The
complex CHAPTER 8
sentence
1. Coordination and subordination
2. Structural classification of
dependent clauses
3. Functional classification of
dependent clauses
4. Nominal clauses
5. Adverbial clauses
6. Comparative sentences
7. Comment clauses
8. The verb phrase in dependent
clauses
9. Direct and indirect speech
1. COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION
independent vs dependent clause
(independent or superordinate or main; dependent or
subordinate)
Subordination holds between 2 clauses in such a way
that one is a constituent or part of the other
Each subordinate clause may itself be superordinate to
one or more other clauses
resulting in sentences of great complexity
dependent clause may be classified either by structure or
function
2. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES
1) finite, non-finite and verbless clauses
finite clause: a clause whose V element is a finite verb
phrase
non-finite clause: a clause whose V element is a non-
finite verb phrase
verbless clause: a clause containing no V element (but
otherwise generally analysable in terms of one or more
clause elements)
All clauses (finite, non-finite, or verbless) may
themselves have subordinate clauses which are finite,
non-finite, or verbless
2) Finite and non-finite clauses
the finite clause clauses always contains a S as well as
a predicate (except in case of commands and ellipsis)
non-finite can be constructed without a S, and usually
are.
4 classes of non-finite verb phrase serve to distinguish
4 classes of non-finite clause:
+ infinitive with ‘to’: with S vs without S
+ infinitive without ‘to’: with S vs without S
+ ing participle: with S vs without S
+ ed participle: with S vs without S
3) Verbless clauses
+ We can usually infer ellipsis of the verb ‘be’
+ Verbless clauses can also be treated as
reductions of non-finite clauses
4) Formal indicators of subordination
+ Subordinators (subordinating conjunctions):
most important formal indicators of
subordination.
+ Simple vs compound subordinators
+ Borderline subordinators
+ Other indicators of subordination
- ‘wh’ elements
- S-operator inversion
- 2 types of subordinating
clause that contain no marker within
themselves of subordinate status: Nominal
clauses which may or may not have ‘that’ and
comment clauses.
3. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES
Subject
Direct object
Subject complement
Indirect object
Object complement
Adjunct
Disjunct
Conjunct
In addition, they may function within these elements,
as:
Postmodifier in NP
Prepositional complement
Adjectival complement
4. NOMINAL CLAUSES
1) That-clause
+ Can occur as S, Od, Cs, appositive, adjectival
complement
+ Cannot occur as prepositional complement or as Co
+ ‘that’ is omitted in informal use, leaving a ‘zero’ that-
clause when it is O or C.
2) Wh-interrogative clauses
+ Can occur in the whole range of functions to the that-
clause and can act as prepositional complement
+ An infinitive wh-clause can be formed with all wh-
words except ‘why’
3) Yes-no interrogative clauses
+ Formed with ‘if’ or ‘whether’
+ The dependent alternative question has if/whether …
or
+ Only ‘whether’ can be directly followed by ‘or not’
+ A clause beginning with whether cannot be made
negative, except as the second part of an alternative
question
+ ‘if’ cannot introduce a subject clause
4) Nominal relative clauses
+ Can be S, Od, Oi, Cs, Co, appositive, C prep,
5) To-infinitive nominal clauses
+ Can occur as S, Od, Cs, appositive, Cadj
+ The S of a ‘to-infinitive’ clause is normally preceded
by ‘for’
+ When the clause is an Od, ‘for’ is omitted
6) Nominal ing-clauses (participle clause)
+ Can be S, Od, Cs, appositive, Cprep, Cadj
7) Bare infinitive and verbless clauses
+ The ‘to’ of the infinitive is optionally omitted in a
clause which supplies a predication corresponding to a
use of the pro-verb ‘do’
1. Clauses of time
2. Clauses of place
3. Clauses of condition
4. Clauses of concession
5. Alternative conditional-concessive
clauses
5. 6. Universal conditional-concessive
clauses
ADVERBIAL 7. Clauses of reason or cause
CLAUSES 8. Clauses of circumstance
9. Clauses of purpose
10. Clauses of result
11. Clauses of manner and comparison
12. Clauses of proportion and preference
13. Non-finite and verbless clauses
9. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
• Back-shift and other changes
• Exception to the distancing rules
• Indirect statements, questions, exclamations and
commands
• The modal auxiliaries and indirect speech
• Free indirect speech
• Transferred negation
