CMR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Module 1 (Sensors & Energy Systems)
Sensors
Q. 1: Define Sensor , Transducer and Actuators.
Sensor: A sensor is a device that can detect or measure a physical input (stimulus) from the
environment by converting it into an electrical signal which can be read by an instrument.
Transducer : A transducer is part of the sensor devices that convert one form of energy (an input
signal) to another (an output signal).
Actuators : An actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting energy and signals going
into the system. The sensor generates electrical signals whereas the actuator generates heat or
motion.
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Q. 2: Explain working principle of conductometric sensors and mention its applications (Min
4)
Conductometric sensor
A conductivity sensor is a sensor used to measure the conductivity of various solutions to measure
the concentration of analyte. It is based on the measurement of the specific conductance of an
analyte. Here electrodes are used to measure the conductance of the electrolyte.
Working Principle:
Conductometric sensors are made up of two platinum electrodes with unit cross sectional
area and unit distance between them. Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called
specific conductance and it is given by
The conductance depends on the mobility of ions as well
as the number of ions migrating between the electrodes.
The basic principle of a conductometric sensor involves
a reaction that changes the ionic species concentration.
Due to which there will be change in electrical
conductivity or current flow.
When an electrical field is applied the ions will move
towards opposite electrodes. Thus, the current in the
electrolyte is caused by the ion movement towards the
electrodes where the ions are neutralized and isolated as
This chemical change is recognized by working electrode and transducers converts this
chemical change into electrical signal.
Applications
To monitor the quality of water
Used in food and beverage industry
Used for detection of heavy metal ions
Used in enzyme catalysis to determine analyte concentration and enzyme activity and
selectivity.
Battery electrolyte density monitoring
The conductometric biosensor based on inhibition analysis, was intended for the
determination of organophosphorous pesticides.
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Q. 3: Explain working principle of optical sensors and mention its applications (Min 4)
Optical sensor
An optical sensor is a device that can detect light. These sensors are based on the interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with the chemical spp. (Analyte). These radiations can be in the form of
ultraviolet, visible, and infrared light. This sensor can detects various properties of light such as
intensity, wavelength, frequency or polarization of light and converts it into an electric signal.
Eg: colorimetry
Working principle of optical sensor
The main component of optical sensors in colorimetry are
Light Source: Tungsten lamp or LED
Filter (Wavelength selector): To provide desired wavelength of light.
Sample cell or Cuvette: To hold the sample
Photocell or detector Light detector converts the detected optical signals into electrical
signals.
Recorder
The optical sensors are based on the Beer’s-Lambert’s law. The law states that when a
monochromatic light is passed through a transparent medium the absorbance is directly
proportional to concentration and path length.
ACI
When A monochromatic light is pass through analyte at particular wavelength. A part of
light is absorbed by the analyte. The absorbance depends on the concentration of the
solution. The photocell converts emitted light into electrical signal These signals are
recorded and displayed.
Applications
It is used in remote sensing satellite
Used for imaging
Used in quality and process control applications
Used in Metrological studies
Used in medical instruments and biomedical applications
Used in computer, mobile photocopy machines etc.
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Q. 4: Explain working principle of thermometric sensors and mention its applications.
Working principle of thermometric sensor
Thermometric sensor
A temperature sensor is a device that provides temperature measurement in a readable form
through an electrical signal.
The different type of thermometric sensors are
1. Thermocouple
2. Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
3. Thermister etc
Working principle of thermometric sensors
The working principle of a thermometric sensor is based on the concept that the physical properties
of materials change with temperature. They are composed of two dissimilar metals that generate
an electrical voltage or resistance when a temperature change occurs by measuring the voltage
across the diode terminals.
Thermocouples
In this case, when there is a temperature gradient
between the measuring junction and reference junction,
a voltage is generated. The magnitude of this voltage
depends on the temperature difference between the two
junctions and the types of metals used in the
thermocouple.
Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
Here, the electrical resistance of certain metals (mainly
used platinum, copper and Nickel) changes with
temperature. When the temperature of the RTD changes,
the electrical resistance of the material changes in a
repeatable manner. This change in resistance is then
correlated to the temperature using calibration curves.
Applications
Used in hazardous location like nuclear power plants
Used to measure the temperature of the soil, concrete etc.
They can measure rock temperatures near liquid gas storage tanks
Used to measure water temperatures in reservoirs and boreholes.
Used in consumer products eg- washing machine, refrigerators stc
Used for medical applications
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Q. 5: Explain working principle of electrochemical sensors and mention its applications.
An Electrochemical sensor is a chemical sensor that measures the concentration of a specific
substance or analyte in a sample by an electrochemical reaction. These sensors uses electrode as
transducing element.
The components of an electrochemical sensor are:
Working electrode (sensing electrode): It has direct contact with the sample. An
electrochemical reaction occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode.
Counter electrode: It completes the electrical circuit and helps to measure the current flow
through the system during the electrochemical reaction.
Reference electrode: Provide a stable potential against which the working electrode’s
potential is measured.
Breathable membrane: Hydrophobic membrane is used to cover the sensing electrode, it
controls the molecular weight of the analyte reaching the electrode surface.
Filter: to filter out the unwanted impurities
Working principle of electrochemical sensors
The principle of an electrochemical sensor is based on the measurement of electrical signals
generated as a result of electrochemical reactions occurring on the surface of the sensing
electrode.
The gas or analyte diffuses through the membrane and gets absorbed on sensing electrode.
At sensing electrode it undergoes redox reaction generating current.
The amount of generated current is proportional to the analyte concentration.
All electrodes act as a transducer to convert the chemical reaction into a measurable
electrical signal.
Applications:
Widely used in agriculture, food, and oil industries
Use for environmental monitoring of air quality
Used for biomedical applications
Detection of toxic gases with high selectivity and sensitivity
Used in water analysis
Used for humidity sensor
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Q. 6: Explain the working of electrochemical gas sensors for the detection of SOx and NOx.
Electrochemical gas sensor for NOx and SOx
Working principle of electrochemical sensors
The gas (SOx or NOx) diffuses through
the membrane and gets absorbed on
sensing electrode.
At sensing electrode analyte undergoes
redox reaction generating electron flow
of electrons generates an electrical signal
proportional to the concentration of toxic
gas
For SOx:
Working electrode (sensing electrode): Au/ nafion
Counter electrode: Platinum
Reference electrode: Ag/AgCl
Electrolyte: 0.5M H2SO4
Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to control the gas flow reaching the
electrode surface.
Electrochemical reactions for the SO2 and NO gas sensors:
SO2 + 2H2O SO42- + 4 H+ + 2 e-
For NO2:
Working electrode (sensing electrode): Au/ nafion
Counter electrode: Platinum
Reference electrode: Ag/AgCl
Electrolyte: 10 M H2SO4
Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to control the gas flow reaching the
electrode surface.
Electrochemical reactions for NO2 gas sensors:
NO2 + 2H+ + 2e- NO + H2O
For NO:
Working electrode (sensing electrode): Au/ NASICON
Counter electrode: Platinum
Reference electrode: Ag/AgCl
Electrolyte: NaNO2
Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to control the gas flow reaching the
electrode surface.
Electrochemical reactions for the SO2 and NO gas sensors are:
NO + 2H2O NO32- + 4 H+ +3 e-
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Q. 7: Explain the application of electrochemical sensor in the measurement of dissolved
oxygen (DO).
Electrochemical dissolved oxygen (DO) sensor
Electrochemical sensors designed for measuring dissolved oxygen typically use a Clark
electrode, which consists of a cathode and an anode separated by an electrolyte.
Anode: Lead or Zinc
Cathode: Ag or Au
Electrolyte: NaOH or KOH
Membrane: a thin layer of hydrophobic
material, such as Teflon.
Working principle:
The difference in potential between anode
and cathode should between 0.5 V
When the Clark electrode is immersed in a, oxygen molecules diffuse through the
hydrophobic membrane.
Oxidation of metal takes place at anode, while oxygen react at cathode. Due to redox
reaction current is generated.
The amount of generated current is proportional to the DO present in sample.
Anode : 2Zn ￫ 2Zn2+ + 4e-
Cathode : O2 + 4e- + 2H2O ￫ 4OH-
Overall reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 2Zn ￫ 2Zn(OH)2
Applications
They are widely used in industrial and environmental applications, such as monitoring the oxygen
levels in wastewater treatment plants, fish farms, and drinking water supplies.
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Q. 8: Explain the detection of diclophenac and hydrocarbons (PAH’s) using electrochemical
oxidation sensor.
Electrochemical sensor for pharmaceuticals (Diclofenac)
Diclofenac is a drug compound which is used for the treatment of several diseases.
The electrochemical sensor for detection of diclophenac has following composition
Working electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT
Counter Electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
Electrolyte : Aqueous solution of LiCl salt
Working
When electrochemical sensor is immersed into the sample containing diclofenac drug
compound (pH 7.2), an electrochemical oxidation of diclofenac occurs on the surface of
the working electrode and the change in potential and corresponding current is measured.
The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of diclofenac.
The oxidation mechanism for 1-hydropyrene as follow:
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Electrochemical sensor for hydrocarbon (PAH) or (1-hydroxypyrene)
Construction
Working electrode: Cr-MOF and graphene oxide (Cr-based metal organic framework /
graphene oxide)
Counter Electrode: Cr-MOF and graphene oxide (Cr-based metal organic framework /
graphene oxide)
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
Working
When electrochemical sensor is immersed into the sample containing 1-Hydroxypyrene,
electrochemical oxidation of 1-Hydroxypyrene occurs on the surface of the sensing (working)
electrode. The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of 1-Hydroxypyrene. The
oxidation mechanism for 1-hydropyrene as follow:
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Q. 9: What are disposable sensors? Explain the detection of ascorbic acid and glyphosphate
using them.
Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices intended for short-term or
rapid single-point measurements.
These sensors consist of disposable strip with receptor and electrodes printed on it. Such type of
sensor designed to be used once and then disposed of.
Detection of Ascorbic Acid using disposable sensor
In the disposable strip, all three electrodes (working, counter
electrode and reference) and receptor is printed on a single
platform as shown in the figure.
Sensing electrode & Counter electrode: The active surfaces
of the counter electrode and working electrode have been
coated with a conductive ink of MWCNT and modified
with gold nanoparticles.
Reference electrode : Ag/AgCl.
Working:
When the disposable sensor is immersed in the analyte, the
analyte diffuses and adsorbed on the sensing electrode.
The sensing electrode oxidizes ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid and produces
electric current which is proportional to the concentration of the ascorbic acid.
Detection of glyphosate (pesticides) using disposable sensor
Construction
The sensor is a silicon-based chip comprising of three-electrode system, fabricated by
electrodeposition technique.
Working Electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 200nm thickness
gold nanoparticles.
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Counter electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 20nm thickness gold
nanoparticles.
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
Working
The electrochemical detection is based on the oxidation of Glyphosate on gold working
electrode.
A potential of 0.78V is applied on working electrode, there is an interaction between
analyte and electrode surface.
Glyphosate oxidizes on the working electrode brings a change in current in the electrolyte
medium.
The change in the current is a measure of concentration of Glyphosate
Advantages and disadvantages of disposable sensor
Advantages
Cost-effective: no need for expensive cleaning, recalibration, or maintenance procedures.
Disposable sensors are biodegradable and sustainable
Easy to use and fast response times.
Convenient and time-saving:
Prevents the contamination of samples
Reduced the risk of sensor damage
Disadvantages
Disposable sensors cannot be used multiple times,
As designed for single-use, their disposal can contribute to environmental pollution
Not accurate: high precision and accuracy are required
They have lower sensitivity or detection limits
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Energy systems
Battery
Definition: Battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy via
electrochemical oxidation and reduction reaction.
Different components of battery
1. Anode (oxidation process occurs)
2. Cathode (Reduction process occurs)
3. An electrolyte (which is ironically conducting)
4. A Separator (which separates the anodic and cathodic compartments from each other )
Classification of battery
A. Primary battery
The batteries in which the cell reaction is irreversible are called primary batteries. They are not
rechargeable and once discharged have no further electrical use.
Examples: Zn-MnO2 battery and Li-MnO2 battery
B. Secondary battery
The batteries in which the cell reaction is reversible are referred to as secondary batteries.
Secondary batteries after discharge can be recharged electrically to their original condition by
passing electric current through them in the direction opposite to that of discharge current.
Example: Li-ion and Na-ion battery.
C. Reserve Battery
High energy battery in which active materials are separated/isolated from the main battery due to
their high reactivity. They are brought into contact whenever energy is required for the application
Example: Zn-Silver battery, Mg Batteries
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Li-ion battery
A lithium-ion battery (Li-ion battery) is a type of rechargeable battery that uses lithium ions as the
primary carrier of electric charge. The movement of lithium-ion takes place through the electrolyte
from one electrode to another electrode.
Construction
Anode: Lithium intercalated graphite layer (LiC6)
Cathode: Lithium metal oxide layer (LiMO2), M can
be either Mn or Co
Electrolyte: Lithium salts like LiPF6 dissolved in
propylene carbonate
Separator: Polypropylene polymeric membrane
Working : During discharge, Li+ ions are dissociated from the anode and then migrate from the
anode to cathode through the electrolyte. Electrons travel through an external circuit. This process
creates an electric current that can power a device or system. During Charging: Li+ ions move
from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.
Discharge
At anode: LixC6 xLi+ + xe + C6
Charge
Discharge
+
At cathode: Li1x MO2 + xLi + xe LiMO2
Charge
Discharge
Overall cell reaction: LixC6 + Li1x MO2 LiMO2 + C6
Charge
Application of Lithium-ion battery
They are commonly used in smart phones, tablets, laptops
They are used in medical devices
They are used in spacecraft and satellites
They are used in electric cars.
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Na-ion battery
A sodium-ion battery (Na-ion battery) is a type of rechargeable battery that uses sodium ions as
the primary carrier of electric charge. The movement of sodium-ion takes place through the
electrolyte from one electrode to another electrode.
Construction
Anode: Hard carbon intercalated with Na (NaC6)
Cathode: Sodium metal oxide layer (NaMO2), where M =
Mn or Co
Electrolyte: NaPF6 dissolved a mixture of carbonate
solvents
Separator: Polypropylene polymeric membrane
Working : During discharge, Na undergoes oxidation liberating Na+ at the anode, these ions
migrate from the anode to cathode through the electrolyte. Electrons travel through an external
circuit from anode to cathode. This process creates an electric current that can power a device or
system. During Charging: Na+ ions move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.
Discharge
At anode: NaxC6 xNa+ + xe + C6
Charge
Discharge
+
At cathode: Na1x MO2 + xNa + xe NaMO2
Charge
Discharge
Overall cell reaction: NaxC6 + Na1x MO2 NaMO2 + C6
Charge
During discharge, Na+ ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate from the anode to cathode
through the electrolyte. Electrons travel through an external circuit. This process creates an electric
current that can power a device or system.
During Charging: Na+ ions move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.
Application of Sodium-ion battery
They are commonly used for renewable energy storage for homes and businesses
They are used for grid storage
They are used in military and defence
Used as Backup power for data and telecom companies.
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Quantum dot solar cell (QDSC)
A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a type of solar cell that utilizes quantum dots as a light-
absorbing material to convert sunlight into electricity. Quantum dots are nanometer-sized
semiconductor particles with unique optical and electronic properties.
Construction:
Anode (Working electrode): Made up of glass substrate coated with semiconductor TiO2
Cathode (Counter Electrode): Pt based material coated on the substrate
Electrolyte: Polysulphide is used as electrolyte (S2-/Sx2-) It is a hole conductor
Quantum dot layer : It is placed between anode and electrolyte.
Working Principle:
Step 1: When a photon is absorbed by a quantum dot, it excites an electron within the quantum
dot, creating an electron-hole pair, known as an exciton.
Excitation Process: QD + h QDs*
Exciton Dissociation: QDs* e- + h+*
Step 2: The electron and hole pair are separated. The electron moves towards the electron
acceptor (TiO2), while the hole moves towards counter electrode via electrolyte
Injection Process: QDs* + TiO2 TiO2 e- + QDs+
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Step 3: The electron flowing through the electron acceptor are collected by electrode and goes to
the external circuit to counter electrode, generating electrical energy.
Energy generation: QDs* + TiO2 TiO2 e- + QDs+
Advantages of QDSC:
Less manufacturing costs
Tunable band gap, hence it can absorb a broader range of solar spectrum
High multiple electron generation
Strong light absorption
Disadvantages of QDSC:
The toxicity issue is a significant challenge for certain types of quantum dots.
Quantum dots are susceptible to degradation over time; decreasing the efficiency
The synthetic procedure of high-quality quantum dots is complex and costly
QDSCs applications
To harness solar energy
Used in integrated photovoltaics (Integrated into building materials)
Stand-alone power systems such as remote solar powered systems
Used in portable electronics
It is used as a photoconductor and photodetector
