Chemistry I

CHM111
Fall Semester 2024-2025

Lecture 11
 Chapter VI
Chemical Bonding, Chemical Formulas and
Chemical Reactions
I. The Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding
The chemical bond can be defined as the linkage between a particular
pair of atoms.
There are four major types of connecting or bonding atoms:
a) Ionic bond
b) Covalent bond
c) Metallic bond
d) Hydrogen bond
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3
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a) The Ionic Bond
 It is a chemical bond formed by the electrostatic attraction between
positive and negative ions.
 Ionic bond usually formed between atoms which differ in
electronegativity.
 It is formed between an atom with low Ionization energy (usually a
metal which lose one or more electrons forming cation like elements of
group IA and IIA) and another atom with high electron affinity (usually a
nonmetal which can accept one or more electrons forming anion like
group VIIA).

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 The electron transfer takes place in ionic bond formation between the
atoms in order that each atom attains the noble gas configuration which
is the most stable configuration.
 Because all noble gases have filled s and p valance orbitals (8 electrons),
many atoms undergoing reactions also end up with 8 valance electrons.
This observation led to:
The Octet Rule:
 Atoms tend to lose, gain or share electrons until they are surrounded by
8 valance electrons.
 There are many exceptions to the octet rule such as He and H.

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Example (1): The formation of NaCl

• The chlorine has a high affinity for electrons, and the sodium has a low
ionization potential. Thus the chlorine gains an electron from the
sodium atom to form ionic bond. This can be represented as follows:

Na [Ne] 3s1 + Cl [Ne] 3s2 3p5  Na+ [Ne] + Cl- [Ne] 3s2 3p6  NaCl

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• Each ion now has an octet of electrons in its valance shell:

Na+ :2S22P6 & Cl- : 3s2 3p6

• The formed ions are stable, this stability of ions accounts in part for the
formation of the ionic solid NaCl.

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Properties of Ionic Compounds
1- Ionic compounds are usually solids, brittle with high melting points.

2- They generally conduct electricity when they are in molten (liquid) form.

3- Ionic compounds are usually organized into an ordered lattice of atoms.

4- Dissolve in polar solvents (water) while they are insoluble in non-polar

solvents (benzene).

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b) The Covalent Bond
 It is a chemical bond results from sharing one or more electron pairs
between two atoms.
 Covalent bond is formed between elements with similar
electronegativity, usually two or more nonmetals.

Example (1): The formation of H2

• The shared pair (bonding pair) of electrons provides each hydrogen

atom with two electron in its valence shell. Then, it has the electron
configuration of He.
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Example (2): The formation of Cl2

• Each chlorine atom shared the bonding pair of electrons and achieves
the electron configuration of the noble gas argon.

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N.B.
• Electron pair that remains on one atom and is not shared is called
nonbonding pair.
• The bonding pair of electrons is usually displayed as a line, and the
unshared electrons as a dots.

E.g.

SIGMA BOND (s).

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Polar covalent bonds
 Polar covalent bond is formed between two atoms different in
electronegativity.

E.g.

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Multiple covalent bonds
 The sharing of a pair of electrons represents a single covalent bond,
usually just referred to as a single bond.
 In many molecules atoms attain complete octets by sharing more than
one pair of electrons between them.
 Two electron pairs shared a double bond, such as O2, or three electron
pairs shared a triple bond, such as N2.

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Example: The formation of N2

• Because each nitrogen contains 5 valence electrons, they need to

share 3 pairs to each to get a valence octet.
• The distance between bonded atoms decreases as the number of
shared electron pairs increases.

 (single > double > triple) in bond length.

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Properties of Covalent Compounds
1- Covalent compounds are gases, liquids, or solids with low melting points.

2- Covalent compounds generally do not conduct electricity.

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 Lewis Structure (Electron-dot symbols)

It consists of the chemical symbol for the element plus dots represent
the number of valence electrons of the element.

Example: Sulphur: S (Z = 16)

• The dot (representing electrons) are placed on the four sides of the
atomic symbol.
• Each side can accommodate up to two electrons.
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 Rules for Writing Lewis Structure
1- Sum the valance electrons from all atoms and add and electron for each
indicating negative charge, subtract an electron for each indicated
positive charge.

Example:
NF3 NO3- NF4+

(5+ 3x7) [(5+ 3x6)+1] [(5+ 4x7)-1]

26 24 32
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2- Write the symbol of the atoms, start with a central atom (usually the
element with the lowest IE, or the element present in the fewest
numbers, if carbon is present make it the central atom), then connect
them with a single bond.
3- Complete the octets of the terminal atoms (H has only two) and for
each bond count 2 electrons.
4- Place any leftover electrons on the central atom.
5- If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet try
multiple bonds by using one or more of the unshared pair of electrons
on the terminal atoms.

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 Exercise (1)
Draw the Lewis structure of phosphorus trichloride (PCl3).

Answer:
1- Valance electrons: 5 x 1 (for P) + 7 x 3 (for Cl)
= 26 electrons or 13 pair.
2- Central atom = P

3- The general symbol, staring with only single bonds, would be:

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4- Completing the octets of the Cl atoms:

5- This gives total 24 electrons (18 electrons + 6 from the three single
bonds). Thus, we have 2 extra valance electrons which are not
accounted for. Place them on the central atom.

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6- The central atom now has an octet, and there is no need to put any
double or triple bonds to achieve an octet for the central atom.

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 Exercise (2)
Draw the Lewis structure of sulphite ion (SO32-).
Answer:
1- Valance electrons: [6 x 1 (for S) + 6 x 3 (for O)] +2
= 26 e’s or 13 pair.
2- Central atom = S
3- Form a sigma bond between the central atom and surrounding atoms.

O S O
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4- Remaining pairs become lone pairs, first on outside atoms then on
central atom.

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 Exercise (3)
Draw the Lewis structure of nitrogen monoxide ion (NO+).

Answer:

1- Valance electrons: [5 x 1 (for N) + 6 x 1 (for O)] -1

= 10 electrons or 5 pair.
2- Central atom = N

3- The general structure starting only with single bonds would be:

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3- Completing the octet of the O atom:

4- This gives us a total of 8 electrons (6+2). There are 2 uncounted

electrons and must be placed on the N.

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5- There are only 4 electrons on the N atom, not enough for an octet, so
try a double bond between the N and O (The second bonding pair
forms a pi (p) bond).

6- The oxygen still has an octet, but the N only has 6 valance electrons,
so let’s try a triple bond:

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 Exercise (4)
Draw the Lewis structure of water molecule (H2O).
Answer:
1- Valance electrons: 2 x 1 (for H) + 6 x 1 (for O)
= 8 electrons or 4 pair.
2- Central atom = O
3- Draw a single covalent bond between O and each H, then complete the
octets.

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 Exercise (5)
Draw the Lewis structure of ammonia molecule (NH3).
Answer:

1- Valance electrons: 5 x 1 (for N) +1 x 3 (for H) = 8 e’s or 4 pair.

2- Central atom = N
3- Form a sigma bond between the central atom and surrounding atoms,
then complete the octets.
••
H N H

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H
 Exercise (6)
Draw the Lewis structure of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Answer:

1- Valance electrons: 4 x 1 (for C) + 6 x 2 (for O)

= 16 electrons or 8 pair.
2- Central atom = C

3- Form a sigma bond between the central atom and surrounding atoms.

O C O
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4- Remaining pairs become lone pairs, first on outside atoms then on
central atom.
•• ••
• •
• O
••
C O ••
•

5- To give C an octet, form DOUBLE BONDS between C and O.

•• •• • •
•
• O C O
•
•
• O
••
C O
••
•

•• ••

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 N.B. H2CO
Double and even triple bonds
are commonly observed for C,
N, P, O, and S.

SO3
C2F4
• •
• O
••
C O
••
•
CO2
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 The Resonance
• Resonance is a way of describing delocalized electrons within certain
molecules or polyatomic ions where the bonding cannot be expressed
by a single Lewis formula.

• A molecule or ion with such delocalized electrons is represented by

several resonance structures.

• The nuclear skeleton of the Lewis Structure of these resonance

structures remains the same, only the electron locations differ.

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 Example: The Lewis structure of ozone gas (O3) is:

• But, the experimental data

shows that both O-O bonds
are of the same length.

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• To explain this, it is assumed that each of the bonds in O3 is
intermediate between a single and a double bond by drawing
resonance structure.

RESONANCE
STRUCTURES
The proper Lewis structure
is a HYBRID of the two.
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 Exercise (7)
Draw the Lewis structure of sulphur dioxide (SO2).
Answer:
1- Valance electrons: 6 x 1 (for S) + 6 x 2 (for O)
= 18 e’s or 9 pair.
2- Central atom = S

3- Draw a single covalent bond between S and each O, then complete

the octets.
•• •• ••
• •
• O
••
S O ••
•

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4- Form pi (p) bond so that S has an octet — note that there are two
ways of doing this.

bring in OR bring in
left pair right pair
•• •• ••
• •
• O
••
S O
••
•

•• •• ••
••
• •
• O
••
S O
••
•
•
•O S O •
•
•• ••

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 Exercise (8)
Draw the Lewis structure of nitrate ion (NO3-).

Answer:

1- Valance electrons: [5 x 1 (for N) + 6 x 3 (for O)] +1

= 24 e’s or 12 pair.

2- Central atom = N

3- Draw a single covalent bond between N and each O, then complete the
octets.

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4- Form pi (p) bond so that N has an octet.

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 The Formal Charge

• It is possible to write different Lewis structures for a molecule with

different arrangement of atoms, but only one structure exist in nature.

Formal charge (Cf) = The number of valence electrons in the free

atom – [number of unshared electrons + number of bonds].

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 The more likely Lewis structure is the on in which:
1- The formal charges are close to zero as possible.
2- Any negative formal charge is located on a strongly electronegative
atom.

Example (1): CO2 molecule has two Lewis structure

• The two structure obey octet rule, but one of them is more stable
(correct form). By calculating the formal charge (Cf), we can know the
correct formula:
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Calculating formal charge:
• For each atom, count the electrons in lone pairs and half the electrons
it shares with other atoms.
• Subtract that from the number of valance electrons for that atom, the
difference is its formal charge.

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  Structure number 1 is more likely to be the correct form.

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 Exercise (9)
Considering formal charge, what is the preferred Lewis structure of
cyanate ion (NCO-)?
Answer:
Cyanate ion has three possible resonance form:

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