BORO QB

Q.1.Explain Anatomy of robotics with a neat sketch .

Q. 2. What is Robotics? how do you define it? State 3 laws (Asimov’s)of robotics
Q.3.what is meant by work envelope
Q.4.explen with a neat sketch of different type od joints used in robots arm with their their
degree of freedoms
Q. 5. List different types of grippers used in Robotics.
Q.6.Explain working principle of the following gripper with a neat sketch and well-label
1. vacuum gripper
2. magnetic gripper
3. internal and external gripper
Q. 7. Write Robot Application in
a. manufacturing industries
b. Defeans
c. rehabilitation centre
d. under water
e. space
f. medical
Q. 9. Explain with sketches the representation of the position and rotation of an object in 3D
space.
Q.10. Explain the principle of the composite rotation matrix
Q.11. Explain with a neat sketch of forward and inverse kinematics
Q.12. With help of the neat sketch (links and joints) explain the DH parameter.
Q.13.explain trajectory planning system concerning robots
Q.14. what are the different type of motion that a robot manipulator can make in travelling
from point to point ?
Q.15. Why do need a smooth trajectory for each of the joints ?
Q.16. Why do add parabolic blends at two ends of a linear trajectory function

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Q.17. Explain linear trajectory And polynomial trajectory funtions.
Q.18.Enlist motion planning approach or scheme
Q.19.list advantages of joint space, schemes in trajectory in trajectory planning.
Q.20.Explin visibility graph method of motion planning.
Q.22.explin 1. Dynamic planning approach
2. path velocity decomposition
3. incremental planning
Q.23.what is the aim of inverse and forward Dynamics’
Q.24. What are the characteristics of the sensors device
Q.26.Explin with a neat sketch working of two the following sensors
1.force/movement
2. optical encoder sensor
3. internal - external sensors
4. contact and non-contact
Q.27.Define actuators, enlist different types of actuators used in robotics

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Q.1.Explain Anatomy of robotics with a neat sketch .
Ans:-

Expanded Notes on Robotic Manipulator Components

1. Controller
• Role:
o Acts as the brain of the robotic manipulator, ensuring smooth and coordinated
operation.
• Functionality:
o Processes inputs from sensors, user commands, and external devices.
o Sends signals to drives to control the movement and positioning of the
manipulator.
o Implements control algorithms like PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) or more
advanced methods like model predictive control.
• Key Features:
o Real-Time Processing: Handles data and controls the manipulator with minimal
delay.

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 o Communication Interfaces: Allows interaction with other systems or networks
via protocols like Ethernet or wireless connectivity.
o Safety Systems: Monitors operational limits and ensures the manipulator
operates within safe parameters.

2. Joints
• Role:
o Provide motion by connecting links, allowing relative movement between them.
• Types:
o Rotational Joints (Revolute):
▪ Allow rotation around a fixed axis.
▪ Similar to a human elbow or shoulder.
o Prismatic Joints:
▪ Provide linear motion along a single axis.
▪ Commonly found in robotic arms used for assembly tasks.
o Spherical Joints:
▪ Enable motion in multiple directions, similar to a human shoulder joint.

3. Links (or Arms)

• Role:
o Rigid components connecting joints, forming the structural framework of the
manipulator.
• Features:
o Length and Shape: Determined by the robot's reach and application.
o Strength: Must support the manipulator’s payload and resist bending or
deformation under load.
o Material:
▪ Lightweight materials like aluminum or carbon fiber are used to reduce
energy consumption.

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 ▪ High-strength materials like titanium are used for heavy-duty applications.

4. Base
• Role:
o Provides the foundation for the manipulator, anchoring it to a surface.
Types:
o Fixed Base: Found in industrial robots where mobility is not required.
o Mobile Base: Found in mobile robots, allowing the manipulator to move across
environments (e.g., robotic arms on autonomous vehicles).

5. Wrist
• Role:
o Located near the end of the arm, the wrist provides fine orientation control for
the end-effector.
• Functions:
o Adjusts the end-effector’s orientation to align with the task.
o Adds flexibility and precision, especially in applications requiring intricate
movements like welding or painting.

6. Sensors
• Role:
o Provide feedback to the controller, enabling accurate and adaptive operation.
o Sensors are crucial components in robotic systems, enabling them to sense,
adapt, and respond to their environment.
• Types of Sensors:
Position Sensors:

Force and Torque Sensors:

Proximity Sensors:

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 Vision Sensors:
Tactile Sensors:

7. Drives
• Role:
o Actuators that convert electrical signals from the controller into mechanical
motion.
• Types:
Electric Drives:
Hydraulic Drives:
Pneumatic Drives:
Key Features:
o Control of Motion: Speed, torque, and position are precisely controlled by the
drive.
o Energy Efficiency: Optimized for low power consumption while maintaining
performance.
o Durability: Designed to withstand continuous operation in demanding
environments.

8. End-Effector
• Role:
o The tool or device at the end of the robotic arm that interacts with the
environment.
• Types:
o Grippers: Used to hold, manipulate, or assemble objects.
o Welding Torches: For robotic welding in manufacturing.
o Spray Guns: Used in painting robots.
Applications:

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 o Wide-ranging, from industrial tasks (welding, cutting) to precise operations like
surgery or research.

Q. 2. What is Robotics? how do you define it? State 3 laws (Asimov’s)of robotics.
Ans:-
Robotics is a branch of engineering and science that involves the design, construction,
operation, and use of robots. It integrates multiple disciplines, including mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, and artificial intelligence (AI), to create
machines capable of performing tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously.
Definition
Robotics can be defined as:
A field that combines hardware (robotic manipulators, sensors, and actuators) with
software (AI, control algorithms) to enable intelligent machines.
• A machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically, especially
one programmable by a computer.

Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics

Isaac Asimov, a science fiction writer, formulated three fundamental laws of robotics in his
stories, which serve as ethical guidelines for robotic behavior. These are:
1. First Law:
o A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.
2. Second Law:
o A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders
would conflict with the First Law.
3. Third Law:
o A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law.

Q.3.what is meant by work envelope

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Ans:-
In robotics, the work envelope (also known as workspace) refers to the three-dimensional
space within which a robot's end-effector (such as a tool or gripper) can move and perform
tasks. The work envelope is determined by the robot's kinematic configuration, which includes
the types of joints, their movements, and the design of the manipulator. The work envelope
varies for different robot types based on their coordinate systems and the degrees of freedom
(DOF) they offer.
Work Envelope for Different Coordinate Robot Systems
Here’s an explanation of the work envelope for Cartesian Coordinate Robots, Cylindrical
Coordinate Robots, Spherical Coordinate Robots, and Revolute Coordinate Robots:

1. Work Envelope of Cartesian Coordinate Robots

• Description:
o A Cartesian robot moves along three linear axes: X, Y, and Z, making it capable of
moving in a rectangular or cubic work envelope.
o This robot’s joints are typically prismatic (linear) and provide straight-line motion
along each axis.
• Work Envelope:
o The work envelope is rectangular or cuboid in shape because the robot can
move along the three orthogonal axes (X, Y, and Z), covering a 3D space.
o The size of the work envelope depends on the length of the robot's arms (links)
along each axis.
• Applications:
o Ideal for tasks requiring precise positioning and linear movement, such as 3D
printing, pick-and-place, and machining.

2. Work Envelope of Cylindrical Coordinate Robots

• Description:
o A cylindrical robot uses a combination of linear movement along the Z-axis and
rotational movement around the Z-axis. This robot’s work envelope takes the
shape of a cylinder.

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 o It typically has one prismatic joint (for vertical motion) and one or two revolute
joints (for rotational motion).
• Work Envelope:
o The work envelope is cylindrical. The robot's end-effector can move up and
down (along the Z-axis) while rotating around the vertical axis (Z-axis).
o The radius of the cylindrical workspace depends on the range of motion of the
robot’s revolute joints, and the height is determined by the prismatic joint.
• Applications:
o Suitable for welding, material handling, pick-and-place operations, and
assembly where a robot needs to rotate around a fixed point.

3. Work Envelope of Spherical Coordinate Robots

• Description:
o A spherical robot operates based on rotational motion in three dimensions, with
movement in a spherical coordinate system (i.e., moving along radius, elevation,
and azimuthal angles).
o The robot usually has revolute joints at various angles that allow the end-effector
to move within a spherical space.
• Work Envelope:
o The work envelope is spherical in shape. The robot’s end-effector can move
within a range defined by the radius (distance from the base), and two rotational
angles (typically vertical and horizontal).
o The range of the spherical envelope is constrained by the length of the arms and
the range of joint movements.
• Applications:
o Ideal for inspection, painting, and spraying applications where movement in all
directions is needed.

4. Work Envelope of Revolute (Articulated) Robots

• Description:

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 o A revolute robot, also called an articulated robot, has multiple revolute joints
(rotating joints), which give it flexibility to move in many directions.
o These robots are often configured with 3 or more joints, giving them a higher
degree of freedom (DOF) compared to other robots.
• Work Envelope:
o The work envelope is highly flexible and complex, usually taking a combination
of shapes, including spherical and conical regions.
o Since the robot’s joints allow for complex movement in multiple directions, the
end-effector can reach any point within the combined space covered by all of its
arm segments.
o The work envelope of a revolute robot typically resembles a spherical or conical
shape, expanding outward from the robot’s base.
• Applications:
o Articulated robots are widely used in applications like assembly, welding,
painting, and robotic surgery, where high flexibility and reach are required.

Summary of Work Envelopes for Different Robot Types

Robot Type Work Envelope Shape Movement Applications

Linear motion along X, Y, Z 3D printing, pick-and-

Cartesian Robot Rectangular/Cuboid
axes place, machining

Vertical linear motion +

Welding, material
Cylindrical Robot Cylindrical rotational motion around
handling, assembly
Z-axis

Rotational motion (radius, Inspection, painting,

Spherical Robot Spherical
elevation, azimuthal) spraying

Revolute Assembly, welding,

Complex Rotational motion at
(Articulated) painting, robotic
(Spherical/Conical) multiple joints
Robot surgery

Q.4.explen with a neat sketch of different type od joints used in robots arm with their their
degree of freedoms

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Ans:-
In robotic arms, the joints are essential for enabling movement and controlling the position of
the end-effector. The joints allow robots to interact with their environment by providing the
necessary degrees of freedom (DOF) for motion. Each type of joint provides a specific type of
motion (rotation or translation) and a certain number of degrees of freedom (DOF). Below is an
expanded explanation of each type of joint used in robotic arms.

1. Revolute Joint (Rotary Joint)

• Movement: The revolute joint allows for rotation around a fixed axis.
o The robot moves in an arc around the joint's axis, much like how a door rotates
on its hinges. The motion is angular and can rotate in one direction, typically
expressed as theta (θ), which indicates the angle of rotation.
• Degrees of Freedom (DOF): 1
o A revolute joint provides 1 degree of freedom because it can only rotate around
one axis, meaning it allows movement in one direction.
• Function: This joint is often used in robotic arms to create rotational motion between
two links. It’s typically found in robots where precise angular movement is needed, such
as rotating an arm or wrist.
• Applications:
o Rotating arms in industrial robots.
o Rotation of grippers or tools in assembly robots.
o Commonly used in robotic arms for tasks such as welding, painting, or assembly.
• Example: A robotic arm with a revolute joint at the elbow, allowing the forearm to rotate
around the axis.

2. Prismatic Joint (Linear Joint)

• Movement: The prismatic joint allows for linear motion along a fixed axis. It is
essentially a sliding motion, where one part of the robot moves along the axis of the
joint.
o This motion can be either horizontal or vertical and is similar to how a piston
moves inside a cylinder. The linear displacement is expressed as d, where d
represents the distance traveled by the moving part.

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 • Degrees of Freedom (DOF): 1
o A prismatic joint provides 1 degree of freedom because it allows the movement
in a single direction along the axis of the joint.
• Function: The prismatic joint allows a robot to extend or retract, moving parts of the
robot along a straight line. It’s often used for tasks where linear movement is required,
such as in actuators or sliders.
• Applications:
o Linear actuators in manufacturing robots.
o Linear motion in pick-and-place applications.
o Material handling where parts need to slide in and out of positions.
• Example: A robotic arm that can extend its arm to reach a part or move its gripper along
a linear axis to pick up an object.

3. Spherical Joint (Ball-and-Socket Joint)

• Movement: The spherical joint allows rotational movement in three independent axes.
This joint is similar to a human shoulder joint or a ball-and-socket joint in the body,
allowing rotation in multiple directions.
o It permits the end-effector to rotate around three axes: pitch (up/down), yaw
(left/right), and roll (tilt).
• Degrees of Freedom (DOF): 3
o A spherical joint has 3 degrees of freedom because it allows rotation in three
independent directions, each corresponding to one axis (x, y, and z).
• Function: The spherical joint is useful in applications requiring a wide range of motion in
three-dimensional space. It provides maximum flexibility, allowing the end-effector to be
oriented freely in 3D space.
• Applications:
o Human arm-like motion, such as those seen in robotic arms used in surgery,
where the arm needs to reach and rotate in various directions.
o 3D scanning or robotic painting, where the end-effector needs to rotate in
different orientations.

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 • Example: A robotic arm used for painting with a spherical joint in the shoulder, allowing
full rotational flexibility of the paint spray gun.

4. Cylindrical Joint
• Movement: The cylindrical joint combines rotational motion around a central axis with
linear motion along the same axis. It allows the robot to both rotate and move along the
same axis simultaneously.
o The rotational motion occurs around a vertical or horizontal axis, while the linear
motion involves movement along the same axis (i.e., the end-effector slides
while also rotating).
• Degrees of Freedom (DOF): 2
o A cylindrical joint provides 2 degrees of freedom because it allows both rotation
(about the axis) and translation (along the axis), with each providing one
independent movement.
• Function: This joint is commonly used in robots that need to move in a cylindrical
workspace, often used for tasks like assembly or welding where the motion combines
both translation and rotation.
• Applications:
o Material handling in cylindrical robot arms where both vertical movement and
rotational motion are necessary.
o Welding or machining tasks requiring rotation and extension/retraction of the
arm.
• Example: A robotic arm with a cylindrical joint used in machining or welding, where the
robot can move a tool along the Z-axis while also rotating the tool for precision.

5. Universal Joint (U-Joint)

• Movement: The universal joint allows rotation around two axes that are not aligned. It’s
a versatile joint that enables motion in two different planes.
o It provides the ability for the end-effector to rotate in two directions (pitch and
yaw), similar to a human wrist joint.
• Degrees of Freedom (DOF): 2

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 o A universal joint provides 2 degrees of freedom as it allows the end-effector to
rotate in two independent planes or directions.
• Function: The universal joint allows for more flexibility compared to a single rotational
joint, enabling a robot to reach and perform tasks in two independent directions. It is
especially useful when two axes of rotation are needed in a single joint.
• Applications:
o Used in robotic wrist joints for applications like assembly, screwdriving, or tool
manipulation, where two independent rotational movements are necessary.
o Articulating arms in robots for precise assembly or surgical operations.
• Example: A robotic arm with a universal joint used for tasks where the tool needs to be
rotated both around the horizontal and vertical axes, like in surgery or inspection.

6. Planar Joint
• Movement: The planar joint allows motion in a flat plane. It typically allows translation
in two directions (usually along X and Y axes), while no rotation is involved.
o This joint is useful when the robot’s end-effector needs to move across a flat
surface but without any vertical movement or rotation.
• Degrees of Freedom (DOF): 2
o A planar joint provides 2 degrees of freedom because it allows translation in two
directions on a plane (e.g., left/right and forward/backward).
• Function: The planar joint is typically used for robots that operate in a 2D environment,
where movements are confined to a flat plane. It is ideal for tasks such as pick-and-place
or conveyor belt operations.
• Applications:
o 2D motion in applications like sorting or pick-and-place, where the robot needs
to move the end-effector along a flat plane.
o Manufacturing tasks that involve moving parts in a specific plane without
rotation.
• Example: A robot used in sorting operations on an assembly line, where the gripper
moves along the flat plane of the conveyor belt.

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Q.6.Explain working principle of the following gripper with a neat sketch and well-label
1. vacuum gripper
2. magnetic gripper
3. internal and external gripper
Ans:-
Here’s an explanation of the working principles of the specified grippers along with a
description of their labeled sketches.

1. Vacuum Gripper
Working Principle: A vacuum gripper operates on the principle of suction created by a
vacuum pump or ejector system. The vacuum is applied through suction cups or pads, which
attach to the surface of the object. The reduction in air pressure beneath the suction cup
creates a holding force, allowing the gripper to lift and manipulate the object.
Key Features:
• Best suited for handling flat, smooth, or slightly curved surfaces.
• Typically used in industries for handling fragile items like glass, plastic sheets, or
lightweight parts.

2. Magnetic Gripper
Working Principle: Magnetic grippers use a magnetic field to attract and hold ferromagnetic
materials (e.g., steel, iron). These grippers can be based on either permanent magnets or
electromagnets. Electromagnetic grippers provide controllability by turning the magnetic
field on or off using an electrical current.
Key Features:
• Suitable for handling metallic objects like plates, rods, and sheets.
• Can operate in high-temperature environments.
• Object being gripped
• On/off control mechanism (for electromagnets)

3. Internal and External Gripper

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Working Principle:
• Internal Gripper: Grips the object from the inside by expanding its jaws outward to
create a secure hold. It is suitable for hollow or cylindrical objects like tubes or rings.
• External Gripper: Grips the object from the outside by closing its jaws inward. This type
is commonly used for solid objects like boxes or irregular shapes.
Key Features:
• Internal gripping is used for objects where external surfaces must remain untouched.
• External gripping is versatile for a wide range of shapes and sizes.

Q. 5. List different types of grippers used in Robotics.

Ans:-
Grippers in robotics are essential components for manipulating objects. They come in
various designs, each suited to specific tasks or object types. Here are the main types of
grippers used in robotics:
1. Mechanical Grippers
• Use fingers or jaws to grasp objects.
• Two-Finger Grippers: Suitable for cylindrical or prismatic objects.
• Three-Finger Grippers: Better for handling spherical or irregularly shaped objects.
• Multi-Fingered Grippers: Mimic the dexterity of a human hand for complex tasks.
2. Vacuum Grippers
• Use suction cups and vacuum pressure to grip objects.
• Ideal for smooth, flat surfaces like glass, cardboard, or metal sheets.
3. Magnetic Grippers
• Utilize magnets to handle ferromagnetic materials.
• Commonly used in metal handling industries.
4. Adhesive Grippers
• Employ sticky materials or gecko-inspired adhesive surfaces.
• Suitable for delicate objects like paper or glass.

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5. Soft Grippers
• Made of flexible, deformable materials (e.g., silicone or rubber).
• Useful for handling delicate or irregularly shaped objects.
6. Hydraulic or Pneumatic Grippers
• Powered by hydraulic or pneumatic systems for high gripping force.
• Commonly used in industrial automation.
7. Servo-Electric Grippers
• Utilize electric motors for precise control and adaptability.
• Often programmable for variable gripping force and speed.
8. Underactuated Grippers
• Have fewer actuators than degrees of freedom, allowing adaptive gripping.
• Efficient for grasping irregular or unstructured objects.
9. Needle Grippers
• Use needles to penetrate soft or porous materials.
• Ideal for fabrics, foams, or food items.
10. Electrostatic Grippers
• Use electrostatic forces to hold lightweight objects.
• Suitable for thin or fragile items like papers or films.
11. Centrifugal Grippers
• Use rotational forces to secure objects.
• Common in high-speed pick-and-place applications.
12. Customized or Specialized Grippers
• Designed for specific tasks or industries (e.g., robotic surgery tools, agricultural grippers
for harvesting).
Each gripper type has unique advantages and limitations, making it critical to choose based
on the application, object properties, and environmental conditions.

Q. 7. Write Robot Application in

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 a. manufacturing industries
b. Defeans
c. rehabilitation centre
d. under water
e. space
f. medical
Ans:-
Robots are increasingly employed across various domains, offering precision, efficiency, and
adaptability. Here’s how robots are applied in different fields:

a. Manufacturing Industries
Robots are integral to modern manufacturing, automating repetitive tasks and increasing
productivity.
1. Assembly and Production: Robots assemble parts in industries like automotive,
electronics, and consumer goods.
2. Welding: Robotic arms perform precise and consistent welding tasks.
3. Material Handling: Robots transport raw materials and finished goods across the factory
floor.
4. Quality Inspection: Vision-enabled robots detect defects and ensure product quality.
5. Painting and Coating: Automated spray robots provide uniform coverage, reducing
waste.

b. Defense
Robots enhance safety, efficiency, and capabilities in defense operations.
1. Surveillance and Reconnaissance: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and ground robots
gather intelligence in hostile environments.
2. Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD): Robots handle and neutralize explosives,
minimizing risk to personnel.
3. Combat Support: Armed robots assist soldiers on the battlefield.

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 4. Logistics and Supply: Autonomous vehicles transport supplies to front lines.
5. Training Simulations: Robotic systems replicate combat scenarios for training.

c. Rehabilitation Centers
Robots play a vital role in patient care, recovery, and therapy.
1. Robotic Exoskeletons: Assist patients with mobility issues in regaining movement.
2. Therapy Robots: Support physical therapy by providing controlled and repetitive motion.
3. Assistive Robots: Help patients with daily activities like eating, dressing, or moving.
4. Companion Robots: Provide emotional support and social interaction for mental health.
5. Prosthetics: Advanced robotic prosthetics enable precise and intuitive movements.

d. Underwater
Underwater robots are used for exploration, research, and maintenance in challenging aquatic
environments.
1. Exploration: Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) map ocean floors and study
marine life.
2. Inspection and Repair: Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) inspect pipelines, ship hulls,
and offshore rigs.
3. Scientific Research: Robots collect samples and data in deep-sea research.
4. Search and Recovery: Assist in locating and retrieving submerged objects or vessels.
5. Environmental Monitoring: Track pollution levels, monitor coral reefs, and study
underwater ecosystems.

e. Space
Robotics is critical in space exploration, enabling tasks in hostile and inaccessible environments.
1. Space Exploration: Robotic rovers like Perseverance explore planetary surfaces.
2. Satellite Deployment and Repair: Robots like Canadarm assist in satellite maintenance.
3. Astronaut Assistance: Robotic systems like Robonaut aid astronauts in space missions.

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 4. Habitat Construction: Robots are being designed to build structures on the Moon or
Mars.
5. Sample Collection: Robots collect soil, rock, and other materials for scientific study.

f. Medical
Robots enhance precision and efficiency in medical procedures and patient care.
1. Surgery: Robotic-assisted systems like da Vinci provide high precision in minimally
invasive surgeries.
2. Diagnostics: Robots assist in imaging, analysis, and sample collection for accurate
diagnosis.
3. Drug Dispensing: Pharmacy robots automate medication preparation and distribution.
4. Elderly Care: Assistive robots help elderly patients with mobility, medication reminders,
and companionship.
5. Telemedicine: Robotic platforms enable remote consultations and diagnostics, especially
in underserved areas.

Q. 9. Explain with sketches the representation of the position and rotation of an object in 3D
space.
Ans:-

Q.10. Explain the principle of the composite rotation matrix

Ans:-

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Q.11. Explain with a neat sketch of forward and inverse kinematics
Ans:-
Forward and Inverse Kinematics in Robotics
Kinematics in robotics deals with the motion of robots without considering the forces that cause
the motion. Forward kinematics and inverse kinematics are two key aspects of kinematics used
to determine the position and orientation of a robot’s end effector (e.g., a hand or tool) relative
to its joints.
1. Forward Kinematics (FK)
Forward kinematics refers to the process of calculating the position and orientation of the end
effector based on the known joint parameters (e.g., joint angles in a robotic arm). Given the
lengths of the links and the joint angles, forward kinematics determines where the end effector
will be located in space.

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2. Inverse Kinematics (IK)
Inverse kinematics involves determining the joint parameters (angles or displacements)
required to reach a specific position and orientation of the end effector. This is the reverse of
forward kinematics.

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Summary
• Forward Kinematics: Given joint variables, calculate the position and orientation of the
end effector.
• Inverse Kinematics: Given the desired position and orientation of the end effector,
calculate the necessary joint variables. This involves solving for joint angles or
displacements, often with multiple or no solutions depending on the configuration.

Q.12. With help of the neat sketch (links and joints) explain the DH parameter.
Ans:-

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Q.13.explain trajectory planning system concerning robots
Ans:-
Trajectory planning in robotics refers to the process of determining a time-parameterized path
for the robot's end-effector or joints to follow. The goal is to achieve desired movements
efficiently, safely, and smoothly while respecting the robot's kinematic and dynamic constraints.
Key Concepts in Trajectory Planning
1. Path vs. Trajectory:
o Path: A spatial description of where the robot should move (a sequence of points
in space, without time).
o Trajectory: A time-based description of motion, specifying not just positions but
also velocities and accelerations as functions of time.
2. Types of Trajectories:
o Joint-space trajectories: Plan motion directly in terms of the robot's joint angles.
Common for articulated robots.
o Cartesian-space trajectories: Plan motion in terms of the robot's end-effector
position and orientation in 3D space.

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 3. Degrees of Freedom (DOF):
o Trajectory planning considers the robot's DOF, representing the number of
independent parameters needed to specify its configuration.

Trajectory functions
1. Polynomial Trajectories:
o Smooth trajectories are generated using polynomials, commonly cubic or quintic.
o Example:
▪ A cubic polynomial for position q(t)q(t): q(t)=a0+a1t+a2t2+a3t3q(t) = a_0
+ a_1t + a_2t^2 + a_3t^3
▪ Coefficients are determined based on boundary conditions (initial and
final positions, velocities, and accelerations).
2. Linear Interpolation:
o Trajectory moves in a straight line between points in joint or Cartesian space,
with constant velocity or trapezoidal velocity profiles.

Applications
1. Pick-and-Place Tasks:
o Planning efficient and collision-free trajectories for industrial robots.
2. Path Following in Mobile Robots:
o Trajectory planning for navigation, ensuring smooth motion.
3. Surgical Robots:
o Precise trajectory planning for controlled instrument movements.
4. Human-Robot Interaction:
o Ensure trajectories are safe and predictable in shared workspaces.
By optimizing trajectory planning, robots achieve tasks efficiently while maintaining safety,
accuracy, and adherence to physical constraints.

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Q.14. what are the different type of motion that a robot manipulator can make in travelling
from point to point ?
Ans:-
When a robot manipulator travels from one point to another, the type of motion it executes
depends on how the trajectory is planned and the constraints of the task. The primary types of
motion a robot manipulator can make include:

1. Point-to-Point (P2P) Motion:

• The manipulator moves directly from the starting position to the target position without
following a specific path in between.
• Used in tasks where only the final position matters, such as pick-and-place operations.
• Characteristics:
o The path is not predetermined.
o Typically planned in joint space.
o Faster and computationally simpler.

2. Straight-Line Motion:
• The manipulator’s end-effector moves in a straight line between the start and target
points in Cartesian space.
• Used in applications where a specific path is required, such as assembly tasks or when
avoiding obstacles.
• Characteristics:
o Maintains a constant orientation (if specified).
o Requires coordinated motion of multiple joints.
o Often planned in Cartesian space.

3. Circular or Arc Motion:

• The manipulator moves along a circular or curved path defined by a center point and a
radius.

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 • Used in welding, painting, or when a circular path is required.
• Characteristics:
o The end-effector moves along a predefined arc.
o Intermediate points on the arc are calculated for smooth transitions.

4. Freeform Path (Spline-Based Motion):

• The manipulator follows a smooth, continuous path defined by a series of waypoints
using splines (e.g., cubic or quintic splines).
• Used in complex operations like engraving or sculpting.
• Characteristics:
o Provides smooth transitions between waypoints.
o Can control velocity, acceleration, and jerk for smooth motion.

5. Joint-Space Motion:
• Motion is defined in terms of joint angles.
• Each joint moves independently to reach its final position, without considering the
resulting path in Cartesian space.
• Characteristics:
o Simplifies computation.
o The actual path of the end-effector may be complex or unintuitive.

6. Cartesian-Space Motion:
• Motion is planned in Cartesian space, ensuring a predictable path for the end-effector.
• Involves solving inverse kinematics to coordinate joint movements.
• Characteristics:
o Preferred when a specific path must be followed.
o Computationally more intensive than joint-space motion.

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7. Smooth or Continuous Motion:
• Motion is designed to avoid abrupt changes in velocity or acceleration, ensuring a
smooth trajectory.
• Used in precision tasks, like machining or medical robotics.
• Achieved using velocity profiles such as:
o Trapezoidal Velocity Profile: Smooth acceleration, constant velocity, smooth
deceleration.
o S-Curve Profile: Gradual changes in acceleration for minimal jerk.

8. Coordinated Motion:
• Simultaneous control of multiple joints to achieve complex paths or maintain a specific
orientation of the end-effector.
• Used in tasks requiring synchronization, such as welding or handling fragile objects.

9. Hybrid Motion:
• A combination of Cartesian and joint-space motion.
• For example, straight-line motion in Cartesian space combined with optimized joint-
space movement for specific sections of the trajectory.
• Balances computational complexity and control.

10. Task-Specific Motion:

• Includes specialized motions based on the robot’s application:
o Repeated Cyclic Motion: Used in assembly lines for repetitive tasks.
o Adaptive Motion: Adjusts the trajectory in real time to account for
environmental changes.

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Q.15. Why do need a smooth trajectory for each of the joints ?
Ans:-
In "Fundamentals of Robotics" by D.K. Pratihar, the need for smooth trajectories for robotic
joints is explained in the context of kinematic and dynamic considerations. The book
emphasizes smooth trajectories for the following reasons:

1. Avoiding Discontinuities in Motion

• The trajectory of each joint should be smooth to avoid sudden jumps in position,
velocity, or acceleration.
• Discontinuities lead to physical strain on actuators and mechanical components.

2. Reducing Mechanical Stresses

• Smooth trajectories minimize the mechanical stress on the robot's joints and links.
• This ensures the longevity of the robot's components and prevents unnecessary wear
and tear.

3. Maintaining Dynamic Feasibility

• The actuators have limits in velocity, acceleration, and torque. A smooth trajectory
respects these constraints, ensuring that the robot operates within its physical and
dynamic capabilities.

4. Ensuring Stability and Accuracy

• The book highlights that abrupt changes in motion introduce vibrations and instability,
which degrade task accuracy.
• For precision tasks like welding or painting, smoothness is critical to maintaining quality.

5. Energy Optimization
• Smooth trajectories reduce energy consumption by avoiding unnecessary accelerations
and decelerations.

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6. Minimizing Jerk
• Jerk is the rate of change of acceleration, and minimizing it ensures smooth transitions
in motion.
• High jerk values can cause structural vibrations and discomfort, especially in human-
robot interactions.

7. Improving Path Tracking

• A smooth trajectory makes it easier for the control system to follow the desired path
precisely without overshooting or oscillations.

Q.16. Why do add parabolic blends at two ends of a linear trajectory function
Ans:-
In Fundamentals of Robotics by D.K. Pratihar, parabolic blends are discussed as a means to
achieve smooth trajectory planning, particularly when transitioning between different phases
of motion. The key reasons outlined in the book for incorporating parabolic blends at the two
ends of a linear trajectory function include:
1. Avoiding Discontinuities in Acceleration:
• A purely linear trajectory results in abrupt changes in acceleration at the junctions.
Parabolic blends ensure smooth acceleration profiles by introducing curved transitions
at the start and end of the motion.
2. Reducing Mechanical Shocks:
• Abrupt changes in acceleration or velocity can create shocks in the robotic system.
Parabolic blending eliminates these shocks, reducing wear and tear on mechanical
components.
3. Ensuring Continuity in Higher Derivatives:
• The parabolic blend ensures continuity not only in position and velocity but also in
acceleration. This is essential for accurate trajectory tracking and minimizing jerks (rate
of change of acceleration).
4. Meeting Practical Constraints:

31
 • Robotic systems have limits on velocity, acceleration, and jerk. Parabolic blends help
design a trajectory that stays within these limits, ensuring safe and efficient operation.
5. Simplified Control:
• Parabolic blends result in trajectories that are easier to control using conventional
motion control algorithms. The smooth transitions reduce the burden on feedback
controllers to handle abrupt changes.
Mathematical Formulation in the Book:
Pratihar describes a linear-parabolic trajectory as having:
• Parabolic Segments: At the start and end of the motion, where the position follows a
quadratic equation:

Here, constants aa, bb, and cc are determined based on boundary conditions of position,
velocity, and acceleration.
• Linear Segment: In the middle, where motion occurs at constant velocity:

The transition between the parabolic and linear segments is designed to ensure continuity in
position (xx), velocity (vv), and acceleration (aa).

Q.17. Explain linear trajectory And polynomial trajectory funtions.

Ans :-
Here’s a detailed expansion on linear trajectory and polynomial trajectory functions, along
with examples, equations, advantages, disadvantages, and applications in robotics:

1. Linear Trajectory Functions

A linear trajectory is the simplest motion planning method, where the robot moves directly
from one point to another at a constant velocity. The position as a function of time is described
by a linear equation.
General Equation:

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Where:
• x(t)x(t): Position at time tt
• vv: Constant velocity (rate of change of position)
• x0x_0: Initial position
Velocity and Acceleration:
• Velocity: v(t)=vv(t) = v (constant).
• Acceleration: a(t)=0a(t) = 0 (no change in velocity).
Key Features:
• The trajectory assumes constant velocity throughout the motion, meaning there is no
acceleration or deceleration phase.
• The motion is along a straight-line path in Cartesian space.
Advantages:
1. Simplicity: Easy to compute and implement, requiring only basic arithmetic.
2. Low Computational Cost: Suitable for real-time applications with limited processing
power.
3. Straight-line Path: Direct and efficient in point-to-point movements.
Disadvantages:
1. Abrupt Changes:
o At the start and end of motion, acceleration changes instantaneously from 0 to a
finite value, causing mechanical jerks.
2. Unsmooth Motion:
o No smooth transition between states, which can lead to vibrations.
3. Unsuitable for High-Speed Operations:
o Sudden jerks can destabilize high-speed systems and increase mechanical wear.
Applications:
• Low-speed, non-critical tasks, such as simple pick-and-place operations.

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 • Robots operating in non-dynamic environments where smoothness is not essential.

2. Polynomial Trajectory Functions

A polynomial trajectory represents motion using a polynomial equation to ensure smooth
transitions in position, velocity, acceleration, and sometimes jerk. This method is widely used
in robotics for smooth and controlled motion.
General Equation:
A nn-degree polynomial trajectory is expressed as:

Key Types of Polynomial Trajectories:

1. Cubic Polynomial (3rd Degree):
o Equatio

o Ensures continuity in position, velocity, and acceleration.

o Coefficients a0,a1,a2,a3a_0, a_1, a_2, a_3 are computed using boundary
conditions:
▪ Initial and final position (X0, Xf).
▪ Initial and final velocity (V0, Vf).
o Example: Smooth start and stop of a robot arm.
2. Quintic Polynomial (5th Degree):
o Equation

o Ensures continuity in position, velocity, acceleration, and jerk.

o Useful for high-speed or precision applications.

34
Features of Polynomial Trajectories:
• Smooth Transitions:
o No abrupt changes in velocity or acceleration, reducing mechanical stress.
• Controlled Motion:
o By using higher-degree polynomials, jerk (rate of change of acceleration) can be
minimized.
• Versatile:
o Can model complex motion paths and adjust to system constraints.Advantages:
1. Smoothness:
o Ensures continuity in higher-order derivatives like velocity, acceleration, and jerk.
2. Reduced Mechanical Stress:
o Prevents abrupt forces, leading to longer equipment life.
3. Customization:
o Trajectories can be tailored to meet specific system constraints.
Disadvantages:
1. Complex Computation:
o Requires solving equations to find coefficients.
2. More Processing Power:
o May not be suitable for systems with limited computational resources.
3. Boundary Dependence:
o Requires accurate knowledge of initial and final conditions.
Applications:
• Industrial Robots:
o High-speed pick-and-place operations with smooth stops and starts.
• CNC Machines:
o Precision machining tasks where jerk control is critical.

35
 • Autonomous Vehicles:
o Ensuring safe and smooth navigation in dynamic environments.
• Humanoid Robots:
o Coordinated limb movements for tasks like walking or object manipulation.

Q.18.Enlist motion planning approach or scheme

Ans:-Here’s a concise explanation of each method:

1. Visibility Graph
• Description: Constructs a graph where vertices are the start, goal, and corners of
obstacles, and edges represent direct, unobstructed lines of sight between these
vertices.
• Advantages: Produces the shortest path (Euclidean) between points.
• Disadvantages: Paths may graze obstacle edges, unsafe for robots with dimensions.
• Applications: Ideal for static, polygonal obstacle environments.

2. Voronoi Diagram
• Description: Divides the workspace into regions such that any point in a region is closer
to one obstacle than others. The path is planned along the equidistant lines (Voronoi
edges) farthest from obstacles.
• Advantages: Ensures maximum clearance from obstacles, making it safer.
• Disadvantages: Paths are not always the shortest. Computationally expensive for
complex spaces.
• Applications: Mobile robots in cluttered environments requiring safety.

3. Tangent Graph
• Description: Similar to the visibility graph but considers tangential connections around
obstacles. It explicitly accounts for the robot's size by defining tangential paths that
avoid obstacle boundaries.

36
 • Advantages: Safer than visibility graphs as it maintains a buffer around obstacles.
• Disadvantages: May increase path length; complex to compute for irregular obstacles.
• Applications: Robots with non-negligible size or dynamic constraints.

4. Accessibility Graph
• Description: A graph-based approach where nodes represent accessible positions in the
workspace, and edges represent feasible transitions between those positions.
• Advantages: Suitable for constrained environments with limited access.
• Disadvantages: Node generation depends on proper discretization; may not ensure
optimality.
• Applications: Navigation in partially accessible areas, such as warehouses.

5. Path-Velocity Decomposition
• Description: Decomposes motion planning into two stages:
1. Path Planning: Determines a geometric path in space.
2. Velocity Planning: Adjusts speeds along the path to satisfy dynamic constraints.
• Advantages: Separates spatial and temporal concerns, making computations
manageable.
• Disadvantages: Requires precise modeling of dynamics; not ideal for dynamic obstacle
environments.
• Applications: Industrial robots with strict velocity/acceleration limits.

6. Incremental Planning
• Description: Plans paths incrementally by exploring the space iteratively, often using
algorithms like Rapidly-Exploring Random Trees (RRTs) or A*.
• Advantages: Suitable for high-dimensional or dynamic environments; allows online
planning.
• Disadvantages: May not guarantee the shortest path; computationally intensive for
dense spaces.

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 • Applications: Real-time navigation for autonomous vehicles and drones.

7. Relative Velocity Approach

• Description: Focuses on avoiding collisions by analyzing the relative velocities of the
robot and obstacles. Adjusts the robot's velocity vector to ensure a collision-free
trajectory.
• Advantages: Effective for dynamic environments with moving obstacles.
• Disadvantages: Relies on precise velocity estimation; may not work well with static
environments.
• Applications: Autonomous driving and aerial robots in dynamic settings.

8. Reactive Control Strategy

• Description: Plans motion in real-time based on the robot’s immediate surroundings,
often without a predefined path.
• Advantages: Highly adaptable to changes; computationally efficient.
• Disadvantages: Can get stuck in local minima; lacks long-term planning.
• Applications: Obstacle avoidance for mobile robots in dynamic, uncertain environments.

9. Potential Field Approach

• Description: Treats the robot as a point influenced by an artificial potential field, where:
o The goal exerts an attractive force.
o Obstacles exert repulsive forces.
• Advantages: Simple and intuitive; efficient for real-time navigation.
• Disadvantages: Prone to local minima; tuning parameters can be challenging.
• Applications: Local path planning for robots in moderately cluttered spaces.

Summary of Methods

38
Method Primary Advantage Key Limitation Best Use Case

Unsafe for large Static, polygonal

Visibility Graph Shortest path
robots environments

Cluttered spaces
Voronoi Diagram Maximum clearance Longer paths
requiring safety

Robots with size or

Tangent Graph Considers robot size Complex computation
dynamic constraints

Captures access
Accessibility Graph Suboptimal solutions Partially accessible areas
constraints

Path-Velocity Separates spatial and Requires precise Industrial robots with

Decomposition temporal concerns dynamic modeling dynamic limits

Incremental High-dimensional or
Real-time adaptability May not be optimal
Planning dynamic environments

Relative Velocity Effective for dynamic Assumes accurate Moving obstacles like
Approach environments velocity estimations autonomous vehicles

Reactive Control Adaptive, fast May lack global Dynamic and uncertain
Strategy computation perspective environments

Potential Field Local path planning in

Simple, efficient Prone to local minima
Approach cluttered spaces

Each method has specific applications and trade-offs, making them suitable for different types
of robots and environments.

Q.19.list advantages of joint space, schemes in trajectory in trajectory planning.

Ans :-
In trajectory planning, joint space schemes are approaches where the trajectory is planned in
the space defined by the robot’s joint variables (e.g., angles for revolute joints or displacements
for prismatic joints). The robot's joints are controlled directly, and the trajectory specifies how
each joint moves over time.
Advantages of Joint Space Schemes in Trajectory Planning

39
1. Simplified Control:
o The motion is planned and executed directly in terms of the robot's joint
variables, which simplifies the control algorithms since inverse kinematics is not
required.
2. Decoupling of Joints:
o Each joint can be planned independently, making it computationally efficient for
simpler robotic systems.
3. Avoids Singularities:
o Singularities occur in Cartesian space (end-effector space) where the Jacobian
matrix becomes singular. Joint space planning avoids these issues by not
requiring direct calculations in the Cartesian space.
4. Reduced Complexity:
o Planning in joint space does not involve complex calculations of the end-
effector’s position, orientation, or path in the workspace.
5. Safe for the Robot:
o Since the motion is computed directly for each joint, it inherently respects the
robot's physical constraints, such as joint limits, velocity limits, and acceleration
limits.
6. Good for Point-to-Point Motion:
o For tasks where only the start and end positions of the end-effector matter (e.g.,
pick-and-place operations), joint space planning is highly efficient.
7. Flexibility in Joint Coordination:
o Joint space planning allows flexibility in how joints move in relation to each
other, enabling smooth coordination between them.
8. Smooth Trajectory Generation:
o Using interpolation techniques (e.g., linear, cubic, or polynomial interpolation) in
joint space ensures smooth and continuous trajectories.
9. Reduced Computational Overhead:
o Since joint space planning does not involve workspace or obstacle constraints
directly, the computations are faster and simpler.
10. Robustness in Dynamic Environments:

40
 o When the workspace conditions change dynamically, joint space schemes are
less affected because they focus solely on joint control.
11. Independent of Robot Geometry:
o Joint space planning is independent of the robot’s geometric configuration,
making it suitable for complex or redundant manipulators.
12. Easier Implementation in Real-Time Systems:
o Real-time trajectory generation is more practical in joint space, as fewer
computational resources are required compared to Cartesian or task space
planning.

Applications:
• Pick-and-Place Tasks:
o Where the trajectory does not require strict control over the end-effector's
intermediate positions.
• Welding or Machining:
o Where the path accuracy can be ensured at the joint level.
• Robotic Arms:
o For simple tasks that do not involve intricate end-effector motions in Cartesian
space.

Q.20.Explin visibility graph method of motion planning.

Ans:-
Visibility Graph Method in Motion Planning
The visibility graph method is a classical geometric approach used in motion planning to find
the shortest path for a robot (or point) to navigate from a start location to a goal location
while avoiding obstacles in a 2D environment. The method relies on constructing a graph
where vertices represent key points (start, goal, and obstacle corners) and edges represent
direct lines of sight (visibility) between them.

Key Features

41
 • Purpose: To compute the shortest path in a workspace with polygonal obstacles.
• Graph Type: Undirected, weighted graph.
• Output: A piecewise linear path that avoids obstacles.

Advantages
1. Shortest Path: Guarantees the shortest possible path in terms of Euclidean distance.
2. Simple to Implement: Especially effective for environments with polygonal obstacles.
3. Straight-Line Connections: Paths consist of linear segments, which are easy to compute
and follow.

Disadvantages
1. Unsafe Paths:
o The shortest path may pass very close to obstacles, which can be risky for
robots with size or dynamics.
2. Computational Complexity:
o For nn vertices, there can be O(n2)O(n^2) edges, making it computationally
expensive for environments with many obstacles.
3. Static Environments Only:
o Assumes a fixed environment and is not directly applicable to dynamic or
changing obstacles.

Applications
1. Mobile Robots: For navigation in static environments with well-defined obstacles.
2. Autonomous Vehicles: Pathfinding in structured, static spaces.
3. Game AI: Shortest pathfinding for characters or objects in virtual environments.

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 4.

Q.21. Voronoi diagram method of motion planning

Ans:-
The Voronoi diagram is a popular method for motion planning in robotics. It is based on a
geometric representation where a given space is divided into regions around a set of points,
such that every location within a region is closer to its defining point than to any other point.
Here’s how the Voronoi diagram method is applied in motion planning:

1. Construction of the Voronoi Diagram

• Points as Obstacles: In the workspace, obstacles are treated as points, and the Voronoi
diagram is constructed.
• Edges: The Voronoi diagram consists of edges that represent equidistant paths between
two or more obstacles. These edges are safe zones because they maximize the robot's
distance from obstacles.
• Vertices: Intersection points of the edges form vertices, corresponding to equidistant
points from three or more obstacles.

2. Motion Planning Using Voronoi Diagram

43
 1. Graph Representation:
o The Voronoi diagram is represented as a graph where the edges correspond to
the paths, and vertices are nodes.
2. Define Start and Goal Points:
o The robot's start and goal positions are mapped onto the Voronoi graph.
3. Shortest Path Search:
o Algorithms like Dijkstra’s or A* are used to compute the shortest path on the
Voronoi graph, ensuring that the robot maintains maximum clearance from
obstacles.
4. Path Refinement:
o After determining the path on the Voronoi graph, post-processing can smoothen
the path to optimize the trajectory.

Advantages of the Voronoi Diagram Method

• Safety: Ensures the robot remains as far from obstacles as possible.
• Simplicity: Reduces motion planning to a graph search problem.
• Efficiency: The method is computationally efficient for static environments with defined
obstacles.

Disadvantages
• Sensitivity to Dynamic Environments: Voronoi diagrams are static and need to be
recomputed if obstacles move.
• Complexity with Irregular Shapes: Converting complex-shaped obstacles into point-
based representations may reduce accuracy.

Applications
• Autonomous Navigation: For robots operating in cluttered environments like
warehouses or urban areas.
• Drone Path Planning: Ensures safe navigation by maintaining clearance from terrain or
other obstacles.

44
 • Collision Avoidance: Prevents collisions in multi-robot systems.

Q.22.explin 1. Dynamic planning approach

2. path velocity decomposition
3. incremental planning
Ans:-
Here’s an explanation of the three approaches in motion planning:

1. Dynamic Planning Approach

Dynamic planning focuses on real-time decision-making and is particularly useful in
environments where obstacles or conditions change dynamically. It involves continuously
updating the plan based on new information about the environment or the robot's state.
Key Features:
• Adaptability: The robot can modify its path in response to changes, such as moving
obstacles or altered goals.
• Continuous Replanning: The robot continuously senses the environment and computes
a new path as needed.
• Real-Time Constraints: Algorithms must be fast enough to compute updated paths
without causing delays.

45
Techniques:
• Dynamic Window Approach (DWA): Evaluates feasible velocities and trajectories within
the robot's dynamic constraints and selects the safest, most optimal trajectory.
• Model Predictive Control (MPC): Uses a predictive model to optimize the robot's motion
over a short horizon, constantly updating as new data comes in.
Applications:
• Autonomous vehicles navigating busy traffic.
• Service robots working in unpredictable human environments.

2. Path-Velocity Decomposition
Path-Velocity Decomposition (PVD) separates the motion planning problem into two sub-
problems:
1. Path Planning: Determine a collision-free geometric path from start to goal.
2. Velocity Planning: Compute a time-parameterized velocity profile along the path.
Key Features:
• Path: Focuses on finding the shortest or safest geometric path, often using graph-based
methods like A*, RRT (Rapidly-Exploring Random Tree), or Voronoi diagrams.
• Velocity: Considers dynamic constraints (like acceleration, deceleration, and maximum
speed) and time-dependent factors (like moving obstacles).
Advantages:
• Simplifies the overall planning problem by decoupling geometry from time.
• Allows reuse of precomputed paths with different velocity profiles.
Applications:
• Motion planning in static environments where the path is precomputed but the velocity
must be adapted dynamically for safety or efficiency.
• Robotic arms moving along complex trajectories at varying speeds.

3. Incremental Planning

46
Incremental planning builds the motion plan incrementally, adding small sections of the path as
the robot progresses. It is useful in environments that are only partially known or constantly
changing.
Key Features:
• Local Planning: The robot plans only a small segment of the path at a time.
• Reactivity: Can adapt to newly sensed obstacles or changes in goals during execution.
• Efficiency: Reduces computational overhead by avoiding planning for the entire path
upfront.
Techniques:
• RRT (Rapidly-Exploring Random Tree): Builds a tree incrementally in the configuration
space, exploring paths to the goal.
• Dynamic Programming: Incrementally refines the optimal solution as more information
becomes available.
• Sampling-Based Approaches: Methods like PRM (Probabilistic Roadmap) also adapt well
to incremental planning.
Applications:
• Exploration robots mapping unknown environments.
• Drones or autonomous cars in cluttered, dynamic environments.

Summary Table

Approach Key Concept Strengths Applications

Continuous Navigation in dynamic,

High adaptability and
Dynamic Planning replanning based on unpredictable
responsiveness
new data environments

Path-Velocity Separates path and Simpler problem Robotic arms,

Decomposition velocity planning solving, reusable paths static/dynamic navigation

Incremental Build the plan step- Efficient in partially Exploration robots,

Planning by-step known environments cluttered environments

Let me know if you'd like detailed examples or algorithms for any of these methods!

47
Q.23.what is the aim of inverse and forward Dynamics’
Ans:-
The aim of inverse dynamics and forward dynamics in robotics is to analyze and control the
motion of robotic systems by understanding the relationship between forces/torques and
motion.

Inverse Dynamics
Aim: To compute the forces or torques required to achieve a desired motion (trajectory) of a
robot.
• Inputs: Desired motion parameters, such as joint positions, velocities, and accelerations.
• Outputs: The forces or torques needed at each joint to produce the desired motion.
Use:
• Control: Ensures the robot follows a predefined trajectory by applying the correct joint
torques.
• Efficiency: Optimizes control strategies by accounting for robot dynamics (inertia,
gravity, Coriolis forces, etc.).

Forward Dynamics
Aim: To compute the resulting motion (trajectory) of a robot given the applied forces or
torques.
• Inputs: Forces or torques applied at the joints.
• Outputs: Joint accelerations, velocities, and positions over time.
Use:
• Simulation: Predicts the robot's motion under specific force/torque inputs.
• Design: Validates robot models and tests control strategies in a virtual environment.

Comparison

48
Aspect Inverse Dynamics Forward Dynamics

Direction From motion to forces/torques From forces/torques to motion

Purpose Control and actuation Simulation and prediction

Complexity Solves equations of motion analytically Solves differential equations numerically

Both are essential in robotic design, control, and simulation. Would you like more details or
examples?

Q.24. What are the characteristics of the sensors device

Ans:-

Sensors are devices that detect and measure physical phenomena (e.g., temperature, pressure,
light, or motion) and convert them into a signal (usually electrical) that can be analyzed and
used for decision-making. Their characteristics define their performance and suitability for
specific applications. Here are the main characteristics of sensor devices:

1. General Characteristics
a) Sensitivity
• Definition: The ratio of the output signal to the input signal. It indicates how much the
sensor output changes in response to a change in the measured quantity.
• Example: A temperature sensor with high sensitivity will produce a noticeable voltage
change for a small temperature variation.
b) Range
• Definition: The minimum and maximum values of the physical quantity the sensor can
measure.
• Example: A pressure sensor might have a range of 0–200 psi.
c) Accuracy
• Definition: The closeness of the sensor's measured value to the true value of the
physical quantity.
• Example: A sensor with ±0.1°C accuracy means the measurement can deviate by 0.1°C
from the actual value.

49
d) Precision (Repeatability)
• Definition: The ability of the sensor to produce consistent measurements over repeated
trials under the same conditions.
• Example: A precise sensor will provide the same reading repeatedly when measuring a
fixed input.
e) Resolution
• Definition: The smallest change in the input signal that the sensor can detect.
• Example: A sensor with a resolution of 0.01 mm can detect changes in distance as small
as 0.01 mm.
f) Linearity
• Definition: The degree to which the output signal of the sensor is directly proportional
to the input signal across its range.
• Example: A linear sensor's output would follow a straight-line relationship with the
input.
g) Response Time
• Definition: The time a sensor takes to respond to a change in the input signal and reach
a stable output.
• Example: A temperature sensor with a 1-second response time will stabilize quickly after
a temperature change.
h) Drift
• Definition: The change in sensor output over time when the input remains constant.
• Example: Sensors with minimal drift are suitable for long-term monitoring, like
environmental sensors.
i) Stability
• Definition: The ability of the sensor to maintain consistent performance over time and
under varying conditions.
• Example: A stable sensor will continue to operate reliably even under environmental
fluctuations.

2. Electrical Characteristics

50
a) Output Signal Type
• Sensors can produce:
o Analog Signals: Continuous signals (e.g., voltage or current).
o Digital Signals: Discrete signals (e.g., binary output for an on/off condition).
b) Power Consumption
• The amount of power the sensor requires to operate. Low-power sensors are preferred
for battery-operated devices or IoT applications.
c) Noise
• The random fluctuations or interference in the output signal that do not correspond to
the measured input.
• Minimizing noise improves signal quality.
d) Impedance
• The electrical resistance of the sensor, affecting how it interacts with the circuit.
e) Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
• The ratio of the desired signal to background noise. A higher SNR indicates a clearer
signal.

3. Physical Characteristics
a) Size and Form Factor
• The physical dimensions and shape of the sensor, which affect its ease of integration into
a system.
• Example: Miniature sensors are used in wearable devices.
b) Weight
• Important for applications where weight is a critical factor, such as drones or portable
devices.
c) Durability and Robustness
• Ability to withstand mechanical stress, vibration, or shock.
• Example: Rugged sensors are needed in industrial environments.
d) Environmental Resistance

51
 • Resistance to external factors like temperature, humidity, dust, or water. Sensors can be
rated with:
o IP Ratings: Indicate protection against solids and liquids.
o Temperature Range: The range of temperatures the sensor can operate in.
e) Material Composition
• The materials used in the sensor affect its performance, durability, and compatibility
with specific environments.

4. Functional Characteristics
a) Selectivity
• The ability of the sensor to respond to a specific physical quantity while ignoring others.
• Example: A gas sensor detecting only CO2 and not other gases.
b) Calibration
• The process of adjusting the sensor to improve its accuracy and reliability.
• Example: Periodic calibration ensures long-term accuracy for high-precision applications.
c) Hysteresis
• The difference in output when the input increases versus when it decreases, due to
mechanical or material properties.
• Example: A pressure sensor should ideally produce the same output for a given
pressure, regardless of whether the pressure is increasing or decreasing.

5. Dynamic Characteristics
a) Bandwidth
• The range of frequencies the sensor can effectively measure without distortion.
• Example: High-bandwidth sensors are used in vibration analysis.
b) Settling Time
• The time it takes for the sensor output to stabilize after a sudden change in input.
c) Frequency Response

52
 • The ability of the sensor to respond to rapidly changing inputs.

Summary Table

Characteristic Description Example

A light sensor detecting dim light

Sensitivity Responsiveness to input changes
changes.

Minimum to maximum measurable A thermometer with a range of -40°C to

Range
input 150°C.

GPS with location accuracy within 5

Accuracy Closeness to true value
meters.

Resolution Smallest detectable input change A pressure sensor with 0.1 psi resolution.

Industrial sensors for long-term

Stability Consistency over time
monitoring.

Selectivity Response to a specific input A gas sensor detecting only CO2.

Withstand physical/environmental
Durability Rugged sensors in factories.
stress

If you'd like details on specific sensors (e.g., proximity, temperature, motion), let me know!

Q.25. Fine and gress motion planning in deteils

Ans:
Fine and gross motion planning are key concepts in robotics that address the different levels of
precision and scope required to plan and execute movements. Here's a detailed explanation of
each:

1. Gross Motion Planning

Definition:
Gross motion planning involves planning large-scale, high-level movements of a robot to
achieve its goal. It focuses on finding a collision-free path between the start and goal positions
in the robot's environment.

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Key Characteristics:
• Scope: Operates over a large area or workspace.
• Precision: Relatively low precision compared to fine motion; the focus is on navigating
from one location to another.
• Purpose: Ensures the robot avoids obstacles and reaches the goal efficiently.
Steps in Gross Motion Planning:
1. Environmental Modeling:
o The environment is represented using models like grids, graphs, or geometric
maps.
2. Pathfinding:
o Algorithms such as A*, Dijkstra's, or RRT (Rapidly-Exploring Random Trees) are
used to find a global path from the start to the goal.
3. Obstacle Avoidance:
o The robot calculates safe trajectories that avoid static and dynamic obstacles.
Techniques:
• Configuration Space (C-Space):
o Represents the robot's position and orientation as a point in a multidimensional
space.
o Obstacles are expanded to account for the robot's size, ensuring collision-free
paths.
• Probabilistic Roadmaps (PRM):
o Samples random points in the C-space and connects them to form a graph of
feasible paths.
• Potential Fields:
o Uses virtual forces to guide the robot: attractive forces pull it toward the goal,
and repulsive forces push it away from obstacles.
Applications:
• Mobile Robots: Autonomous navigation in large environments like warehouses or
outdoor spaces.

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 • Manipulators: Moving a robotic arm from its initial configuration to a position near the
task area.
Challenges:
• Computational complexity increases with the size of the workspace.
• May generate paths that are not smooth or dynamically feasible, requiring refinement.

2. Fine Motion Planning

Definition:
Fine motion planning deals with precise, detailed movements, typically near obstacles or during
task execution. It focuses on ensuring high accuracy and smooth operation within confined
spaces.
Key Characteristics:
• Scope: Operates in small, localized areas (e.g., near the goal or while manipulating
objects).
• Precision: Very high precision is required to avoid collisions or achieve delicate tasks.
• Purpose: Allows the robot to execute specific actions, such as grasping, assembling, or
docking.
Steps in Fine Motion Planning:
1. Detailed Modeling:
o The robot considers precise geometry and dynamics of the workspace and
objects.
2. Motion Constraints:
o Fine motion accounts for velocity, acceleration, and torque limits.
3. Feedback Integration:
o Sensors like cameras or force-torque sensors are used for real-time adjustments.
Techniques:
• Sensor-Based Planning:
o Uses real-time feedback from sensors to refine the robot’s motion and handle
uncertainties.
• Compliance Control:

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 o Adjusts the robot’s stiffness and motion to interact safely with its environment.
• Trajectory Optimization:
o Fine-tunes the robot's path for smoothness, minimizing energy or time.
Applications:
• Manipulation Tasks:
o Picking up and assembling small components, or placing objects with precision.
• Surgical Robotics:
o Performing delicate operations with sub-millimeter accuracy.
• Docking Operations:
o Guiding drones or robots into tight spaces.
Challenges:
• Sensitive to uncertainties in the environment or robot model.
• Requires real-time control and high computational resources for accuracy.

Comparison Table

Aspect Gross Motion Planning Fine Motion Planning

Scope Large-scale, global movements Small-scale, localized movements

Precision Relatively low Very high

Sensor-based control, trajectory

Algorithms A*, PRM, RRT, Potential Fields
optimization

Applications Navigation, pathfinding Manipulation, docking, delicate tasks

Focus Efficiency, obstacle avoidance Accuracy, real-time feedback

Computationally expensive in large Sensitive to uncertainties, high accuracy

Challenges
spaces needed

Examples of Gross and Fine Motion Planning

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 • Mobile Robot:
o Gross motion: Plan a global path to navigate a cluttered warehouse.
o Fine motion: Adjust position to pick up a specific item from a shelf.
• Robotic Arm:
o Gross motion: Move the arm from its resting position to the vicinity of an object.
o Fine motion: Precisely align the gripper to grasp the object without damaging it.
• Autonomous Vehicle:
o Gross motion: Plan a route through city streets.
o Fine motion: Navigate through a narrow parking lot to park the car.

Q.26.Explin with a neat sketch working of two the following sensors 1.force/movement
2. optical encoder sensor 3. internal - external sensors 4. contact and non-contact
Ans:-
Q.27.Define actuators, enlist different types of actuators used in robotics
Ans:-
Definition of Actuators
An actuator is a mechanical device that converts energy (electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic) into
motion or force to perform a specific task. Actuators are the "muscles" of a robot, enabling it to
move, interact with its environment, or manipulate objects.

Types of Actuators Used in Robotics

Actuators in robotics can be categorized based on the type of energy used or their motion type.
Below are the key types:
1. Electric Actuators
Convert electrical energy into mechanical motion.
• Types:
o DC Motors: Provide rotational motion; often used with gears for precise control.
o AC Motors: Used for continuous, high-speed applications.

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 o Stepper Motors: Provide discrete steps of rotation for precise positioning.
o Linear Actuators: Convert rotational motion into linear motion using screws or
belts.
o Servo Motors: High-precision actuators with feedback control.
Applications: Industrial robots, robotic arms, and mobile robots.

2. Hydraulic Actuators
Use pressurized liquid (usually oil) to generate motion.
• Characteristics: High force and power, suitable for heavy-duty applications.
• Types:
o Hydraulic Cylinders: Provide linear motion.
o Hydraulic Motors: Provide rotational motion.
Applications: Excavators, heavy-lifting robots, and construction robotics.

3. Pneumatic Actuators
Use compressed air to produce motion.
• Characteristics: Lightweight, simple, and fast but limited in force and precision.
• Types:
o Pneumatic Cylinders: Provide linear motion.
o Pneumatic Rotary Actuators: Produce rotational motion.
Applications: Pick-and-place robots, grippers, and lightweight automation systems.

4. Piezoelectric Actuators
Use the piezoelectric effect, where materials deform when subjected to an electric field.
• Characteristics: High precision, fast response, and compact size, but limited range of
motion.
Applications: Micro-robotics, optics alignment, and precision machining.

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5. Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Actuators
Use materials like Nitinol that return to a pre-defined shape when heated.
• Characteristics: Compact and lightweight but slow response and limited durability.
Applications: Medical robotics, prosthetics, and miniature robots.

6. Magnetic Actuators
Use electromagnetic forces to generate motion.
• Examples: Solenoids and magnetic levitation systems.
Applications: Robotic locking systems and vibration dampening.

7. Soft Actuators
Made from flexible materials that deform under stimuli (e.g., pneumatic or hydraulic forces).
• Characteristics: Safe for human interaction and adaptable to complex shapes.
Applications: Soft robotics and wearable robotics.

8. Thermoelectric Actuators
Use heat to generate motion, either through expansion or phase change of materials.
Applications: High-temperature robotic systems.

Comparison of Actuators

Type Energy Source Motion Type Advantages Disadvantages

Precise, reliable, Limited force for large

Electric Electricity Linear/Rotational
scalable loads

Liquid High power and Heavy, requires

Hydraulic Linear/Rotational
pressure force maintenance

Compressed
Pneumatic Linear/Rotational Fast, lightweight Less precise, noisy
air

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Type Energy Source Motion Type Advantages Disadvantages

Micro-scale Ultra-precise,
Piezoelectric Electric field Limited range
motion compact

Shape Memory Compact,

Heat Linear Slow, low lifespan
Alloy lightweight

Magnetic Magnetic field Linear/Rotational Simple, fast Low efficiency

Flexible Deformable Safe for humans,

Soft Actuators Limited strength
materials motion versatile

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