Review Paper

Worldwide pesticide usage and its impacts on ecosystem

Anket Sharma1,2 · Vinod Kumar3 · Babar Shahzad4 · Mohsin Tanveer4 · Gagan Preet Singh Sidhu5 · Neha Handa2,6 ·
Sukhmeen Kaur Kohli2 · Poonam Yadav2 · Aditi Shreeya Bali7 · Ripu Daman Parihar8 · Owias Iqbal Dar9 ·
Kirpal Singh9 · Shivam Jasrotia9 · Palak Bakshi2 · M. Ramakrishnan10 · Sandeep Kumar11 · Renu Bhardwaj2 ·
Ashwani Kumar Thukral2

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Abstract
Pesticides are extensively used in modern agriculture and are an effective and economical way to enhance the yield qual-
ity and quantity, thus ensuring food security for the ever-growing population around the globe. Approximately, 2 million
tonnes of pesticides are utilized annually worldwide, where China is the major contributing country, followed by the USA
and Argentina, which is increasing rapidly. However, by the year 2020, the global pesticide usage has been estimated
to increase up to 3.5 million tonnes. Although pesticides are beneficial for crop production point of view, extensive use
of pesticides can possess serious consequences because of their bio-magnification and persistent nature. Diverse pes-
ticides directly or indirectly polluted air, water, soil and overall ecosystem which cause serious health hazard for living
being. In the present manuscript, an attempt has been made to critically review the global usage of different pesticides
and their major adverse impacts on ecosystem, which will provide guidance for a wide range of researchers in this area.

Keywords Global pesticide usage · Pesticide application · Pesticide bio-magnification · Pesticide ecotoxicology

1 Introduction therefore, effective pest management by using wide range

of pesticides is required to confront pests and to increase
Pesticides are the chemicals (natural or synthetic) the crop production [1]. However, in the last half of the
employed in various agricultural practices to control pests, nineteenth century, robust growth in the world economy
weeds and diseases in plants. Pesticides include a wide including both industrial and agricultural sectors has led
range of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, to the progressive mount in the generation and utiliza-
nematicides, etc. In the process of agricultural develop- tion of agriculture-based chemicals which often induce
ment, pesticides became a vital tool for plant protection calamitous effects on the environment. Injudicious use of
and for enhancing crop yield. Approximately, 45% of the pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants in agri-
annual food production is lost due to pest infestation; cultural soils have devastated future repercussions. The

Anket Sharma, Vinod Kumar and Babar Shahzad have contributed equally to this work.

* Anket Sharma, anketsharma@gmail.com | 1State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300,
China. 2Plant Stress Physiology Lab, Department of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar,
Punjab 143005, India. 3Department of Botany, DAV University, Sarmastpur, Jalandhar, Punjab 144012, India. 4School of Land and Food,
University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia. 5Department of Applied Sciences, UIET, Chandigarh 160014, India. 6Department
of Botany, School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab 144411, India. 7Department
of Botany, M.C.M. DAV College for Women, Chandigarh 160036, India. 8Department of Zoology, DAV University, Sarmastpur, Jalandhar,
Punjab 144012, India. 9Department of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, India. 10Division of Plant Biotechnology,
Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai, India. 11Department of Environmental Sciences, DAV University,
Sarmastpur, Jalandhar, Punjab 144012, India.

SN Applied Sciences (2019) 1:1446 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1485-1

Received: 31 May 2019 / Accepted: 11 October 2019 / Published online: 21 October 2019

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persistent and ubiquitous nature of various agriculture- from one site to other in the form of degraded products
based pesticides and other organic pollutants has posed [13]. Pesticides used in agriculture are synthetic in origin
havoc to the mankind due to their bioaccumulation prop- and get absorbed in the soil through surface runoff from
erties and high toxicity [2]. These pesticides are known to treated plants. The nature of organic compound, cropping
hinder the normal functioning of endocrine and reproduc- practices, irrigation techniques and climatic factors influ-
tive systems in living organisms [3]. Certain pesticides like ence the dissolution of pesticides in soil [14]. The residues
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), chlordane, aldrin, of these organochlorine compounds further pollute the
dieldrin, endrin, mirex, heptachlor and hexachlorobenzene groundwater through leaching and in turn affect the qual-
impart deleterious effects on human health and environ- ity of agricultural crops. Pesticides get accumulated in soils
ment [4]. directly by its application in agriculture and domestic pur-
There may be other alternatives available to control poses or indirectly by deposition of airborne contaminants
crop loss due to pest attack which may include the applica- previously coming from different sites or areas. Soil serve
tion of various biopesticides. Developing some pest-resist- as storage compartments due to high affinity of organic
ant crop varieties using transgenic approaches is also one chemicals with soil [15]. The deposition of organic chemi-
method to avoid pesticide use. But application of chemical cals or pesticides in soil directly exposes soil organisms
pesticides is still preferred the most over all other alterna- and also increases the risk for other higher organisms
tives to protect crops from yield loss. Presently, through- through diet and can severely affect soil ecosystem, water
out the globe approximately 2 million tonnes of pesticides bodies, plants and human health [16–19]. Keeping in mind
are utilized, out of which 47.5% are herbicides, 29.5% are the extensive use of pesticides throughout the globe, the
insecticides, 17.5% are fungicides and 5.5% are other pes- present review gives an overview about the application of
ticides [5]. The top ten pesticide consuming countries in pesticides in the world and their various impacts on the
the world are China, the USA, Argentina, Thailand, Brazil, ecosystem.
Italy, France, Canada, Japan and India [6]. Moreover, it has
been estimated that by the year 2020, the global pesticide
usage will increase up to 3.5 million tonnes [7]. 2 Pesticides used worldwide
Pesticides are applied to increase crop productivity;
however, in due course of time, they get accumulated in 2.1 Pesticide usage in Africa
plant parts, water, soil, air and biota. Extensive use of pes-
ticides contaminates soil and water, remain in the crops The economy of Africa is largely dependent on agricul-
and finally enter food chain, thereby posing threat to the ture, and nearly 59% of the population makes their living
human beings [8, 9]. The commercial use of pesticides in from farming [20]. Despite that, the African continent has
agriculture produces vapors of pesticides that have the a contribution of 2–4% of global market share of pesti-
ability to become air pollutant [10]. The release of pesti- cides which also accounts for the lowest rate of their usage
cides into the air largely depends upon the physical and in the world [20]. Due to increasing population, the food
chemical properties of the active compound, application demand has been projected to enhance at a rapid rate in
procedure and changing environment conditions [11, the next three decades and thus, demand of pesticides,
12]. Further, the volatilization of water adds pesticides herbicides and fungicides is also likely to enhance [21].
into the air. The pesticides get dispersed and transported Table 1 summarizes the usage of pesticides in various

Table 1  Pesticide usage in S. no. African countries Area ­(km2) Quantity of pesticide used Quantity of pesticide
African countries in the years in 2010 (kg/ha) used in 2014 (kg/ha)
2010 and 2014, index on the
basis of their area. (modified 1. Congo 2,345,000 3.61 3.03
after Lobin et al. [22])
2. Sudan 1,886,068 0.09 0.25
3. Cameroon 475,442 1.22 NA
4. Zimbabwe 390,757 NA 0.53
5. Malawi 118,484 0.15 0.60
6. Togo 56,785 0.09 0.25
7. Rwanda 28,338 0.69 1.47
8. Burundi 27,834 0.19 NA
9. Mauritius 2,040 28.17 27.19

NA Data not available

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African countries based on their area in the 2010 and 2014. comes under WHO class Ib chemicals. Other pesticides that
The data show that the usage of pesticides declined in were reported included atrazine and metolachlor which
Congo and Mauritius, while in Sudan, Malawi, Togo and fall under WHO class III chemicals (slightly hazardous),
Rwanda, it increased in the years 2010–2014. and lindane, copper sulfate and paraquat which are WHO
In order to maintain high yields and profits, pesticide class II chemicals. Nyirenda et al. [29] reported the usage
usage becomes a necessity in agriculture [23]. Also, most of monocrotophos (Ib) by 41% farmers in Zambia, while in
of the governments encouraged the usage of pesticides Malawi, parathion, a WHO class Ia pesticide (extremely haz-
since 1970 and in 1990s, amendment in several policies led ardous), is used by over 25% of farmers. Other commonly
to reduction in input subsidies. Such changes in policies used active ingredients in pesticides include glyphosate
resulted in even less monitoring by the governments. Due (III), malathion (III), chlorpyrifos (II), cypermethrin (II), del-
to this, more inflow occurred from the informal channels tamethrin (II), dimethoate (II), endosulfan (II), fenitrothion
that caused enhanced usage of pesticides, leading to an (II) and profenofos (II). These mentioned pesticides are fre-
increased import value by 261% from 2000 to 2010 [23]. quently used in Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana and Senegal [30].
Inadequate regulatory mechanisms also result in import of The common risk linked with pesticide usage is the
pesticides which are banned, and lack of awareness in the resistance of the pests that leads to destruction of
farmers causes poor pesticide practices. Pesticide registra- the crops despite appropriate application. It has been
tion in Western Africa is a multi-national process called as reported in western part of Africa that the use of pyre-
Comité Sahélien des Pesticides (CSP) [24]. It was reported throids has caused resistance in tomato bollworm (Helio-
that in Niger, due to limited capacity of CSP, 44% of pesti- this armigera Hübner) and diamondblack moth (Plutella
cide dealers are unlicensed. Also, the registered chemicals xylostella L.) [23, 31]. Also, resistance to pyrethroids and
account for only 8%, while 38% of pesticides have incom- organophosphates was seen in an aphid (Aphis gossypii
plete labels and 6% are unlabeled [25]. The same report Glover), while a whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius) has
also specified that 27% of the tested pesticides did not been reported to develop resistance against pyrethroids,
state the active ingredients and 30% of them belonged to organophosphates and neonicotinoids [32, 33].
poor quality. Apart from Niger, CSP was not able to imple-
ment its laws strictly in other parts also, and as a result, the 2.2 Pesticide usage in Asia
pesticide importers, distributers and users could not be
certified. Furthermore, among the domestically produced The use of pesticides in agriculture is increasing rapidly
pesticides, the high-quality ones are exported, while the in developing countries, especially in Southeast Asia [34,
low-quality pesticides are supplied to local farmers [24]. 35]. WHO has reported that approximately 20% of pes-
Hence, the African market is unregulated and does not ticides are used in developing countries with increasing
comply with the code of conduct laid out by Food and rate of usage. An annual increase in import of pesticides
Agriculture Organization due to which most of the pes- is reported as 61% for Cambodia, 55% for Laos and 10%
ticides used are untested leading to the enhanced risks. for Vietnam [36].
In Africa, lack of knowledge about the usage of pesti- The manufacturing of pesticides in India started in 1952,
cides has also led to the usage of those pesticides which with the production of benzene hexachloride, followed
fall under WHO risk classification system. According to by DDT. The synthesis of pesticides increased enormously.
Pesticide Risk Reduction Program (PRRP, [26]), in Ethio- In 1958, India manufactured over 5000 metric tonnes of
pia alone, out of 302 registered pesticides, 160 contained pesticides which increased to 85,000 metric tonnes in the
active ingredients which were classified as WHO class II mid-1990s with the registration of 145 pesticides and the
chemicals (moderately hazardous). Case studies of other major pesticides produced are insecticides [37]. India is
African countries also showed the usage of pesticides one of the major pesticides producing countries in Asia
which were hazardous according to the WHO risk clas- with annual production of 90,000 tonnes, and it stands
sification system. A study by Obopile et al. [27] in Bot- at twelfth position in the world in the manufacturing
swana showed that over 50% of farmers use malathion of pesticides [38]. In the past, India used and exported
and cypermethrin as pesticides and these are WHO class II organochlorine pesticides on large scale including DDTs
chemicals. The same study also pointed that in Botswana, and HCHs [39]. Similarly, in Pakistan, the pesticides usage
methomyl is used by 7.1% of farmers, demeton-S-methyl started in 1954 with the import of 250 metric tonnes [40].
is used by 2.7% farmers, and dichlorvos is used by 1.8% The pesticides consumption in Pakistan increased to
farmers, and all these chemicals are classified under WHO 78,132 tonnes per annum in 2003 [38, 41]. During Green
class Ib pesticides (highly hazardous). A similar study con- Revolution period, thousands of tonnes of pesticides had
ducted by Oluwole and Cheke [28] in Nigeria established been imported from Europe and the USA to control crop
that maximum farmers (78%) use monocrotophos which pest infections, locust control and suppression of malaria

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in Pakistan [42]. Use of pesticides in Bangladesh was low In China, pesticide production started in 1950 with
until 1970. The pesticide usage increased tremendously the manufacturing of DDT. China has become the larg-
from 2200 million tonnes in 1980–1982 to 6500 million est pesticide manufacturing country during past 50 years
tonnes in 1992–1994 [43]. In Nepal, the first reported use of development. In China, pesticides are mainly used for
of pesticides was DDT in 1956, which was followed by rice production. The consumption of pesticides in China
other organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates has increased from 76 million tonnes in 1991 to 146 mil-
and synthetic pyrethroids. It has been reported by plant lion tonnes in 2006. Japan is one of the largest pesticide
protection division of department of agriculture, approxi- consumers in the world and has biggest pesticide market
mately 55.8 metric tonnes of pesticides is used annually in in Asia [46]. Table 2 shows the consumption of different
Nepal [44]. In Sri Lanka, the pesticides are mainly used in pesticides in the Asian countries.
agriculture sector. DDT was the first pesticide used in Sri
Lanka after World War II for malaria eradication. Pesticides 2.3 Pesticide usage in Australia
were introduced in Thailand and Vietnam in mid-1950s. In
Vietnam, the use of pesticides accelerated in mid-1980s In Australia, farmers have been prepared to incur higher
during economic liberalization. The use of pesticides in chemical costs to cope with pests effectively. Primary cate-
agriculture increased from 20 to 30 million kg, and it fur- gories of pesticides are herbicides, insecticides, fungicides
ther increased to 77 million kg in 2007 [45]. and some growth regulators, overall costing a total mar-
ket value of A$187 million annually [48]. Herbicides costs
include use of alternate herbicide and mixtures along with
Table 2  Annual pesticide consumption in different Asian countries higher concentration rates posing an extra cost of A$8/
[47] ha. A pictorial description of pesticide consumption in
Australia is shown in Fig. 1. Several concerns affect choice
S. no. Country Tonnes
pesticides for herbicide selection including possible development of
used herbicide resistance, price of herbicide, residual impact on
non-target organisms including operators and community,
1 China 1,807,000
market implications and overall impact on other strategies
2 India 56,120
such as integrated pest management [49].
3 Malaysia 49,199
Weed infestation leads to great reductions in crop pro-
4 Pakistan 27,885
ductivity along with deteriorating the quality of the pro-
5 Thailand 21,800
duction. Application of herbicides for effective weed con-
6 Vietnam 19,154
trol upsurges agricultural productivity, making it desirable
7 South Korea 19,788
option for farmers. Herbicide utilization proves an effective
8 Bangladesh 15,833
approach for controlling weeds; however, overuse of these
9 Myanmar 5583
herbicides causes several complications such as develop-
10 Nepal 454
ment of herbicide-resistant biotypes due to the overuse of
11 Bhutan 12
herbicides having common mode of action [50]. Evolution

Fig. 1  Pesticide consumption 90000

in Australia [99]
80000
ACTIVE INGREDIENTS (TONNES)

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Total pescide Inseccide Herbicide Fungicide & Bactericide

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of herbicide-resistant weed biotypes is a serious problem 2.4 Pesticide usage in Europe

that is now infesting crops throughout Australia [51–53].
Conservational agricultural systems completely rely on The infestation of agricultural lands in the European
the use of efficient herbicides owing to their low cost and countries has occurred rapidly due to enhanced applica-
selective weed control in intensive farming systems [54]. tion of insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and chemical-
However, development of herbicide resistance under con- based fertilizers. This eventually has resulted in loss of
tinues use of herbicides has increased an average cost of natural habitat and heterogeneity of the farmlands and
A$55/ha for effective weed control [48]. other landscapes [65, 66]. A joint survey of seven Euro-
Under continuous use of herbicides for selective weed pean countries including Latvia, Denmark, Germany, the
control, development of herbicide resistance in weed Netherlands, Finland, Sweden and the UK was done on the
biotypes has become the overwhelming threat for effec- usage of pesticides in their urban or the non-agricultural
tive weed control in global wheat production system amenities [67]. In the urban areas, herbicides constitute
[54]. Application of herbicide in higher concentrations the major pesticide contaminants. The analysis was car-
has resulted in creating more diversity in herbicide resist- ried in different regions and demonstrated wide variation
ance. Weed populations in wheat crop are now frequently in political interest and public discussion on “use of pesti-
resistant and contain numerous mechanisms conferring cides in urban areas”, regulation and availability of statis-
herbicide resistance [55]. In Australia, herbicide-resistant tical data on pesticide usage. Moreover, it was reported
weeds such as L. rigidum, Avena spp., R. raphanustrum, Bro- that Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany and Sweden had
mus spp. and Hordeum spp. have been the most dramatic a very strong political as well as public interest in lower-
and extensive weeds [50, 51, 56–59]. Moreover, excessive ing the application of herbicides in their urban areas to
application of pesticides/weedicides develop resistance in control weed. Although the UK is undergoing an episode
pests/weeds, thus making it difficult to control their popu- of enhanced awareness and stringent regulations, Fin-
lation. In Australia, a dramatic increase in the population of land and Latvia have no specific regulation for lowering
herbicide-tolerant ryegrass in different regions has been pesticide usage [67]. Although the use of pesticide has
reported (Fig. 2). Some weeds have also developed resist- enhanced in Finland, the rate is comparatively lower when
ance against herbicides which work by the mechanisms compared to other European regions [68]. It was estimated
like ACCase inhibition [60, 61] and ALS inhibition [62]. to be 5–6 metric tonnes of pesticides with active ingredi-
In Western Australia, it has been reported that common ents per year. A survey in 2007 was carried out in 80 Finish
weed Avena has also developed resistance against those municipalities. One-fifth of these municipalities reported
herbicides which work on the mechanism of inhibiting occasional of these pesticides and only about 15% of these
activity of acetyl-CoA carboxylase [63]. Similarly, L. rigi- municipalities used pesticides [67]. Determinations of pes-
dum, another widely spread annual weed in Western Aus- ticide in 8 different hot springs were carried out by Karasali
tralia, has observed to gain resistant mechanism against et al. [69] in Greece. From 26 different samples, pesticides
ACCase- and ALS-inhibiting herbicides like diclofop methyl were reported in 14 of them although they did not exceed
and sulfometuron [59]. These results suggested to adopt the European Union Maximum Acceptable Concentration
conservation agriculture or to control weed proliferation (MAC). Lindane (γ-BHC) was the most commonly occurring
via crop weed competition approach. pesticide. It was found in 35% samples with levels rang-
ing from 0.005 to 0.01 µg/L. Few other pesticides detected
included propachlor, phorate and chlorpyrifos ethyl, but
were below the permissible limits.
Table 3 summarizes pesticide usage in European coun-
tries in the years 2010 and 2014, index on the basis of their
area. Tabulated data showed that a few European coun-
tries including Denmark, France, Austria and the Nether-
lands reduced pesticide usage, while in others like Ger-
many, Greece, Ireland, Czech Republic, Spain and Portugal,
the usage was enhanced.
Pesticide and fertilizer usage in the Ukraine region was
lowered from 4.2 million tonnes nutrient in 1990 to about
518 tonnes nutrient in the year 2004. Specifically, in the
case of wheat, the quantity of pesticides applied in the
Fig. 2  Abundance of herbicide-resistant ryegrass population in dif- year 1990 was 149 kg/ha which was reduced to 26 kg/ha
ferent regions of Australia. (modified after Peterson et al. [64]) in the year 2003. There are approximately 170 pesticides

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Table 3  Pesticide usage in S. no. European countries Area ­(km2) Quantity of pesticide Quantity of pesticide
European countries in the used in 2010 (kg/ha) used in 2014 (kg/ha)
years 2010 and 2014, index
on the basis of their area. 1. France 551,394 1.17 3.90
(modified after Lobin et al.
2. Spain 498,468 2.77 3.35
[22])
3. Sweden 449,964 0.68 0.72
4. Germany 357,168 3.39 3.80
5. Italy 301,318 7.34 6.45
6. Greece 131,940 1.51 2.58
7. Portugal 91,568 7.40 6.84
8. Austria 83,858 2.53 2.39
9. Czech Republic 78,866 1.59 1.45
10. Ireland 70,273 2.50 2.84
11. Denmark 44,493 1.61 0.71
12. Netherlands 41,198 9.05 9.86
13. Belgium 30,510 5.43 7.73

used in Ukraine of which 49 were extremely toxic, stable these pesticides [77]. The statistical details of Danish
and super accumulative [70]. Approximately, 20% Ukraine Environmental Protection Agency in the years 1995–2007
agricultural land is polluted with DDT and 4% is contami- revealed that the pesticide usage is reduced by 288 tonnes
nated with hexachlorocyclohexane [71]. In the urban to 5.1 tonnes of active ingredient, and in the case of pes-
areas of Ukraine, near the pesticides storehouses are still ticide, it has been reduced by 81% of total pesticides. In
the main source of pesticide in the soil. Since long time, 2000, A “Plant Protection Products” Trade and Usage divi-
these stores have been used to store large quantities of sion was setup in Latvia, Europe, and in late 2002 a “Plant
hazardous pesticides [72]. The approximate pesticide Protection Products” Circulation Control Organization was
product used in 2000 was about 3.1 kg/ha in the agricul- established. In the Netherlands, in 2004 a National Admin-
tural lands of Slovenia [73]. Fava et al. [74] investigated istrative Organization Water (NAOW) was formed to con-
the presence of 43 hazardous pesticides and their pesti- trol “weeds on hard surfaces.” Their goal was to develop
cide residue on the basis of their sales, physical–chemi- cost-effective and permissible practice to control weeds
cal data and monitoring in the Italian region. Of these, [67]. A statistical analysis of usage of pesticides is carried
12 compounds were identified in the drinking water as out every year by the “Sewdish Chemical Inspectorate”
determined by the European Directive 98/83/EC. It was since the year 2006 [67]. The government local authori-
determined that the total concentration of specific pesti- ties are making efforts in the UK to improve the efficacy of
cides and their metabolites were more than 0.5 µg/L. Tria- cleaner, greener and safe surrounding agenda [78].
zine levels were found to be more than 1.02 µg/L. Ferencz European countries have developed certain impera-
and Balog [75], estimated the quantity of wide arrays of tive legislation in regard to pesticides usage and these
pesticide in water, food stuff and soil samples from the include (1) Directive 2009/128/EC approved by European
Central Romanian region. The most significant pollutants Parliament and Council in the year 2009: This directive is
are as follows: (1) α-hexachlorocyclohexane (6 ng/L), (2) employed to attain techniques to sustainably use pesti-
γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (4 ng/L), (3) diazinon (20 ng/L), cides; (2) Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009, proposed in the
(4) dichlorvos (20 ng/L) in different water samples. The European Parliament and Council in the year 2009: This
level of DDT was 20 µg/kg and DDE was 50 µg/kg in the regulation maintains Plant Protection Products on the mar-
contaminated soil. Table 4 elaborates pesticide usage ket; and (3) Regulation (EC) No. 396/2005 was proposed in
(kg/ha) in European countries in the years 2001–2012 in the year 2005 by the European Parliament and Council: It
the arable land and permanent crops. The countries are monitors the MRLs of pesticide in the food products as
indexed on the basis of area (Table 4). well as animal and plant derived feeds [22]. Furthermore,
In the autumn session of 2000, Environmental Pro- the Russian government has formulated certain policies to
tection Agency proposed that the pesticides which had enhance the availability of pesticide and their usage. These
glyphosate as one of their bioactive ingredients which was policies led to an increase in import, subsidies to farmers
applied to the hard surfaces [76], are restricted or banned to procure pesticides and construction of manufacturing
to be used on the hard surfaces. Therefore, the weed con- plants [79]. Another European Community (EC) Pesticide
trol in these areas is no longer carried out by applying Legislation on the agricultural lands in Ireland determined

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Table 4  Pesticide usage (kg/ S. no. European Countries Area ­(km2) Quantity of Pesticide Used from 2002 to 2012
ha) in European countries in in Arable lands and permanent crops (kg/ha)
the years 2001–2012 in the
arable land and permanent 1. France 551,394 3.43
crops (modified after
2. Spain 498,468 2.08
Lamichhane et al. 2016)
3. Germany 357,168 2.26
4. Finland 338,145 0.67
5. Poland 312, 685 1.12
6. Italy 301,318 6.90
7. United Kingdom 244,820 3.60
8. Romania 238,392 0.74
9. Greece 131,940 2.59
10. Hungary 93,030 1.75
11. Portugal 91,568 6.78
12. Austria 83,858 2.25
13. Czech Republic 78,866 1.30
14. Ireland 70,273 2.27
15. Lithuania 65,300 0.73
16. Latvia 64,589 0.61
17. Slovakia 49,036 0.99
18. Estonia 45,339 0.63
19. Denmark 44,493 1.31
20. Netherlands 41,198 8.30
21. Belgium 30,510 8.48

that around 5% of agriculture area in the northern region from University of Montana revealed that in the year 2010,
of Ireland accounts for 69% of land treated with pesticides approximately 200 tonnes of herbicides were sprayed on
[80]. It was further reported in 2014 that fruit crop-growing 1.2 million acres federal and tribal wild lands of USA [87].
areas of Northern Ireland had 30 types of pesticides with However, in spite of its extensive implementation in the
active constituents applied to approximately to 34,763 ha USA, pests mainly insects, weeds and pathogens ruin 37%
[81]. Presently in the Northern Ireland, the Pesticide Legis- of crops [88]. According to the report of Pimentel et al. [89],
lative Regulations are applied through Control of Pesticide the use of insecticides (chiefly organochlorines, organo-
Regulation, 1997, and Control of Substances Hazardous for phosphates and carbamates) in the USA has increased 10
Health and Regulation, 2003 [80]. times from 1945 to 2000; however, the damage caused
by insects to crop also doubled from 7 to 13% during this
2.5 Pesticide usage in the North/Central America period. Atwood and Paisley-Jones [86] listed 25 most com-
monly used pesticides in the agricultural fields and found
In North America, herbicides are largely used as chemi- that 12 are herbicides, two insecticides, four fungicides,
cal tool to manage weeds due to high labor cost in these five are fumigants and two are plant growth regulators.
areas [82]. Likewise, the use of certain insecticides to man- Among the different pesticides used in the agricultural
age insects that cause vector-borne diseases like malaria fields, glyphosate is the most used active pesticides since
is the only feasible option for prevention [83]. The main 2001, followed by atrazine and metolachlor-S. Wagner
use of pesticides in the USA is in the agriculture indus- et al. [90] illustrated manifold increment in the usage of
try [84]. Annually, 500 million kg of pesticides are used in herbicides in croplands of the USA. They further confirmed
the USA at a cost of $10 billion per year [85]. Atwood and that glyphosate was the most active ingredients that not
Paisley-Jones [86] formulated a report and found that the only harm the herbs and grasses but also pose potential
USA accounts for approximately 16–18% of total world threat to the native vegetation [90]. Benbrook [91] doc-
pesticide expenditure. Among the agriculture sector, her- umented that since 1974, above 1.6 billion kg of active
bicides (~ 59%) accounted for major pesticide expenditure, ingredients of glyphosate have been applied in the USA
followed by insecticides (~ 14%) and fungicides (~ 10%). which contributes to 19% of the estimated global use. The
The magnitude of herbicide usage not only intensifies on researcher further documented that in the last 10 years,
croplands but on the wild lands as well. The researchers US farmers sprayed over two-thirds of the total volume

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of glyphosate from 1974 to 2014 which is approximately endosulfan and chlorpyrifos had the maximum share in
1.0 kg/ha [91]. A report from Allied Market Research (AMR) pesticide sale. In some countries of South America, mean
demonstrated that the volume of glyphosate ingredi- usage rate of pesticides in arable lands determined by FAO
ent is expected to grow at a compound annual growth is 6.5–60 kg/ha [105]. In Brazil, during the year 2013, it has
rate (CAGR) of 5.7% during 2014–2020 [92]. According to been reported that half million tonnes of pesticides were
this report, the USA will hold the largest herbicide mar- marketed. Moreover, it has also been noticed that over
ket share in North America and would produce 85% of 90% Brazilian farmers are dependent on pesticide usage
North America market revenue in 2020 [92]. Further, in [106], and the country has estimated to had used over 673
non-agriculture sectors such as home and garden, 2, 4-D million tonnes of pesticide in 2008 [107]. The sale of pesti-
is the most commonly used pesticide and is ranked first cides increased 945.5% in Brazil between 1998 and 2008.
among other known pesticides. Currently, the insecticides In the year 1996, out of total sold pesticide, herbicides
consumption in the USA has declined due to shift toward were sold most (56.1%) followed by insecticides (26%) and
biopesticides and other natural plant products. fungicides (15.4%) [108]. Soares and de-Souza Porto [109]
Similarly, in Canada, 35 million kg of pesticides are used evaluated the environmental, social and health cost due
annually in agricultural fields [93]. Herbicides are the most to intensive pesticide use in Brazil. They have reported that
prominent and widely used chemical pesticides in Canada the cost of acute poisoning to around 64% using insecti-
[94]. Moreover, herbicides cover approximately 96% of cides and herbicides in maize which may reach up to 85%
total pesticides applied in Prairie Provinces of Canada [93]. in the next ten years.
In a survey made in the year 2011, 69% of the Canadian In Argentina, agrochemical application has significantly
agricultural crop lands were reported to apply herbicides enhanced and it has been observed that total consump-
in order to mount the crop productivity [95]. Wilson [96] tion has inclined from 73 to 236 million kg/year over last
used crop insurance data from Manitoba and found that decade. This accounts for turnover of 2381.16 million (US
2 million kg of herbicides are used annually in the prov- $) in the year 2012. Out of all pesticides sold during this
ince. According to Verrin et al. [97], the commonly used period, maximum was herbicides (64%) followed by fungi-
pesticides in British Columbia includes 2, 4-D, diazinon, cides (20%) and insecticides (16%) [110]. In Argentina, pes-
dicamba, atrazine and simazine. These agricultural herbi- ticide market is mostly captured by herbicides (86.8% and
cides can directly cause mortality of species since they are mostly used herbicides are glyphosate, 2,4-D and atrazine)
chemically toxic [98]. Recently, statistics showed that the followed by insecticides (6.2% and mostly used insecti-
total amount of pesticides imports to Canada comprised cides are cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, lambda-cyhalothrin)
of 1.32 billion U.S. dollars [99]. and fungicides (2.7% including epoxiconazole, tebucona-
Mexico is the third largest market of agrochemicals in zole and metconazole) [111]. During the time period from
North America, and its market is growing at a CAGR of 1974 to 2003, in Colombia the registration of pesticide
5.2% during 2017–2022. The major agrochemicals include sharply increased to 400 from 186 active ingredients [112].
insecticides and herbicides that account for approximately
36% of the total market [100]. Earlier, Mexico ranked sixth
in the world for the use of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichlo- 3 Pesticide contamination and its impacts
roethane) [101]. Wong et al. [102] reported that between on global ecosystem
the years 1947 and 2000, approximately 250 kilotonnes of
DDT was used in the country; however, the use of DDT was Pesticides have become an environmental hazard as their
successfully halted by 2000 [103]. Mexico actively partici- safe storage and disposal are challenges [113]. Pesticides,
pates in different international agreements dealing with when used in high quantities, pollute soil and water, caus-
pesticides; however, studies have reported that Mexico ing damage to its microflora and microfauna, and also
still uses some pesticides such as paraquat, endosulfan, hinder the absorption of important mineral nutrients by
lindane, methyl bromide, parathion and malathion that are plants [114]. To measure the ecological-toxicology of pes-
banned in other industrialized countries [104]. ticides, indexes like Environmental Impact Quotient and
Environmental Risk Index have been used [23]. In Benin,
2.6 Pesticide usage in South America carbofuran, chlorpyrifos ethyl and endosulfan showed
highest Environmental Risk Index [115]. The leaching of
In South America, pesticide sale increased 30% between pesticides also leads to the pollution of the local water
2003 and 2004 and was projected to increase from 5.4 bodies. For example, the catchment area of the Lake Vic-
billion (US $) in 2004 to 7.5 billion (US $) by 2009. The toria in Kenya has six rivers that carry pollutants to the
average annual growth rate for this period was 5%. Pes- lake [113]. Winam Gulf is the most polluted part of this
ticides like 2, 4-D, paraquat, methamidophos, methomyl, lake and pesticide poisoning of fishes with endosulfan

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was reported, and a ban on import of fishes from the lake harmful pesticides (simazine, atrazine and terbutryn) in
was imposed by the European Union [113, 116]. Pesticides high concentrations (Allinson et al. [137]).
leach to the groundwater and pollute drinking water, The enhanced concentration of organochlorine pesti-
which is one of the major concerns for environmentalists cides and polychlorinated biphenyls in the Canadian Great
[117]. A study showed the presence of malathion, dieldrin Lakes Basin [138] and various fungicides in surface and
and γ-HCH in the ground water and River Ganges in Kan- ground water resources in the USA [139], posed a serious
pur [118]. problem over the health-related issues of local communi-
Water streams contamination with pesticides is one ties as well as the environment. The direct discharge of
of the serious issues in Australia. Application of triazine waste and agriculture runoffs are major sources of pesti-
(a herbicide) had been extensively practiced in forestry cides in water [140]. The pesticides accumulated in water
industry in Tasmania, Australia. Reports suggested that get magnified through food chain and enter fishes that
out of 29 streams sampled, 20 contained detectable resi- are toxic for human consumption [141]. In most of the
dues of triazines [119]. Median contaminations of all the studies conducted in North America, glyphosate [142]
samples were 2.85 and 1.05 µg/L for atrazine and cyana- and atrazine [143] are the two commonly found pesti-
zine, while < 0.05 µg/L for each of metribuzin and propa- cides in water bodies and other pesticides found in less
zine, respectively, suggesting that observed residues may concentration are malathion, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, lin-
cause occasional minor short-term disturbance to stream dane, dieldrin and dichlorodiphenylethane (DDE) [101].
communities [119]. Residual impact of herbicide runoff Benbrook [91] found that the use of glyphosate in the US
from adjacent agricultural catchments is other manifes- agricultural sector increased 300 times from 1974 to 2014
tation of pesticide application. This pesticide runoff has and this herbicide is in the market of the USA for the past
led to the deprivation of costal and inshore ecosystems 42 years. Murray [144] reported that the regulations which
of Great Barrier Reef (GBR) [120–123]. Potential hazard- govern the production and distribution of pesticides in
ous impacts of herbicide runoff have been emphasized Central America are not enforced adequately. As a result,
through a range of keystone GBR marine organisms con- compounds banned in other developed countries are used
taining seagrass, corals and algae [124–127]. According to continuously in Central America [145]. For example, DDT,
an estimate, 30,000 kg of herbicides (including atrazine, a persistent organochlorine pesticide, is still used for con-
diuron, ametryn, simazine, hexazinone and tebuthiuron) trol of vector in Belize [146]. The highly protected area of
have been noticed to pass into GBR World Heritage Area the coast of Mexico was also contaminated with pesticides
per year [128, 129]. However, majority of herbicides meas- such as DDT, lindane and endosulfan [147] which might
ures each year in sediments comprise of atrazine and diu- be due to their use in agricultural fields. Overall, countries
ron [130]. Davis et al. [131] examined seasonal dynamics such as Canada, Mexico and the USA reported higher con-
in relation to movement of pesticides within agriculture centrations of DDT, chlordane, p,p′-DDE and toxaphene in
captured floodplains of the lower Burdekin River. Fifteen air [148, 149]. According to the spatial comparison data, in
herbicides along with one insecticide were detected in spring season, the concentration of organochlorine com-
local waterways draining into the downstream of wet- pounds is increased compared to other seasons [150].
lands. These researchers observed that out of detected In most of the studies conducted in South America,
pesticides, maximum was related to sugarcane industry chlorpyrifos, endosulfan, and cypermethrin are frequently
[131]. Atrazine and ametryn along with their degraded found pesticides in water bodies [151, 152]. Albuquer-
products (desethyl-atrazine and desisopropyl-atrazine), que et al. [153] reported the presence of 21 herbicides,
diuron, 2, 4-D and hexazinone were the main agrochemi- 11 fungicides, 10 insecticides and 1 plant growth regu-
cals detected in higher concentrations [131]. Some other lators in surface waters of Brazil. Azinophos-methyl and
studies have documented that several herbicide residues chlorpyrifos were most frequently detected pesticides
including diuron were detected in benthic deposits tested in surface waters and soils of Neuquén River valley of
from irrigation and drainage channels, suggesting diuron Argentina [154]. De Gerónimo et al. [155] reported that
being the most abundant herbicide in terms of occurrence atrazine, tebuconazole and diethyltoluamide were the
[132, 133]. Likewise, diuron was dominantly found in inter- most detected pesticides in surface water sub-basins of
and sub-tidal deposits of GBR [134, 135]. In Melbourne, Argentina. Resgalla et al. [156] conducted study to evalu-
Allinson et al. [136] examined water quality of five different ate the risk due to residues of herbicide quinclorac in irri-
aquatic systems and found that many pesticides were pre- gated water against zooplankton and phytoplankton. They
sent in high concentrations which included MCPA (83%), reported that recommended application of concentration
diuron (63%) and atrazine (53%). In another study, water of quinclorac has short-term indirect effects on zooplank-
screening from wetlands resulted in the detection of many ton, but it directly affects phytoplankton.

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The application of pesticides might harm the indige- residues in 14,800 beehives and found high concentra-
nous microorganisms of soil and affect the soil ecosystem, tions of coumaphos, endosulfan, ethion, chlorpyrifos and
thus entering in food chain and affecting human health cypermethrin from active beehives. They reported that
[157]. Pesticides interplay with soil microbes and their these pesticide residues cause bee disorientation and
activities and thus change the biochemical and physio- affect their global fitness which leads to weakness and
logic behavior of soil microbes [158]. Pesticides also have productivity decrease.
negative impact on soil microbial biomass and soil respira- The regular use of pesticides has also caused problems
tion [159]. It has been found that pesticides reduce natu- like human health issues and environmental problems
ral symbiotic nitrogen fixation, leading to the decrease [174]. It has been reported that for human health, food
in crop yield. Pesticides like DDT, methyl parathion and intake leads to higher toxicity exposure than by other
pentachlorophenol interfere with signaling between legu- means like drinking water and inhalation [175]. The pes-
minous plants and symbiotic soil bacteria. This results in ticides mimic or antagonize natural hormones in human
enhanced dependence on synthetic nitrogen fertilizers body. Long-term low-dose exposure affects human health
along with reduced soil fertility and unsustainable crop with reducing immunity, disturbs hormonal balance,
yield [160, 161]. Daly et al. [162] reported the contamina- reduces intelligence and causes reproduction-related
tion of air and soil of Costa Rica and found that the con- problems and cancer [176]. Farmers are generally at high
centration of DDT-related species was more as compared risk of exposure to pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers and
to other organochlorine pesticides used in the country. other chemicals. It has been found by Alavanja et al. [177]
The distribution of pesticides in the soil of Canada was also that use of chlorinated pesticides and methyl bromide
determined by Daly et al. [162] by collecting soil from 22 is associated with prostate cancer risk in farmers. Simi-
sites. Endosulfan, dieldrin and α-hexachlorocyclohexane larly, Hoppin et al. [178] reported that pesticide exposure
were the most prevalent OCPs in the soil of Canada [162]. increases the chance of allergic and non-allergic asthma
The distribution of different pesticides in the soil mainly in farmers.
depends on the physical and chemical properties of soil. Kostik et al. [179] determined amount of pesticide resi-
The amount of pesticides contamination in soils of south- dues in plant-based foods. Experimentation was carried
ern Mexico was investigated by Wong et al. [102], and the out as per recommendation of European Food Authority
results showed higher concentration of DDT in the range (EFSA). In the period of 2012–2013, approximately 168
of 0.057–360 ng/g. Luchini et al. [163] determined high different samples of fresh vegetables like cherry, grapes,
concentrations of pesticides in soils which included triflu- apple and manufactured jams and canned fruits had 33
ralin and endosulfan from cotton-cropped fields in Brazil. different pesticides residues. The most predominant resi-
Nakagawa et al. [164] reported the presence of high atra- dues found were metalaxyl (0.4–0.16 mg/kg), methomyl
zine percentage in the soils of São Paulo State of Brazil. (0.015–0.21 mg/kg) and imidacloprid (0.017–0.036 mg/kg).
Miglioranza et al. [165] concluded that pesticides in soil In another significant study conducted to estimate pesti-
environment of Argentina are present in such a concen- cide levels in sweet cherry in the farmland of West Mediter-
tration, which may cause threat to various tropical levels. ranean region of Turkey, it was observed that 53, 349.5 g/
Pesticide contamination in the ecosystems also badly ha of agricultural chemicals had an active constituents in
impacts other organisms like bees and wild life. In the past the sweet cheery plants. The percentage of copper sulfate,
one decade, there is an enhancement in illegal usage of pesticide and mineral oils is 79.82%, 19.11% and 1.07%,
pesticides [166]. This has led to misuse and abuse of the respectively [180]. This pesticide contamination of fruits
wildlife, for example drastic effect on most raptor species and vegetables is a serious issue for humans.
like Gypaestus barbatus (bearded vulture) [167] and Aquila
adalberli (imperial eagle) [168]. Other important compo-
nents of ecosystems which are negatively affected by pes- 4 Conclusion and future perspectives
ticide overuse are biological pest control [169], soil fertil-
ity [170] and proper crop pollination [171]. In Peru, (the Synthetic pesticides are used to control the weeds and
Punta San Juan Marine Protected Area), Adkesson et al. insect pests, affecting the agricultural systems. Water, soil
[172] studied the blood of endangered species, Humboldt and air serve as an important medium for transportation
penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), to find out the presence of pesticides from one site to another. Among different
of organochlorine pesticides. They reported high concen- classes of pesticides, organochlorine pesticides are the
tration of DDT with maximum concentration of 10 ng/g. most harmful one due to their slow rate of decomposi-
The presence of these toxicants emphasize upon the need tion, greater stability and long half-life. These pesticides
of temporal monitoring to protect this endangered spe- can migrate and get accumulated in the upper trophic
cies. In Uruguay, Pareja et al. [173] estimated the pesticide levels of food chain. Pesticide contamination is a serious

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problem for each ecosystem and is harmful for all associ- behavior of organochlorine pesticides in North America.
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es049​489c
new methodologies and techniques are needed in assess- 14. Agnihotri NP, Gajbhiye VT, Kumar M, Mohapatra SP (1994)
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