tessellated decoratively with 28,000
anodized aluminum tiles in red, white and brown, interlinking circular windows of differing sizes [5]. The
tessellation uses three types of tile, an equilateral triangle and two irregular pentagons. Kazumi
Kudo's Kanazawa Umimirai Library creates a decorative grid made of small circular blocks of glass set into
plain concrete walls [12].

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Figure 4.9: Ravensbourne University, London, 2010

Figure 4.10: Harpa Concert and Conference Centre, Figure 4.11: Kanazawa Umimirai ,
Iceland, 2011 Library, Japan, 2011

4.4 Graph Theory in Architecture

In recent times, graph theory is used in various fields of architecture in terms of planning. Although
graph theory is used in many previous studies, we will present interpretation of graph theoretical approach in
analyzing architectural built forms and further interpretation in analyzing and designing urban space network.
Analysis of existing built forms and the urban network will provide a best different approach for designing a
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mathematical model for the evolution of architectural built forms and a better urban design framework, which
can manipulated for any different scale.
Graph theory is used to mathematically model spatial configurations in order to provide intuitive ways
of studying and designing spatial arrangements for architects and urban designers and used to
mathematically model architectural forms from its evolution. Primarily aims to present possible analytical
approaches of graph theory into architectural aspects ranging from urban level planning to neighborhood level
planning, site level planning and building level planning aspects. The major areas of graph theory are
analyzed analytical and provides varied range of architectural applications and for designing of built form.
The graph geometry primarily aims to assist architect planners to clarify the underlying geometric potential of
space with more accuracy. In a near future, it is also hoped that the new geometric measures and models will
further deepen, and widen, our planning knowledge for architectural and urban space network[11].
Monumental Building Complex

Figure 4.12: Site Plan Representing Dominating Point

Figure 4.13: Lotus Temple Elevation and Form Analysis

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Lotus Temple is open to all, notable for its flower like shape, it has become a prominent attraction in the
city. The building is composed of 27 free-standing marble-clad "petals" arranged in clusters of three to form
nine sides, with nine doors opening onto a central hall with height of slightly over 40 meters and a capacity of
2,500 people. This concludes with an approach that it is possible to generate a built form in
architecture through graph theory.

Figure 4.14: Lotus Temple Elevation and Form Analysis.

Likewise, a mathematical model can be developed to evolve architectural forms.

Urban Space Network

Networks: We live in connected networks. All sorts of complex systems we encounter in nature,
ranging from interacting molecules, genes to neurons, human relationships, social systems, and physical
networks can be viewed as networks.

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Networks are systems of interconnected and interacting elements or components. Graph theory, the
mathematical formal language that describes and quantifies networks. Real world networks here, by the
means of physical distance and all about its discrete locations. Graph is a mathematical representation of
networks, networks fall under weighted graphs, considers the physical distance between the neighbors as
weight and undirected graphs, since movement of walk is bidirectional. Parameters considered for analyzing
the network are connectivity, network topology, node degree, degree distribution, centrality, assortativity,
path length and efficiency, Dijsktra’s algorithm, Robustness and resilience, hubs, connection density and cost,
clustering coefficient. Considered here is the decentralized network of Lutyens Delhi, India (fig 4.15)[11].

Figure 4.15: Plan showing Lutyens Delhi

Future development of a graph-based geometric spatial model includes few possibilities. Firstly, a
thorough study of graph including the geometry of critical nodes and edges, graph’s characterization and sub
graphs’ classification, would highly enlarge our understanding of a spatial network. Secondly, further
computer modeling could include a program that can automatically generate minimum path graph, depict
individual space’s features as well as input designer and use attribution to the graph’s node and edge space.
Lastly, three-dimensional representation of spatial models would notably improve the ‘completeness’ of the
graph geometry principle and its application for architectural planning [18].

4.5 Algebra in Architecture

In architectural work, people use numerous aspects of algebraic math in their work. They need to
know the components of the pieces they work with and ensure they utilize the perfect amount, which requires
adding and taking away a certain quantity of material to be efficient.

Algebra holds a massive function in calculating and making the design and plan. Engineers apply
these numerical structures to design their outlines or starting point.They likewise figure the likelihood of
issues the construction team could run into as they start working on the building’s structure.
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Architects depend highly on algebra to design the structure’s inclinations and identify the points to
make right estimations for the base of the structure to be steady and safe. They also use algebra to ascertain
the weight and measurements of specific structures and ensure they are durable.

4.5.1. Application of Algebra in Architecture

One of the most common algebraic theorems that architect’s use is the Pythagoras theorem.
Discovered during the 6th century, the Pythagoras theorem, the foundation of algebra in architecture, plays a
vital role in building any building. It has been used for centuries to calculate the shape and size of the
building. With the Pythagoras theorem’s help, the architects can measure the exact angle of the structure and
determine if the structure is stable or not.

Example: Every roof of the building follows the Pythagoras theorem. The square of the slope’s
length will be equal to the sum of the other sides’ square. This is just one of the applications of algebra in
architecture. There are a lot more theorems and algebraic formulas that the architects use while doing their
jobs.

4.6 Trigonometry in Architecture

Using trigonometry, an architect can express the shapes and forms of a structure or buildings to their
exact specification, and the contractor can produce them. To ensure the structure’s stability, architects must
use trigonometry, calculating exact angles and the distances and how much of each material will be required.

Architects also rely on trigonometry to find the light angles, structural loads, the buildings’ height,
and ground surfaces and calculate the roof’s slope.

Trigonometry is the main concept architects use to calculate various measurements, draw angles, and
design their structures. This will then be sent to the contractors to construct the building.

One of the most common examples of trigonometry in architecture is to get the height of the
building located at a distance away. With the help of cosines and sine’s, we can easily calculate the height of
the building.

4.6.1. Application of Trigonometry in Architecture

Designing structure that can handle load forces applied to them is crucial for architects. They often
use trusses in their design to transfer load forces to support. A truss is like a beam but lighter and more
efficient. The support could be a beam or a column.

You can use trigonometry and vectors to determine the forces that will be present in the structure.
Trigonometry is the only way to determine the forces and stress that are not horizontal or vertical.

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An architect may also need to determine stresses at all points of the structure and its diagonal
members at a certain angle and the known load attached to a different part of the structure.

4.7 Structural Engineering

4.16: Opera House, Sydney

Calculus is widely used for calculating the building’s heat loss, areas and masses of difficult
geometric form structures, for minimizing or maximizing areas of designed structures ( to find the heat loss of
heat during the day all you have to do is create a graph (heat loss vs. time) and calculate the area under the
curve using integral).

The structures as in the picture above (fig. 4.16 Opera House, Sydney) are made with a number of
shells that are interconnected and supported by concrete. So, the density of each shell may differ. Therefore it
is more difficult to find the total density of the structure. And this is where calculus can be applied — we use
vector calculus to calculate the total mass.

Architects also use integral calculus to calculate the amount of materials needed for construction
and the type of support systems required to prevent constructions from collapsing.

Even the Eiffel tower was constructed with calculus in mind, focusing exclusively on wind resistance. And
Gustav Eifel was very proud of his work which resulted from mathematical calculations, as he said:

"Now to what phenomenon did I have to give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind
resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument’s four outer edges, which is as mathematical

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calculation, will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer
the boldness of the design as a whole".

CONCLUSION

In this project we conclude that, from ages, architects, builders and construction experts have used
mathematics as a very basic yet important tool for the soulful purpose of design, execution and finalization of
building projects.
In the history, architects were mathematicians and also some mathematicians were architect too. On
the basis of the above discussion we come to a conclusion that the presence of mathematics has been in
architecture. The presence has been seen from the medieval period to the current period in all forms of art and
architecture. It is believed that this presence would continue to be seen in various deferent forms as
mathematics is regarded as an integral part of the overall society mathematical proportion symmetry fractal
geometry, etc. were deliberately different religious emphasized during all the periods such as, Islamic
architecture, Greek architecture, Renaissance architecture etc. Various styles such as the deconstructions and
modern architecture were seen in the 20th century which explored various geometrics to get the desired
impacts.

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