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21 views6 pages

PPPP

Uploaded by

simenesh
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1.

Fundamentals of Programming
Basic Concepts:

 Variables: Containers for storing data values (e.g., int x = 5;).


 Data Types: Define the type of data (e.g., int, float, char, boolean).
 Constants: Fixed values that do not change during program execution (e.g.,
const PI = 3.14).
 Operators:
o Arithmetic (+, -, *, /, %).
o Relational (<, >, ==, !=).
o Logical (&&, ||, !).
o Assignment (=, +=, -=).
 Input/Output:
o Input: scanf() in C, cin in C++, input() in Python.
o Output: printf() in C, cout in C++, print() in Python.

Control Structures:

 Conditional Statements:
o if, else if, else for decision-making.
o switch-case for multi-way branching.
 Looping Structures:
o for, while, and do-while loops for iteration.
o Nested loops for complex patterns.

Functions:

 Definition: A reusable block of code defined by the user.


 Parameter Passing:
o By Value: Copies the actual value (e.g., int func(int x)).
o By Reference: Passes the reference/address (e.g., void func(int &x)).
 Recursion: A function calling itself, useful in problems like factorial
calculation or Fibonacci series.

2. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)


Core Concepts:

 Classes and Objects:


o Class: Blueprint for creating objects (e.g., class Car { };).
o Object: Instance of a class (e.g., Car myCar;).
 Inheritance:
o Allows one class to inherit properties of another.
o Types: Single, multilevel, multiple, hierarchical, and hybrid.
 Polymorphism:
o Compile-time: Function overloading and operator overloading.
o Runtime: Method overriding.
 Encapsulation: Binding data and methods into a single unit (e.g., private
variables with getter and setter methods).
 Abstraction: Hiding implementation details while showing only essential
features (e.g., using abstract classes and interfaces).
Advanced Topics:

 Constructors and Destructors:


o Constructor: Initializes an object.
o Destructor: Cleans up resources when the object is destroyed.
 Exception Handling:
o Mechanism to handle runtime errors.
o Keywords: try, catch, finally, throw.

3. Data Structures
Linear Structures:

 Arrays: Collection of elements of the same type, stored contiguously.


 Stacks:
o LIFO (Last In, First Out).
o Operations: push, pop, peek.
 Queues:
o FIFO (First In, First Out).
o Variants: Circular queue, priority queue.
 Linked Lists:
o Singly Linked List: Each node has data and a pointer to the next node.
o Doubly Linked List: Each node has pointers to both the previous and
next nodes.
Non-linear Structures:
 Trees:
o Binary Tree: Each node has at most two children.
o Binary Search Tree: Left child < Parent < Right child.
o Operations: Insertion, deletion, traversal (inorder, preorder,
postorder).
 Graphs:
o Represented using adjacency lists or matrices.
o Types: Directed, undirected, weighted.
o Algorithms: BFS, DFS.

Operations:

 Searching:
o Linear Search: Sequential search.
o Binary Search: Requires sorted array; divide-and-conquer approach.
 Sorting:
o Bubble Sort, Quick Sort, Merge Sort, Insertion Sort.

Hashing:

 Hash functions and hash tables for efficient data retrieval.


 Collision resolution techniques: Chaining, open addressing.

4. Algorithms
Key Concepts:

 Time and Space Complexity:


o Big O Notation: Measures worst-case complexity (e.g., O(n), O(log
n)).
o Space Complexity: Measures memory usage.
 Divide-and-Conquer:
o Break the problem into subproblems, solve them recursively, and
combine results.
o Examples: Merge Sort, Quick Sort.
 Dynamic Programming:
o Solve problems by breaking them into overlapping subproblems.
o Examples: Fibonacci sequence, knapsack problem.
 Greedy Algorithms:
o Make the locally optimal choice at each step.
o Examples: Prim’s Algorithm, Kruskal’s Algorithm.
 Backtracking:
o Trial-and-error approach to solve constraint satisfaction problems.
o Examples: N-Queens problem, Sudoku.

5. Database Management
Basics:

 SQL Queries:
o Select: SELECT * FROM table_name;
o Insert: INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (...);
o Update: UPDATE table_name SET column = value;
o Delete: DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
 Joins:
o Inner Join, Left Join, Right Join, Full Join.
 Normalization:
o Process of organizing data to reduce redundancy.

Advanced:

 Transactions: Ensure data consistency with ACID properties.


 Triggers: Automatically execute a predefined action when specific
conditions occur.
 Stored Procedures: Precompiled SQL statements for reuse.

6. Operating Systems
Key Topics:

 Processes and Threads:


o Process: A program in execution.
o Thread: Lightweight process.
 Memory Management:
o Paging, segmentation, and virtual memory.
 Scheduling Algorithms:
o FCFS, SJF, Round Robin, Priority Scheduling.
 Deadlocks:
o Conditions: Mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption, circular
wait.
o Prevention: Avoidance algorithms like Banker’s Algorithm.
 Synchronization:
o Mechanisms: Semaphores, mutex locks.

7. Networking
Basics:

 OSI Model: 7 layers (Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,


Presentation, Application).
 TCP/IP Model: 4 layers (Network Access, Internet, Transport,
Application).
 Common Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
 Socket Programming: Enables communication between devices over a
network.

8. Programming Languages
Recommended Languages:

 C/C++:
o Systems programming and foundational concepts.
 Java:
o Object-oriented features, platform independence.
 Python:
o Simplicity, extensive libraries for data science and machine learning.

9. Practice and Problem-Solving

 Use platforms like LeetCode, HackerRank, Codeforces, and GeeksforGeeks.


 Focus on debugging and optimizing code.
 Time your practice sessions to improve speed.
10. Exam Preparation Tips

 Revise previous years’ exam questions.


 Create short notes for quick revision.
 Focus on weak areas and improve with consistent practice.
 Join study groups for peer learning.

With consistent effort and structured preparation, you can master programming
concepts and ace your entrance exam.

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