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Production Engineering
Metal Cutting
Parameters Orthogonal machining Oblique machining
(1) Relation between cutting edge & Perpendicular Inclined at an angle
direction of cutting velocity (V)
(2) Relation among cutting edge, Cutting edge > w/p width > depth of May or may not be
work piece width & depth of cut cut
(3) Cutting force direction X, Z X, Y, Z
(4) Flow of chip on rake face With chip velocity perpendicular to The chip flows on the tool face at an
the cutting edge angle less than 90o with the normal
on the cutting edge.
(5) Tool life Less More
(6) Surface finish Poor Good
(7) Power consumption More Less
(8) Involved wetting edges in One More than one
cutting
(9) Examples Shaping, Planning, Parting, Grooving, Turning, Drilling, Milling, Slitting.
Hacksawing, Broaching.

Single point cutting tool– Back rake angle (αb)–

• It affects the process of shear deformation.
• It guides the chip flow direction.
Side rake angle (αs)–
• It measure the slops of tool face from cutting edge.
End relief angle (γe) & Side relief angle (γs)–
• Avoid rubbing of tool flank with the machined
surface.
End cutting edge angle (Ce)–
• Prevent trailing end of cutting edge of tool from
rubbing.
Terms– • End cutting tools– Zero ECEA
1. Shank Main body of tool. Ex. : Parting off, Cut off & Necking tools.
2. Face Surface along which chip slides upward. ECEA↑ : Tool becomes weak.
Side cutting edge angle (Cs)–
3. Flank Surface which face the work piece.
Cs↑↑ –Tool work separating force↑
4. Nose Point where side cutting edge & end –Induces chatter
cutting edge intersect. Zero Cr – Tool work separating force↑
5. Heel Intersection of flank & base of tool. – Induces chatter.
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Zero Cs – For machining of casting & forging. • Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference
Not affect cutting force & power. plane.
Nose radius– Clearance/Relief angle (γ)–
• Curvature of tool tip. • Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface
• R provides– Strength to nose. from finished surface.
Better surface finish. Shear angle (φ)–
R↑ : Cutting force & cutting power↑ • Angle b/w shear plane & job surface or cutting
But R↑↑↑– Induce chatter. velocity.
Lip angle/Wedge angle/Knife angle (ψ)– Cutting angle (C)–
• Angle b/w face & flank of tool. • Angle of inclination of rake surface from finished
• Depends on the α & γ surface.
• It determines strength of the cutting edge. C = γ+ψ
ψ↑– More strength of tool tip.
Allow machining of hard material.
Depth of cut↑
CS↓
Heat dissipation↑
Tool life↑
Back rake (αb) = 10o – 15o
Side rake (αs) = 5o – 15o
End relief (γe) = 6o – 10o
Side relief (γs) = 5o – 15o
End cutting edge (Ce) = 8o – 15o
Side cutting edge (Cs) = 15o – 30o ANSI/ASA ORS
Rake surface– αb– αs – γe – γs – Ce – Cs – R i–α – γs – γe – Ce – λ – R
Surface along which chip is sliding. Back rake angle (αb) Inclination angle (i)
Flank surface/Clearance surface–
Side rake angle (αs) Side rake (α)
• Other surface which is relieved to avoid rubbing
with the finished surface or machined surface. End relief angle (γe) Side relief (γs)
Shear plane– Side relief angle (γs) End relief (γe)
• Surface along which material is continuously End cutting edge angle (Ce) End cutting angle (Ce)
deformed, as the tool moves ahead.
Side cutting edge angle (Cs) Approach angle (λ)
Rake angle (α)–
Nose radius (R) Nose radius (mm)

Positive rake angle Negative rake angle Zero rake angle

Tool tip will be under shearing & Tool tip will be under pure Tool strength↑
bending. compression.
Takes the chip away from machined Directs the chip on the machined Avoid digging of tool into work
surface. surface. piece.
Application :
CI & brass
Thread cutting
Form tool
Cutting edge of tool is sharp. Cutting edge of tool is blunt.
→ Cutting force ↓ → Cutting force ↑
→ Power required for machining ↓ → Power required for machining↑
Tool life ↓ because due to less area Due to more area at tool tip, heat
at tool tip → dissipation ↑
Heat dissipation ↓

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Application : Application :
Less rigid & less strong set up Strong & rigid setup
Continuous machining Interrupted machining
Machining at low speed Machining at high speed
No impact load During heavy impact loads
Machining of soft & ductile Machining of brittle material &
material high strength alley

Chip of motion mechanics–

V V V
= S = C
cos ( φ − α ) cos α sin φ

Merchant force circle diag.–

t = Uncut chip thickness
tc = Cut chip thickness
V = Cutting velocity
vc = Chip velocity
ψ = Lip angle
γ = Relief angle
φ = Shear angle
α = Rake angle
ℓc = Length of cut chip thickness If α = 0
ℓ = Length of uncut chip thickness F = Ft , N = Fc
If α = 0 & µ = 1
t ℓ c vc F = N = Fc = Ft
Chip thickness ratio (r) = = =
tc ℓ V Limitation– Only valid for orthogonal cutting.
sin φ π α β
r= Merchant theory– φ = + −
cos ( φ − α ) 4 2 2

r cos α Force relation–

tan φ = F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α
1 − r sin α
N = Fc cos α − Ft sin α
wt Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ
Area of shear plane ( As ) =
sin φ Fs = Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ
Fs sin φ Lee & shafter– Stabler
Shear stress ( τ ) =
wt π π α
φ= +α −β φ= + −β
Shear strain ( γ ) = cot φ + tan ( φ − α ) 4 4 2
Modified merchant theory given by mohr's–
Vs 2φ + β − α = cot −1 ( k )
Shear strain rate =
Thickness of primary shear zone ( t s ) k = merchant machinability constant

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Turning operation– V = πDN mm/min.

Conversion formula– Power consumed during cutting = Fc.V ⇒ Watt
Turning 3D → Orthogonal (2D) Frictional power = F.Vc
Power Fc
Sp. energy consumption = =
MRR 1000fd
Surface roughness
Ideal surface (zero nose radius)
Peak to valley roughness
f
(h) =
tan SCEA + cot ECEA
↓
Side cutting edge angle

h
Centre line average value (Ra) =
4
Practical surface (Nose radius = R)

f2
MRR ⇒ A c V = btV = fdV m3 / s h=
8R

Types of chips
Continuous chip Discontinuous chip Continuous chip with built up edge
1. Work material Ductile Brittle Ductile
2. Rake angle Positive & high Negative or small Small
3. Cutting edge Sharp Dull
4. Cutting velocity High Low Medium to low
5. Feed Low Large Medium
6. Friction Low High
7. Cutting fluid Efficient Absent or poor Absent or poor
Note : Chip breakers are Example : Grey CI, Brass, Example : Milling & broaching
used to break the Bronze.
continuous chip into short
segments.
Heat distribution in metal cutting–

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Primary deformation zone Secondary deformation zone Tertiary deformation zone

1. Affected area Around shear plane. At chip tool interface. At work tool interface.
2. Reason Plastic deformation by shearing Plastic deformation by Friction between chip & tool
in the shear zone. shearing & friction on the on tool flank.
cutting face.
3. Heat generated 80–85% 15–20% 1–3%
4. Remark Also known as shear zone. Also known as friction Heat is generated due to
zone. rubbing of tool flank work
surface.
Maximum heat is generated As the chip slides upward Also occurs due to built
due to plastic deformation along the face of the tool up edge formations.
of metal & carried away by friction occurs, this
chip which ↑ temperature of generates the heat between
chip. moving chip & rake face of
tool.

Tool wear– (a) Flank wear

(b) Crater wear
(c) Chipping of cutting edge

Flank wear Crater wear

1. Defected place of • Flank fore or Relief face of tool. Rake face of tool.
tool • Nose part of tool.
2. Reasons • Abrasion Temperature (Tool material diffuse into
the chip material & tool temperature is
maximum at some distance from the
tool tip)
3. Wear mechanism • By hard particular & inclusions in the Diffusion
work piece.
• By fragments of BUE ploughing against
clearance face of the tool.
• Sharing of micro welds b/w tool & jab.
4. Effect Speed ↓ Flank wear ↑ Speed ↑↑ : Crater wear predominates
MRR ↑ Flank wear ↑ MRR ↑ : Crater wear ↑
5. Remark • Flank wear directly affect component Crater wear is more common when
dimensions produced & usually the most • Work material–Ductile (e.g.-steel)
common determinant of tool life. • Tool material–Brittle
(e.g.–Tungsten carbides)

Wear mechanism– Adhesion wear Because of plastic deformation &

Abrasion wear If one of the surfaces contain very friction, high temperature involved
hard particles then these particles
in cutting process causes welding
during the process of sliding may
action on a tool surface by work
dislodge material from other
surface. material.

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Diffusion wear Caused by displacement of atom in Cutting speed = 30–50 m/min

the lattice of atomic crystals. Remark :
Chemical & Chemical wear–Chemical reaction Suitable for high speed & low
Electrolyte b/w tool & w/p malarial in stiffness machine tool.
wear presence of cutting fluid which 3. Cast alloy Non ferrous cast alloy
cause removal or erosion of Trade name Co = 40–55%, Cr = 30–35%, W =
material from surface. satellite 10–20%, C – (2–4)%
Electrolyte wear–Result of With tending temp = 9000C
galvanic action like corrosion b/w Cutting speed = 50 m/min
tool & w/p. Produced by casting & specially
Oxidation At high temperature oxidation of used for form tool.
wear carbide tool will result decrease in Properties lies in between HSS
its strength which create wear at & carbides but not tough as
the tip or at cutting edge. HSS.
Taylor's tool life equation VT n = C 4. Cemented Carbides of W, Ti, Ta in the
carbide/ form of powder with binder of
V = Cutting speed (m/min)
T = Time (min) cermets Co at a high pressure &
temperature.
n = Exponent depends on tool material
C = Constant based on tool material & work With standing temp = 900–
material & coolant 10000C
n → 0.08 to 0.2 → HSS tool. Cutting speed = 150–200 m/min
0.2 to 0.4 → Carbide tool. Produced by powder
0.5 to 0.7 → Ceramic tool. metallurgy.
0.1 to 0.15 → Cast iron Suitable for machining CI &
Cutting fluid– Non ferrous metals.
Material Cutting fluid 5. Ceramics/ Al2O3 with oxides of Mg, Ni,
Sintered oxides Cr, Zr & carbides of Si, Ti.
1. CI Machined dry
With standing temp = 13000C
Dry & compressed air
Cutting speed = 200–600 m/min
2. Brass, Bronze, Motel metal Machined dry
Negative rake angle used.
Soluble oil
Can't machine : Al & Ti (due
3. Aluminum Kerosene oil, mineral oil, to strong affinity as the results
soluble oil of chemical reactions)
4. Stainless steel Sulphar based mineral oil 6. Diamond Allotrope of carbon.
5. Alloy steel Soluble oil With standing temp = 2000–
6. Wrought iron Sulphar based mineral oil 30000C
Cutting materials– Cutting speed = 1000 m/min.
1. Carbon steel With standing temperature– 200– Can't machine : Steel (due to
2500C allotropic transformation into
Cutting speed = 10 m/min graphite on interaction with Fe
Remark : at 7300C)
Use for low speed cutting 7. Cubic boron Synthesized from hexagonal
operations. nitride (CBN) boron nitride in the form of
Hot hardness : Low layers.
Wear resistance : Poor With standing temp = 15000C
2. HSS 18 – 4 – 1 CS = 600–700 m/min
18% = Tungsten, 4% = Chromium, Next to diamond in hardness
1% = Vanadium but artificial.
With standing temperature = Used for machining of stainless
6500C steel.

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Lathe Specification of lathe–

Different part of lathe 1. Height of centers above the top of the bed.
(1) Lathe bed– 2. The swing or the maximum diameter of the
• Is made of chilled CI (damping property) workpiece that can be rotated over the ways of
• In this whole three unit is positioned. the bed.
(a) Head stock 3. The maximum length of the work that can be
(b) Carriage accommodated between the lathe centers.
(c) Tailstock 4. The maximum diameter of the work that can be
Types of lathe bed– rotated over the lathe spindle.
(a) Flat typed lathe bed Lathe operations–
(b) Inverted V type lathe bed Plain turning Operation of removing excess
(c) Combination of both (Flat & V type) amount of material from the surface
(2) Head stock– of the cylindrical work piece.
• It is at left end of the bed. Step turning Operation of producing steps of
• It comprises work holding devices, spindle, gear different diameters in the work
box. piece.
• Power supply is provided only in head stock. Taper Operation of producing an external
(3) Spindle– turning conical surface on a work piece.
Undercutting It is an operation of reducing the dia
or Grooving of work piece over a very narrow
surface.
Threading Operation of cutting helical grooves
on the external cylindrical surface of
work piece.
Knurling Operation of embossing a diamond
shape pattern on work piece.
• Hollow cylindrical shaft having external threads &
Chamfering Operation of beveling an extreme
having internal taper (Morse taper) end of work piece.
• Spindle is supported by thrust bearing in head stock. Essential operation after thread
(4) Tailstock– cutting.
• Just opposite to head stock at right end of lathe. Boring Operation of enlarging of a hole
Purposes– To hold long work piece at other already made in a work piece.
end. (By attaching dead centre) Taper turning methods
To hold the tool for performing By using form tool–In this case use a tool whose
some processes like (Drilling, shape of cutting edge is of desired taper.
tapping, reaming) by attaching tool.
Tailstock does not rotate.
But tails tock itself can move to &
fro motion on lathe bed lays.
Carriage– ℓ = Length of tapered surface
• Located between head stock & tailstock. L = Length of work piece
• It is fitted on bed ways of lathe & can slide along the 2α = Taper angle
guide ways. α = Half taper angle
Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest
• Consists mainly five part.
(a) Apron
(b) Saddle
(c) Cross slide
Swivel
(d) Compound rest–Swivel 
Top slide D−d
tan α =
(e) Tool post 2ℓ

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Tail stock set over method or Tail stock off set Cutting speed for counter boring
method should be greater than that of drilling
x operation.
sin α =
L Spot facing It is an operation of smoothing &
Tail stock off set distance x = L sin α squaring the surface around a hole.
α = half taper angle Counter Operation of making cone shape
As half taper angle is very small sinking enlargement of the end of a hole.
D−d Lapping Lapping is a finishing process, which is
sin α ≈ tan α =
2ℓ carried out using loose abrasives.
D−d Trepanning It is an operation of producing a hole
x= ×L by removing metal along the
2ℓ
circumference of hollow cutting tool.
x = Tailstock off set.
Different types of lathe– Various types of drilling machine
1. Speed lathe or wood lathe. (a) Portable drilling machine
2. Engine lathe. (b) Sensitive drilling machine
3. Tool room lathe. (c) Radial drilling machine
4.Capstan & turret lathe. (d) Gang drilling machine
5. Special purpose lathe. (e) Multispindle drilling machine
6. Fully automatic lathe. (f) Deep hole drilling machine
Tool offset error– • Cutting speed or peripheral speed–
1. Tool offset above 2. Tool offset below V = πDN m/min
D = dia of drill bit
↑ α eff = α actual + θ  ↓ α eff = α actual − θ 
  N = Rotational speed of drill
↓ γ eff = γ actual − θ  ↑ γ eff = γ actual + θ  Feed– mm/rev
Chip flow ↑↑ Rubbing action at the end if feed is mm/min
flank ↓↓ Feed velocity = feed × rpm
Note– • Machining time or drilling time
In boring operation the tool is placed above the distance of tool travel L
tm = =
centre line ⇒ α ↓↓, Ceff ↑↑ feed × rpm fN
and below the centre line ⇒ α ↑↑, Ceff ↓↓
• Material removal rate = mm3/min
Hole making operations
π 2
Drilling It is a process of producing a MRR = d ×f × N
cylindrical holes by rotating fluted 4
cutting tool. (1) Point angle–
Both full length hole & through hole It usual value is 1180 & varies from metal to metal.
can be produced. Point angle = 900 for bakelite & fibrous plastic.
Boring It is an operation of enlarging a hole = 1180 for mild steel & brass
that has already been drilled. = 1350 for stainless steel
Point angle < 1180 = for softer materials.
Reaming It is an operation of slightly enlarging a
Point angle > 1180 = for harder alloy steel.
machined hole to proper size with a
(2) Lip (clearance) angle–
smooth finish.
Angle varies from 120 to 150.
Tapping It is an operation of producing internal
Angle formed by the flank and a plane at right angle
threads in a hole.
to the drill axis.
Hole drilled for tapping should be (3) Chisel edge angle–
smaller than tap size by twice the depth Angle usually varies from 1200–1350
of thread.
(4) Helix angle or Rake angle–
Counter Operation of enlarging one end of an Its usually value is 300
boring existing hole concentric with the Low helix angle for brass
original hole with square bottom. High helix angle for aluminum

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• Grinding– Resinoid or • Abrasive grain + synthetic resin

Synthetic • Good for high speed grinding
bond (B) • Use for rough grinding
Rubber • Abrasive grain + Rubber + Sulphur
bond (R) • For high speed operation
• Elastic bond
(1) Abrasive
• More elastic so soft on w/p surface
Natural abrasive Artificial abrasive
• Regulating wheel in centreless
(a) Sand stone or solid (a) Silicon carbide (SiC)– grinding is mode up of rubber bond.
quartz Trade name =
Shellac • Good surface finish
carborandum
bond (E) • Abrasive grain + shellac
used with non ferrous
components • Suitable for heavy duty operation.
(b) Emery (Al2O3 + iron (b) Aluminum oxide Metal bond • Abrasive grain + metal
oxide) (Al2O3)– (M) • Used in manufacturing of diamond
Prepared by ore bauxite & CBN
(white crystalline form) Grinding wheel wear–
Trade name = Alundum (1) Attributions grain wear–
(c) Corundum (Al2O3 + (c) Cubic boron nitride • Cutting edge of grain becomes dull & round which
ironed) (CBN)– reduces the removal of material.
Cubic crystal structure • Similar to flank wear of cutting tool.
very hard but less than (2) Grain fracture–
diamond. (3) Bond fracture–
(d) Diamond CBN & Diamond are
known as super abrasive
Hardness–
Diamond > CBN > SiC >
Al2O3 > Quartz.
(e) Garnet
Grain size–
8 − 24 ⇒ Coarser grain  Suitable for soft & ductile materials Loading of grinding wheel–

30 − 60 ⇒ Medium grain  Rough surface finish When chips will not find enough space to flow out
80 − 180 Fine grain  Smooth surface finish with grinding wheel then chips will get clogged with in
⇒ 
220 − 600 Very fine grain  Suitable for hard & ductile materials the interspaces b/w grain.
Grade or strength of bond–
A to H = Soft grade → for harder materials.
I to P = Medium grade
Q to Z = Harder grade → for soft materials
Structure– Open structure– 8–16 Reason behind loading–
Dense structure– 0–7 • Grinding soft material with dense structure.
Bonds– • If rpm of grinding wheel is low.
Virtified • Abrasive grains + Clay + Water • If cutting fluid is not appropriate.
bond (V) • Also known as ceramics bond Effect of loading on G.W.–
• Not affected by acid or alkaline • Misalignment of wheel.
solution. • Inaccuracy.
Silicate • Abrasive grain + Silicate of soda • Difficult to remove more material.
bond (S) • Low heat generation • Reduce surface finish.
• Water proof bond • Cutting force increase.

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Dressing Truing Centreless grinding–

Process of sharpening Process of aligning the • Process of grinding the diameter of a work piece not
mounted on centers or otherwise hold.
the grinding wheel if periphery of grinding
• It may be internal or external.
its edges get dull with wheel so that it run
• It this w/p is placed on the work rest blade between
working. concentric about its
the grinding wheel & regulating wheat.
axis of rotation. • Both wheel rotates in opposite direction of
Sharpening is done by This is done by workpiece direction.
breakdown the diamond strikes. • Regulating wheel = surface speed = 15–60 m/min
abrasive so that new • Grinding wheel rotates at a surface speed of = 1500–
sharp cutting edges 2000 m/min.
will expose. • Actual feed = πDN sinα
Main objective– Volume of material removed
• Grinding ratio =
Dislodging the wheel. Volume of wheel wear
Clean the wheel External centerless Internal centerless
Breakdown of grain grinding grinding
Grinding operations
Cylindrical • It may be internal or external.
grinding • Work or surface speed = 20–30
m/min.
• Grinding wheel speed = 1500–2000
m/min.
Surface • It is used to produce flat surface in Milling
grinding a horizontal position. • Specification of milling–
Face • It is used to produce flat surface in • Length of work table & its width.
grinding vertical position. • Maximum longitudinal cross & vertical motion.
Form • It is used to grind gear teeth, • Number of spindle speed & feed.
grinding threads, splined, shafts & holes. • Power of drilling motor.
• Net weight of machine.
Plunge • It is used to grind external diameter • Standard taper hole & size of spindle.
grinding of work piece equal to or shorter in
length than the width of the wheel
face by feeding the revolving wheel
into the work.
Snag • It is used to remove considerable
grinding amount of metal without regard to
accuracy of finished surface.

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Up milling Down milling

Cutter rotates against Cutter rotates along the
the direction of feed. feed direction on work
piece.
ℓ + ℓ0 + ℓa + X
tm =
Conventional milling. Climb milling. fm
Chip thickness = Chip thickness – Where, ℓ a = Approach length, ℓ 0 = Over travel
minimum to maximum maximum to minimum. X = Compulsory approach
More heat is distributed Less heat is distributed f m = f t .Z.N
to W/P which may to work piece. D
Slot milling, D = W So, X =
cause change in 2
mechanical properties.
More chance of tool Less chances of tool
wear because both are wear.
Jig Fixture
moving against each
A device which holds & A device which holds &
other. locates a W/P & guides locates a W/P during an
& controls one or more inspection for
Milling operations cutting tool. manufacturing
It is an operation of producing flat Ex. : Drilling, Reaming & operation.
Plane milling
Tapping. Ex. : Milling grinding
or horizontal surface parallel to the It is used for lights It is used for heavier
axis of cutter. operation. operation.
Operation of producing flat surface Types of jig–
Face milling
(a) Template jig (b) Plate jig
at right angles to the axis of rotation (c) Table jig (d) Sandwich jig
of the cutter. (e) Angle plate jig (f) Box jig
(g) Channel jig (h) Leaf jig
Angular or Operation of producing flat surface
(i) Indexing jig (j) Turn ion jig
bevel milling at an angle to the axis of the cutter. (k) Multi station jig
Side milling Producing vertical flat surface on Type of fixtures–
(a) Plate fixtures (b) Angle plate fixtures
the side face of job using a side (c) Vice jaw fixtures (d) Indexing fixture
milling cutter. (e) Profile fixtures
Unconventional machining process
End milling Operation of producing flat surface
Method Mechanism Source Process
either horizontal, vertical or at an
of
angle by using an end milling cutter. machining
Straddle In which a pair of side milling cutter Mechanism Erosion Fluid + WJM,
milling is used for machining two vertical particle AJM,
motion USM
surface of a w/p simultaneously.
Electrochemical Ion Electric ECM
displacement current
Face milling (Vertical) Chemical Corrosion Corrosive Chemical
agent machining
Symmetric Asymmetric
Thermal Fusion & Electric spark EDM
vaporizations High speed EBM
electrons LBM
Powerful Plasma
radiation are
1 1 2
High machining
X= D − D2 − W 2  X=
2 
D − D 2 − ( W + 2Y ) 
 temperature
2  
ionized gas
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Metal removal rate– e ( MRR )Vol.

PAM > ECM > EDM > USM > EBM > LBM 3. Sp. MRR (s) = =
↓ ↓ Fρ I
(Maximum) (Minimum) 4. f = electrode feed rate (mm/s or cm/s)
Electro discharge machining– f = Sp.MRR × J ( current density )
• High voltage & low current method.
• Work piece – Anode J=
I
f=
e
×
V
Tool – Cathode (Graphite + Cu or Tungsten + Cu) A Fρ ρs L
• Tool & W/P both must be a conductive nature. Ultrasonic machining–
• Dielectric fluid– Kerosene • Mechanical method.
• Metal is removed due to erosion caused by rapidly • Metal is removed by using abrasive slurry b/w tool
occurring discharge b/w tool & work. & work.
Favorable condition– • Used to machining of glass, ceramic, refractory.
• Thermal conductivity– Q ∝ K • Used in dental application.
• Work piece ⇒ KW↓, MRR↑ • High tool wear rate.
• Tool ⇒ KT↑, Tool wear↓ • 20 KHz - 30 KHz
• Specific heat capacity Q = mC∆T • Graphite tool is used
• Tool – C is high (tool wear is low) • Size of abrasive
• W/p– C is low (MRR is high)
Application–
• Blind complex cavities.
• Hard material dies.
Electrochemical machining–
• This process followers low of electrolysis (that is
faraday's low)
• According to this low, mass of metal removed is
directly proportional to amount of charge flow
within the electrolyte. Abrasive jet machining–
Mαq • Nozzle dia = 0.18–8 mm
M α It • Nozzle tip distance ↑ MRR ↑
M = ZIt
I = Current (Amp)
t = Time (sec)
Z = Electrochemical equivalent.
e ( gram equivalent )
Z= • Abrasives = sic = 30%
F ( Faradey 's constant )
Gas = 70%
(Faraday's constant – 96500 coulomb/mole) • Used for glass, germanium quartz.
• Tool & w/p both must be conductive in nature. Application–
• Excellent surface finish. • Slot or parting off operation.
• MRR is very high. EBM (Electron beam machining)
• No tool wear. • This process is carried out in vacuum.
• Gap b/w tool & work. • MRR is low & not used for larges w/p.
Use– Steam turbine blade. • Used for machining injector nozzle in diesel engine.
Summary– Laser beam machining (LBM)
eI At.wt. • More flexible the EBM.
1. MRR (gm/s) = , e=
F Valency • MRR is least.
eI gm • Used to machine jig-jag courtier.
2. MRR (volume) = (cm3/sec), ρ=
Fρ cm3 • Used to drill micro holes.
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Plasma arc machining– Type of allowances

• Poor accuracy. 1. Shrinkage allowance for important materials
• MRR is highs. Material Allowance
• Used for profile cutting of monal metal & stainless
Bismuth Negligible
steel.
Cast iron 10 mm/metre length
Aluminium alloy 12-15 mm/m length
Bronze, Brass, Cu 15 mm/m length
Pure Al 17 mm/m length
Grey cast iron Negative allowance
Plain carbon steel 20 mm/m length
Zinc lead 25 mm/metre length
Liquid shrinkage (Ist stage) > Solid shrinkage (IIIrd
stage) > Phase transformation shrinkage (IInd
stage)
2. Draft or taper allowance
Casting
Main components of Casting–
1. Pattern
2. Moulding sand
3. Tools & equipments
Casting terms–

Internal surface require more taper compared to

external surfaces.
3. Machining allowance
• For external dimension
Pattern size = cast size + 2 MA
• For internal dimension
Pattern size = cast size – 2 MA
4. Shaking or Rapping allowance
Pattern allowances
It is negative allowance
1. Shrinkage allowance
Pattern size = cast size – shaking allowance
5. Distortion or camber allowance– To overcome
contraction this allowance is provided on the pattern
opposite to the direction of the distortion.
Mould sand
Composition of moulding sand
Silica sand 70-75%
Clay 10-20%
Tp 1st stage Always contraction Water 3-6%
Tp–Tm Liquid Additive 1-6%
Shrinkage Additive used in moulding sand
Tm 2nd stage Compensated → Riser • Saw dust/wood flour – Improve green strength &
collapsibility.
Tm–Tf Mostly Exception– Grey CI
contraction expand so in grey cast iron • Linseed oil, Molasses – Strength & hardness
phase change no need of riser. • Coal dust, sea coal, silica flour – Surface finish &
resistance to metal penetration.
Tf 3rd stage
• Liquid & solid shrinkage is maximum for AL
T f– T o Solid (6.5% required more volume of riser).
shrinkage • Total shrinkage is maximum for steel
• Solid shrinkage is maximum for lead & zinc.

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Properties of moulding sand

Refractoriness Ability to withstand high temperature of the liquid metal without fusion.
Permeability Ability of moulding sand to allow the gasses to escape.
Factor affecting permeability
(a) size of grain– course grain – 40-50µ 400-600µ
(b) moisture content in the moulding sand (2-8%)
(c) shape of grain
(d) compactness & density
(e) Bonding content
Flowability Ability of moulding sand to flow into each & every corners of mould box due to
ramming force.
Hardness To minimize the erosion and to withstand force applied by liquid metal.
Collapsibility Ability of to collapse during solid contraction of cost object, to prevent it by
developing any resistance force against thermal contraction.
Strength (a) Green strength– having moisture.
(b) Dry strength– After evaporation of moisture/No moisture present.
(c) Hot strength– Required to hold the shape of the mould cavity after all the
moisture is eliminated.

Moulding sand 3. Sand slinger– It is used for uniform packing of sand

Green • Moist sand in the mould.
4. Diaphragm moulding machine– Used to uniform
sand • 18-30% clay + 5-8% moisture rest silica
ramming and hardness of the sand in the flask.
sand
5. Stripping plate machine– Used for draw the
• Fine, soft, light & porous
pattern from the mould.
• Only for small size Casting of ferrous &
Gating design
non-ferrous metals.
(1) Gate
Dry • If moisture from green sand is removed
sand • More compact & strong
• Suitable for large Casting.
Loam • 50% sand grains + 50% clay
sand • Used for loam moulding of large grey -
iron Casting, drums, large bell.
Facing • Small amount of carbonaceous material
sand sprinkled inner surface of mould cavity.
• Comes in contact with molten metal.
Backing • Sand used to back up the facing sand Top gate Bottom gate
sand and not used to the pattern. 2A m 
tf = h t − h t − h m 
Parting • Consist of dried silica sand + sea sand A g 2g 
sand or burnt sand. A sand employed on the If ht = hm
face of the patterns before moulding.
[ t f ]bottom = [ 2t f ]top
Moulding machine–
1. Jolt machine– Machine rams the sand harder at the
pattern face with decreasing hardness towards the
back of the mould. Vm
tf =
2. Squeezing machine– This machine rams the sand A g Vg
harder at the back of the mould and softer on the
pattern face. Vg = 2gh t

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Choke area – Area of min. cross-section in gating

design.
Non-pressurized Pressurized
• Gating ratio Gating ratio
Sprue : Runner : Ingate Sprue : Runner : Ingate
1 : 4 : 4 2 : 2 : 1
3. Riser
Choked area = A(sprue) Choked area = A(gate)
Optimum condition–
• Velocity of molten • Velocity of molten h=d V/A = d/6
Side Riser
metal is low metal high
Top Riser h = d/2 V/A = d/6
• Chances of turbulence • Chances of
& splashing is low turbulence &
Method of riser design
splashing is more.
(a) Volume of riser ≥ 3 time %age of shrinkage of
• High chance of air- • Suitable for ferrous
volume of casting
aspiration effect materials
( t s )riser ≥ ( t s )casting ⇒ 
V V
• Suitable for non-ferrous • No chances of air (b)  ≥ 
metals aspiration effect.  A r  A c
Useful metalin the mould Vc
Solidification time– Chvorinov's relation, C asting yield = =
Total volume of the metal Vc + Vg
n
 V  which enters into the mould cavity
Solidification time (ts) = K   n = 1.5-2.5, n ≃ 2
 SA  Vc = volume of casting
Vg = volume of gating element
Where, K = solidification factor
If C.Y. < 1 (gating element is used)
Always (ts)riser > (ts)casting C.Y. = 1 (gating element is not used)

EXPENDABLE MOULD (special Casting techniques)

Name of the process Pattern material Moulding material Application Special features
Shell moulding Al, C.I. Dry silica, phenol • Cylinder blocks Metallic pattern is used
formaldehyde • Rocker arm, piston
rings, thin Casting
Investment Casting Wax Silica flour, ethyl • Gas turbine blades Very complex and high melting point
(or) lost wax process silicate, ceramic • Dentures objects
• Gold ornaments
• Jet engine parts
Full moulding Plastics Silica sand with resin • Fitting tools Pattern will evaporate while pouring the
(cavityless) polystyrene binders • Motor Casting metal
or Evaporative • Foam, PVC
pattern Casting • Thermocouple
CO2 moulding Wood (or) metal Silica sand + sodium To prepare very large • CO2 gas supply to increase mould
silicate binder size mould hardness
Na2SiO3 (2-8%) + CO2→SiO2 (Silica gel) + Na2 CO3

(B) Permanent Mould

Name of the Mechanism Application Special features
process
Hot chamber die External plunger pressure • Lead & tin solders Low melting point (Lead, tin, zinc) component
Casting • Pump valves only produced
• Nuclear shielding components
Cold chamber External plunger pressure • Carburetors, crankcase valve High melting point non-ferrous materials Al, Cu,
die Casting bodies Brass etc.
• Fuel injection pump parts
Slush Casting Gravity force • Toys, decorative items, thin Object with thin section and made up of low M.P.
Casting, hollow thin Casting, materials like lead, tin, zinc Al.
lamp shades etc.

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Squeeze casting Gravity force & metal • Brake shoe Combination of Casting & forging.
solidified under pressure • Bushes
Continuous Gravity force • Long length billets • Casting + forming combination
casting • Blooms • Production rate is high
• Slabs
• Rods
Blow moulding Glass or plastic placed in • Plastic bottles
the die and air is blown • Bulb
into the die

Casting Related terms Casting defects–

Riddle It is used for cleaning the molding sand Type of defect Defect Remedies
Slick Repairing & finishing the mould
Gas defects Blow holes, pin Increase the
Lifter Used for smoothing & cleaning out
depression holes, scar, permeability
Swab Moistening the edges of sand before blister etc. of the sand,
removing the pattern. provide vent
Gate Actual entry point through which molten holes.
metal entries the mould. Moulding Drop & dirt, cuts • Perform
Pouring A small funnel shaped cavity at the top material defects and washes, uniform
basin of the mould into which molten metal is scab, rat tail ramming
poured. • Design the
Runner The passage way in the parting plane gating
through which metal flow. element
Sprue Regulate the flow before it reaches the properly
mould cavity controls the flow of the
metal into the mould. Gating design Shrinkage Design the
Riser It feeds the molten metal to the Casting cavities riser properly
in order to compensate for the shrinkage. Metallurgical Hot tears & Provide
Core For making hollow cavities in castings. defect cracks uniform
Core It forms a seat to support the cores. cooling
prints Other defects Mould shift & Provide
Chills Placed in the mould to increase the cold shift dowel pins,
cooling rate of casting to provide core prints &
uniform cooling rate. chaplets
• Chills are metal of high thermal
conductivity. Pouring material Misrun, cold Provide
defects shuts sufficient
Chaplets To support cores inside the mould
cavity. fluidity and
Padding Padding is extra metal of casting pouring
(material) to provide uniform cooling. temperature

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Welding
Weld pool It is amount of metal which is melted
by heat of welding.
Weld Bead It is amount of metal which is added to
the w/p in single pass.
Deposition Amount of metal which is added into
rate the w/p per unit time (kg/hr).
AP Toe Junction between w/p & weld face.
Dilution =
AP + AR Root Point of deepest penetration in a fillet.
AP → Area of penetration Throat Shortest distance between root & weld
AR → Area of reinforcement face.

Comparison of different electrode polarity– Flux coating materials

Direct current straight Direct current reverse Function Flux coating materials
polarity (DCSP) polarity (DCRP) De-oxidizers Graphite, Alumina, Ferro-silicon
• Electrode → (–ve) • Electrode – (+ve)
and ferromanganese
1/3rd of heat 2/3rd of heat
Slag formation Iron oxide, silicon oxide, silica
• Work piece →(+ve) • Work piece– (–ve)
compounds flour, calcium fluorides (CaF2)
2/3rd of heat 1/3rd of heat
• Depth of penetration • Depth of penetration is Arc-Stabilizers Sodium oxides (Na2O) Calcium
more less oxide (CaO)
• Deposition rate is less • Deposition rate is Alloying Chromium, Ni, Cobalt
more
elements
• Used for joining of • Used for joining of
Gas forming Cellulose, Calcium carbonate
more thickness and less thickness and low
high M.P. material M.P. materials. compounds (CaCO3)

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Gas welding technique– 3. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Leftward or fore-hand Right-ward or back • Heat generation is due to plasma arc between work
welding hand welding piece & tungsten electrode, (20,000oC) around.
• Inert gas used for shielding.
• Non-consumable tungsten electrode & ceramic
nozzle is used.
• High depth of penetration & welding speed is high.
Welding torch moving
Welding torch is moving Application–
from left to right
from right to left • High thickness & high M.P. material, titanium, Ni,
Inner-cone → melting the Inner cone → melting cobalt & stainless steel in aerospace, gas turbine
base material the base material blade.
Outer flame → preheating Outer flame → 4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) (Automatic
the base material Reheating the already technique)
welded portion
• Thickness, t = 10 – 50 mm (in a single pass)
By reducing the By annealing reliving I = 200 – 2000 A, V = 5 m/min.
temperature difference due the stresses & crack
Deposition rate = 20 kg/hr.
to slow rate of cooling, formation can be
coarse grain structure can minimized • Arc is generated between consumable electrode &
be produced work piece
The plate > 6 mm Economical for plate • Solid granular flux (CaO, CaF2) is supplied.
thickness are not over t > 6 mm • Arc is under flux, minimum heat loss & max. focus
economical to weld with thickness. on w/p.
this method • DCRP with high current is used.
Shielded gas arc welding Application– Pressure vessels, LPG cylinder, ship
1. TIG, GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) building.
• DCEN (Straight polarity) used for all except Al & 5. Thermite welding–
Mg.
• Heat generation is due to thermal reaction of
• DCEP (reverse polarity) known as cathode cleaning
chemical mixture (H2 gas is acting as shielding gas)
• AC source is used for Mg & Al
• Arc is produced between non-consumable tungsten 3FeO4 + 8 Al  → 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + ∆h
electrode & work piece. Fe3O4 : Al 
→ 3 : 1 (by mass)
• t < 5 mm (No filler used)
Application–
t > 5 mm (filler need)
• Used in repair work of railway rails.
Application– Al, Mg and its alloys in aerospace and
automobile industries. • Joining of high thickness of plates.
2. MIG (GMAW) Gas metal inert gas welding • Joining of broken castings.
(Semi automatic) 6. Atomic hydrogen welding–
• At low current – Droplet transfer ⇒ only gravity • Heat is generated due to reunion of H2 atoms into H2
force molecules. Two non-consumable tungsten electrode
• At high current – Spray transfer ⇒ gravity + is used.
magnetic force
H2 
→ H + H – ∆h1
• No flux is used & welding speed is more.
• Wire in form of consumables electrode is used. H + H 
→ H2 + ∆h2
• Inert gas atmosphere is provided (He, Ar, CO2) • H2 gas act as shielding gas.
Application– Used for welding of stainless steels Al, Application– Tool steel, die steel, repair work of cutting
Mg, Cu & Ni alloy. tools & die.

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Resistance welding–
Welding Working principle Application Special features
technique
Spot welding • Heat is generated due to Lap joining of sheet • No flux
resistance metals in automobile & • No filler material
• Nugget cylindrical shape refrigerator bodies • No leak proof joints are formed
h = height of nugget
d=6 t
I – (10,000 - 50,0000 A)
V – (5-10 V)
t = 0.01-0.5s
Seam welding Two sheets are provided Fuel tank, radiator bodies, • Electrodes are in the form of
(continuous between two rollers or exhaust pipes used in rollers or wheels
welding) wheels automobile • Leak proof joint.
heat is generated due to
resistance
Projection No. of projection by • Wire mess It is a multi spot welding
welding embossing technique • Joining of screw & nuts
of sheets
Flash butt By supplying high rate of • Joining of rods, pipes Joining of mild steel shank to
welding current a sudden flash will end to end high speed drill
be produced at the contact
of two work piece

Application of different flames 3

2CO + H2 + O 2 
→ 2CO2 + H2O + ∆h2
Metal Flame 2
M.S. Neutral 5
C2H2 + O 2 
→ 2CO2 + H2O + ∆h
High carbon steel Carburizing 2
Gray cast iron Neutral
Alloy steel Neutral
Aluminium alloy Neutral
Brass Oxidizing
Cu, Bronze Oxidizing
Ni-Alloy Carburizing
Lead Neutral
Gas welding (Chemical reaction welding)
Note– 1 vol. of C2H2  → 2.5 vol. of O2
Oxy-Acetylene gas welding
1 vol. of O2 is taken from cylinder
C2H2 + O2 
→ 2CO + H2 + ∆h1 1.5 vol. of O2 taken from atmosphere

Types of flame
Flame type Specific features Application
Neutral flame • Inner cone – 3100 C
o
M.S., cast iron, low carbon
 O  steel, Al, Cu
• C2H2 = O2  2 = 1
 C2 H 2 
• Hissy & little smokey

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Oxidizing flame • Inner case – 3300oC Oxygen free Cu alloy brass,

 O  bronze & zinc base
• C2H2 < O2  2 = 1.5 materials.
 C2 H 2 
• Roaring (No smoke & noisy)

Reducing or carburizing flame • Inner cone – 2900oC • Medium carbon steel

 O  • Hard surfacing material
• C2H2 > O2  2 = 0.9 :1 such as satellite
 C2 H 2 
• Ni
• No any noise (smoky)

Solid state welding

Welding technique Working principle Application
Explosive welding • Cladding a plate or slab with
dissimilar metals
• Joining of titanium to steel
Steel to aluminium etc.

Joint is produced due to plastic deformation

Ultrasonic welding • Heating the material upto 0.5 TM and by • Used in fabrication of sim cards
applying external pressure • Fabrication of diodes in
• Frequency– 20 KHz to 75 KHz electronic industries.
• Expensive technique used for thin material only
• Heat affected zone is negligible
• Thickness < 1-2 mm foils
Friction welding • Heating the material upto red hot condition then Joining of drill bits valve to pipe &
applying axial pressure shank axle stub
N ⇒ 4000-6000 rpm
P ⇒ 40-400 MPa
• Heat is generated due to friction
Forge welding • Exactly similar to black smith forging operation Village level agricultural
• Work piece heated upto recrystallization application
temperature then hammered to get required
joint.
Diffusion welding • Both heat & pressure simultaneously applied at • Fabrication of composite
slow rate laminate
• Grain diffusion will take place • Joining of similar & dis-similar
• Accuracy & strength is very high material like metal to ceramics
• To minimize oxide formation inert gases are
provided or vacuum is made

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Welding defects
Defect Cause Remedies
Gas porosity Atmospheric gases are trapped in • Provide sufficient amount of flux
the joint • Protect the liquid metal by providing inert gas.
Slag inclusion In-sufficient heat input improper • Provide sufficient amount of heat
position of the electrode • Position the electrode properly
Weld spatter Excess amount of heat input arc Provide sufficient amount of heat, reduce the arc blow.
blow
Lack of fusion Lack of heat input, filler material Provide sufficient heat, select optimum welding speed.
& penetration is not fused properly with base
metal
Weld cracks Non uniform cooling, filler metal Provide uniform cooling, use preheating & post heating
composition is not uniform
Weld decay In case of stainless steel due to Provide uniform cooling.
fast rate of cooling chromium in
the joint react with carbon and
form chromium carbide and cavity
is formed
Solid/liquid state welding
Brazing Soldering Braze welding
(Due to capillary action) Filler material enter into the • (Due to capillary action) (Due to gravity) filler
work piece filler material enter into w/p material enter into w/p
450oC < filler material < work piece melting point • Filler metal M.P. < 450oC When edge preparation
temperature is possible
Cu + Zn  Filler Filler ⇒ bronze (Cu +

Filler material alloy of Cu + Silver  Spelter lead + tin (solder) Tin)
Cu + Al 

• Flux borax & boric acid • Flux ⇒ ZnCl2 & NH4Cl or Joining cutting tool tip
• To produce leak proof joint HCl to shank
• Used in electrical circuit
design

Electron beam welding Laser beam welding

• Electron beam is focused by using Laser beam is focused using optical lens
magnetic lens
• No flux, no filler required Micro welding

• Vacuum necessary Multilayered material with different (K) thermal conductivity can
be joined
• Depth of penetration, welding speed No vacuum needed
high
• HAZ is less Weld dissimilar metal
• In aerospace, nuclear power plant Joining of Al, Cu, high carbon steel in electronic industry.
Joining of titanium, Ni, Cu

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