Development of the Transfer Unit for the Toyota Land Cruiser

Takahiro Yoshimura Hiroyuki Shimokasa Raf Schuermans

TOYOTA MOTOR CORPORATION TOYOTA MOTOR EUROPE
Key words: Power Transmission, limited slip differential, torque split, four wheel drive (4WD)

1. Introduction 2. Outline

As the world’s third biggest carmaker, Toyota Motor 2.1. Development targets
Corporation is offering a broad range of 4WD vehicles The following targets were set at the start of development
worldwide. of the VF4 Transfer Unit Series:
Our lineup currently consists of more than 35 different 1. Improved driving stability and traction performance.
models using various types of 4WD technology. 2. Downsizing & mass reduction.
Fig. 1 shows a selection of some popular models. 3. Maintain good NV performance.
4. Improved shift operation and shifting performance.

Full-time Stand-by Rear Motor 2.2. Outline of VF4 Series

Land Cruiser Vitz Estima Hybrid Table 1 shows the outline of the VF4 Series.
RAV4 Platz Alphard Hybrid • The part-time version VF4AM is currently only used in
RX300 Wish
vehicles sold in Japan and USA. The switchover
4Runner Corolla
Crown Ipsum between 2WD mode and 4WD mode is by means of
Caldina Raum an electric actuator. Additionally, the same actuator is
Alphard Gaia operating the High-Low reduction gear, as well as the
Verossa Noah center differential Lock.
Brevis Avensis
Altezza Allion • The full-time version VF4B is standard on the Land
Camry Cruiser sold in Europe. The High-Low reduction gear
… … and the center differential Lock are operated manually
Fig 1. Toyota worldwide 4WD lineup by means of the shift lever. In case the customer
selects the option of the Brake Control System for his
Especially in recent years, the so-called SUV segments vehicle, the center differential Lock operation will be
have shown considerable growth. Along with this electrical instead of manual.
popularity, customer requirements in terms of driving
stability, ride comfort, and quietness have become
stronger than ever before. Against this background, many
carmakers have developed SUV models derived from
passenger cars, and new SUVs from various companies
continue to enter the marketplace almost every month.
Toyota has therefore developed the latest Land Cruiser
with the aim of maintaining its leading position as
full-fledged offroad vehicle, while at the same time
competing with passenger-car-derived SUVs in terms of Table 1. VF4 Series applications
driving stability and ride comfort. In addition to the rugged
characteristics and off-road reliability that have made the
Land Cruiser range famous over the last 53 years, a
drastic improvement has been achieved in terms of
driving stability and Noise and Vibration (NV) against the
previous model. This article introduces the newly
developed Transfer Unit, named VF4, which has greatly
contributed to the achievement of these targets.

1
2.3. Basic structure of VF4 Series surface friction coefficient µ as (µf, µr), and the centrifugal
The cut model of the VF4AM Transfer Unit is shown in force acting on the vehicle as (Fm), the yaw moment of
Fig. 2. The improvements in the structure over the the cornering vehicle is expressed as Mc in the following
previous version are as follows: formula.
• Adoption of Torsen-C as center differential. Mc = Cf x Lf – Cr x Lr
• Full motor shift by 2 motor actuators. Mc = 0 : Equilibrium state (no yaw movement)
• Integrated 2WD/4WD and center diff Lock Mc > 0: Over-steering (OS) tendency
mechanisms. Mc < 0: Under-steering (US) tendency
• Shortening of full length by 50mm.
By adopting these points, the torque capacity improved by
Ｗｆ µｆ
25% and the mass reduced by 2kg compared to the
Ｆｆ Ｃｆ
previous model.

µf ・Ｗｆ Ｍｃ＞０ Ｌｆ
Ｆｍ

Ｍｃ＜０
Ｗｒ µｒ Ｌｒ

Ｆｒ Ｃｒ

µｒ・Ｗｒ

Fig 3. Tire friction circles and dynamic cornering model

Moreover, the cornering forces that can be generated on

the front and rear wheels are expressed with the following
Fig 2. Cut model of VF4AM formulae from the characteristic of tire friction circles.
（µｆ・Ｗｆ）２－Ｆｆ２）１／２
・Front wheel：Ｃｆ＝（
・Rear wheel：Ｃｒ＝（（µｒ・Ｗｒ）２－Ｆｒ２）１／２
3. Selection of traction distribution device Here, Wf, Wr, and µ (µf, µr) are values that change with
the vehicle acceleration state and with the road surface
3.1. Theoretical background of traction force conditions. In order to utilize the tire friction circles
distribution efficiently, control of traction force distribution according to
In order to improve the vehicle’s handling, a traction force these situations is required.
distribution control depending on the driving condition and
a device that highly responds to the situation are needed. The calculation results of the torque distribution ratio that
The required characteristics and degrees of influence are is required to realize the equilibrium state (Mc = 0) are
reviewed below. The reasons for selecting Torsen-C are shown in Fig. 4. The horizontal axis shows the vehicle’s
also described. longitudinal acceleration. The vertical axis shows the
torque distribution ratio.
1. Review of required distribution characteristics. For a given road friction µ, and at maximum lateral G, the
Fig. 3 shows the tire friction circles (Kammscher Kreis) vehicle can generate more longitudinal G as the torque is
and the two-wheel dynamic cornering model that are both shifted to the Front. This result indicates that the traction
well known from literature. When the traction force F of distribution device should be able to control mainly
the front and rear wheels is set as (Ff, Fr), the cornering rear-biased torques.
force C as (Cf, Cr), the distance L from the center of
gravity as (Lf, Lr), the load W as (Wf, Wr), the road

2
 The results for Torsen-A, Torsen-B and Torsen-C are
Fr : Rr
shown in Fig. 6.
10 : 90
Yaw
20 : 80 Rate
[deg/sec]
30 : 70 Torsen-C
µ=0.6 µ=1.2 12
40 : 60 Oversteer Torsen-A
µ=0.4
50 : 50 Torsen-B
10
Understeer
0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
Longitudinal G
8
50 55 60 65 [km/h]
Fig 4. Achievable longitudinal G at maximum lateral G
Fig. 6. Yaw rate with Torsen

2. Influence of responsiveness of torque distribution As can be seen, these mechanical torque-sensing

Fig. 5 shows the results of a response analysis of the devices have a good response in general. Especially
distribution control (yaw rate feedback control), based on Torsen-C stands out by the fact that it can keep the
a controlled clutch system. vehicle in a stable yaw condition for longer than even our
The vehicle is driven on a road surface µ=0.6, along a hypothetical (0 msec) controlled clutch could do. This
constant radius of 80m, at an initial speed of 30km/h. As means that we have found a mechanical system that can
the throttle is opened gradually, the vehicle builds up compete with sophisticated electronically controlled
speed, resulting in an increase of yaw rate. systems, at a much lower complexity and cost. These
effects were confirmed in an actual vehicle evaluation in
the initial stages of the development.
Yaw
Rate
[deg/sec] 3.2. Drivetrain downsizing
12 Based on the appeal of the Torsen technology as
Oversteer 0 msec
described above, any influence on the design of the front
70msec
drive system was checked. From the distribution
10
Understeer 110msec characteristics shown in Fig. 7, Torsen-A and Torsen-B
190msec cannot avoid generating a front-biased distribution, most
8
50 55 60 65 [km/h] notably when the rear wheels start to loose traction. In
comparison to the previous model (using an open 50:50
Fig. 5. Yaw rate simulations center differential), that would result in a bigger front diff in
order to cope with that torque. Torsen-C however allows a
As long as the yaw rate shows a fixed relation to the
design that will largely remain rear-biased, even when the
vehicle speed, the vehicle is in a stable condition. As from
rear wheels loose traction. For this reason too, Torsen-C
a certain vehicle speed, the yaw rate collapses, which
is a good candidate to increase the system’s functionality
means that the car can no longer keep the circular path
without having to add any mass elsewhere in the car.
and understeers straight ahead. Compared to a realistic
Fr looses grip
response time for a controlled clutch of 70 milliseconds, a Inactive
Rr looses grip
great improvement can be seen when the system Fr : Rr Torsen-A Torsen- C
response is set to 0 milliseconds. That however is just a Torsen-B
30 : 70
hypothetical case, since the controlled clutch will need
some response time in any case. 50 : 50

70 : 30

Fig 7. Distribution ratio with Torsen

3
3.3. Practical traction performance
A comparison of low-µ climbing performance is shown in
Fig. 8. The open-type center differential as used in the Strength

previous model quickly reached its limits, unless the driver Target
1.0
operated the Lock function. With the new model, adopting
Torsen-C, the vehicle can cope with a much wider variety 0
Torsen-C Torsen-B
in road friction conditions without any action required from
the driver. The absolute maximum climbing performance
Fig. 10. Low Cycle Fatigue Strength
remains unchanged when operating the Lock function. In
summary, the practical traction performance of the new
model has become more convenient thanks to the 3.5. Synergy of Torsen and A-TRC
adoption of Torsen-C. Active Traction Control (A-TRC) applies braking control
independently to whichever of the four wheels might be
Front µ slipping, thereby creating a limited slip differential effect.
0.4
Lock The brake torque Tb applied to the slipping wheel is
Open center diff transferred to a non-slipping wheel across the differential.
0.3 (previous model)
The non-slipping wheel receives this torque as an
can climb
additional traction torque Tt, as shown in Fig. 11, thereby
0.2
Torsen-C improving the traction performance of the vehicle.
Impossible can climb In the previous Land Cruiser, with its open center
0.1 to climb
differential, the brake torque induced by the A-TRC was
0 transfered 1:1. Consequently, when one of the wheels
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Rear µ
was loosing traction during off-roading, the additional
Fig. 8. Low-µ climbing (10 deg incline)
torque that could be generated at the other wheel was
nevertheless limited.
3.4. Reliability
The adoption of A-TRC (Active Traction Control) on a Ｔｂ
Fr Wheel Racing Torsen
vehicle requires the drivetrain to cope with sudden
Ｔｔ
changes in torque and speed induced by the brakes. This Ｔｔ
causes new challenges in terms of durability in off road
use (high torque and high differential speeds) and fatigue Ｔｂ

strength.
Fig. 11. Synergy of Torsen and A-TRC
As shown in Fig. 9 and 10, Torsen-C meets both criteria at
the same time. Even though Torsen-B exceeds the
Torsen-type differentials excel in this respect by the fact
fatigue strength target by a bigger margin than Torsen-C,
that the brake torque Tb is amplified by the Torque Bias
it completely fails to meet the off road durability target.
Ratio (TBR) before it reaches the other wheel.
As a result, Torsen-C provides the best combination of
As a result, the A-TRC system gets more effective in
off-road durability and fatigue strength.
enhancing the vehicle’s traction performance when it is
Durability combined with a Torsen.
1.0 Target

0.5

0
Torsen-C Torsen-B

Fig. 9. Off-road durability

4
3.6. NV performance Once this was clear, the correlation between the vibration
Torsen-type limited slip differentials are using friction for of the rear differential and the plateau ratio of the planet
their slip limiting function. This can cause NV concerns, gears was established, as shown in Fig. 14.
especially when the vehicle is taking off with a differential
Before improvement
speed over the center differential (e.g. during a minimal
After improvement
radius turn-in, up to about 10 km/h). This typically leads to Rear Diff
Vertical G Durability cycle 2
a vertical vibration of the rear differential, which is then
transmitted to the rear floor of the vehicle and felt there as
a judder. The transmission path of such vibration is shown Target
in Fig. 12.
Durability cycle 1
-Torsen Propshaft Diff.
friction Torsional Vertical Plateau Ratio
-Torque Resonance Vibration (mileage)
fluctuation
Rr Floor Fig. 14 Rear diff vibration against plateau ratio
Vibration
b3 b2 b1
Fig. 12. NV transmission path
C

To find a countermeasure for this judder has been one of

the most difficult engineering tasks during the L
Ｌ
development of the new transfer unit, especially because
the countermeasure had to remain effective for the entire Plateau ratio
life of the vehicle. Tp =( b1+b2+b3+ - - - bn ) / L x 100
Fig. 13. shows the results of a parameter study. Starting
from a differential that had run a durability test, the The targets could finally be met by means of a special
components were replaced by fresh ones, one-by-one, processing, and by applying a coating on the outer
and the vibration of the rear differential was measured diameters of the planet gears. This ensures that the
with these new setups. This led to the conclusion that the plateau ratio, and thereby the vibration level, remains
Planet Gears and the Carrier were the main contributors within the targets over the vehicles lifetime.
to the vibration, while the Washers, the Sun Gear and the
Internal Gear had no influence.
3.7. Selection of Torsen-C technology
In summary, our evaluations have led to the conclusion
Rear Diff. Level after durability test
Vertical G that the Torsen-C technology is the only one that meets all
our targets for the Land Cruiser, as shown in Table 2.

Washer Sun Internal Planet Carrier

gear gear gear

Fig. 13. Vibration reduction by fresh components

Table 2: Criteria and judgements for Land Cruiser

The Toyota VF4 Series is the world’s first application of

the Torsen-C technology.

5
 4.3. Torque transmission route
4. Presentation of Torsen-C A cross section of Torsen-C is shown in Fig. 16, and the
principle of torque distribution is shown in Fig. 17.
4.1. Outline of structure Input
The structure of a Torsen-C is fundamentally the same as
that of a single planetary gearset, comprising an Internal
Gear (IG), a planetary carrier, several Planet Gears (PG),
and a Sun Gear (SG), as shown in Fig. 15.
Fr Output
Rr Output

Internal Gear (IG) Fig.16 Torsen-C: Cross Section

Planet Gear
(PG) Washer
Fr Output
Nut PG

Carrier (Housing)

PG
ri

Rr Output S G I G
Sun Gear Fr Torque (%)= rs / ( rs + ri ) ×100
(SG) SG Rr Torque (%)= ri / ( rs + ri ) ×100
rs
Housing Carrier

Fig.15 Basic structure of Torsen-C Fig.17 Principle of Torque Distribution

During straightline driving on a dry road, the force that is

The difference is that the Planet Gears can generate a input by the planetary carrier is distributed 40/60
friction force against the carrier on their outer diameter, (Front/Rear), without involving any limited slip function.
because they are floating in the carrier, rather than being The distribution ratio corresponds to the ratio of the radii of
fixed by pins. Sun Gear (SG) and Internal Gear (IG). The 60% torque to
the rear wheels is helpful for an appropriate turn-in
4.2. Main advantages steering response.
a. .Lightweight and Compact
• The output components (IG, SG) overlap by their 4.4. Limited slip mechanism
difference in diameter, making for a compact As known from Torsen-A and Torsen-B, the limited slip
design. effect is generated by means of internal friction forces. In
• High torque distribution ratio is possible with just a the case of the new Torsen-C, these friction forces are as
single planetary gear mechanism. follows:
• The structure combines the differential function and
the limited slip function in the same hardware. • Tooth tip friction of Planet Gear (PG) against carrier.
b. Excellent strength and durability. • Tooth face friction of gear meshings (PG/SG & PG/IG).
• The design can be upgraded relatively easily, by • Thrust washers friction.
increasing the number of Planet Gears.
∆ Tp=(Fs+Fi)・ rp・ µ
c. Low cost.
• The Torsen structure is simple and easy to process. Fi

The system does not require any actuators or Fs+Fi rp

electronic control units. Fs

Fig.18 Effect of tooth tip friction

6
As can be seen from Fig 18, the tooth tip friction creates
an additional torque ∆Tp on the Planet Gear, and thereby 5. Transfer Unit compact design
modifies the torque distribution ratio in a direction that will
limit the wheel slip.
High / Low
In a similar way, the torque on the Sun Gear will be
modified by the thrust washer friction by an amount ∆Ts
as exemplified in Fig 19.

∆ Ts=F2・ φ D/2・ µ Lock

PG β

F2 = Fs・ tanβ
SG
F
Gear helix angle： β
Washer Frictio n Circle Dia.:Φ D

Fig.19 Effect of thrust washer friction

Lock Mechanism
High / Low

Hi/LO shift

Center Diff

Actuator
Rr Output
4.5. Torque distribution ratio versus driving condition

Transfer chain
The limited slip effects as explained above, and the
changes in torque distribution that go with that, are
summarized in Table 3.

Differential Fr Out put

Drive Coast
Condition
Front = Rear
40 : 60
(e.g. straight line) Fig.20 Previous model
Front > Rear
29 : 71 58 : 42
(e.g. turning)
Rear < Front Fig. 20 shows the skeleton diagram and the functional
53 : 47 28 : 72
(e.g. Rear looses grip) block diagram of the previous transfer unit series.
As can be seen, all functional elements are arranged in
Table .3 Torque distribution in Drive and Coast
series (High/Low planetary set Æ High/Low shift
mechanism Æ Center Lock shift mechanism Æ Center
Torsen automatically adjusts the torque distribution ratio to differential (open type) Æ Front transfer system (chain) Æ
one of these modes. When the vehicle tends to oversteer, Motor actuator), and each shifting mechanism is
the system will switch to the 53:47 mode, thereby independent.
preventing a spin. This allows the driver to enjoy the
feeling of a RWD vehicle with enhanced safety and
stability. The new VF4 series has a more compact design as
shown in Fig 21, mainly thanks to the adoption of the
The nominal torque distribution ratio (40:60) can be Torsen-C technology.
adjusted in the design by varying the pitch diameters of The center differential is reduced in diameter, and the
Sun Gear and Internal Gear within certain limits. The shifting mechanisms are arranged at its outside, whereby
distribution ratios in the other driving conditions can be they do not take up any axial space
tuned by means of the gear parameters and by the
friction radii of the thrust washers, etc..

7
 High / Low

Lock

6. Afterword

The VF4 series transfer unit used in the Toyota Land

Cruiser is the world’s first adoption of the Torsen-C
Lock Mechanism technology. The main advantages of Torsen-C lie in its
supreme reliability, compact design and system cost.
High / Low

Input ＲRr Out

Torsen C

Actuator

ｒ 出力 Special countermeasures have been taken in order to

guarantee a good NV behaviour throughout the vehicle’s
Transfer Chain

lifetime. Torsen-C is considered to be one of the best

High / Low
副変速切替機構
solutions for full-time 4WD systems at Toyota.
Shift Further vehicle applications are currently under
Fr Out development with the aim of offering reliable and
comfortable 4WD to the customers worldwide.
The authors wish to express their gratitude to everyone in
Fig.21: VF4 model
and outside the company involved in the development
and production of this transfer unit.
Consequently, this design is setting new benchmarks for
torque capacity ratio and system mass.

Mass 7. Bibliography
Competit or
[kg]

40
Yozo Yamashita et al.: “About the synergistic effect of
Previous Torsen-type LSD and vehicle movement control in 4WD
Type New Type
vehicles” JSAE 20025518 (2003)
20
1.0 1.5
Fukashi Sugasawa: “The limited performance of driving
Torque Capacity Ratio
stability” JSAE 20034418 (2003)

Rakuzo Mitamura: “How a car corners; its Manner and

Limit” Sankaido
Competitors

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Total Length mm