MOBILITY & VEHICLE

MECHANICS

DOI: 10.24874/mvm.2022.48.01.02
UDC:629.3.016

THE ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE ELECTRIC CARS

Mladen Josijević 1*, Dubravka Živković 2, Dušan Gordić 3, Davor Končalović 4, Vladimir
Vukašinović5

Received in April 2022 Accepted in May 2022

RESEARCH ARTICLE

ABSTRACT: This paper aims at providing an overview of commercially available electric

cars at the global market, with the exception of China. 63 different models of electric cars
are currently available, and for all models we have collected the data on price, battery
capacity, efficiency, autonomy, acceleration, and maximum speed. We have calculated the
charging costs per one charging session to batteries’ full capacities and the charging costs
per 100km, based on the average electricity price in Serbia. Technical and economic
analysis is conducted for the models which are first classified into different categories based
on their autonomy in order to ensure better understanding of cars’ properties and their
relative differences. The results obtained here can help prospective customers to choose the
model of an electric car that meets their requirements and satisfies their need.
KEY WORDS: electric cars, trend, market, characteristics

© 2022 Published by University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering

1
Mladen Josijević, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering, Sestre
Janjić 6, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia, mladenjosijevic@gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-
9619-0897 (*Corresponding author)
2
Dubravka Živković, PhD, Research Associate, University of Kragujevac, Institute for Information
Technologies, Department of Technical-Technological Sciences, Jovana Cvijića bb, Kragujevac,
dubravka@uni.kg.ac.rs, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0266-456X
3
Dušan Gordić, PhD, Full professor, University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering, Sestre Janjić
6, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia, gordic@kg.ac.rs, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1058-5810
4
Davor Končalović, PhD, Associate professor, University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering,
Sestre Janjić 6, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia, davor.koncalovic@kg.ac.rs, konchalovic@gmail.com,
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1207-2653
5
Vladimir Vukašinović, PhD, Assistant professor, University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Engineering,
Sestre Janjić 6, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia, vladimir.vukasinovic@kg.ac.rs
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6489-2632

Mobility & Vehicle Mechanics, Vol. 48, No. 1, (2022), pp 19-36

ANALIZA KOMERCIJALNO DOSTUPNIH MODELA ELEKTRIČNIH
AUTOMOBILA
REZIME: U radu je izvršen pregled komercijalno dostupnih modela električnih automobila
na svetskom tržištu, izuzev Kineskog tržišta. Utvrđeno je da je trenutno dostupno 63
različitih modela elektricnih automobila. Za sve modele prikupljeni su podaci o cenovnom
rangu, dostupnim kapacitetima baterija, efikasnosti, autonomiji, ubrzanju i maksimalnoj
brzini. Izračunati su troškovi punjenja do maksimalnog kapaciteta kao i troškovi za pređenih
100km, a na osnovu prosečne cene električne energije u Srbiji. Izvršena je tehno-ekonomska
analiza svih dostupnih modela koji su radi lakšeg razumevanja njihovih svojstava i razlika
prvo klasifikovani u nekoliko kategorija na osnovu autonomije. Rezultati dobijeni ovom
analizom mogu da pomognu potencijalnim kupcima električnih automobila pri odabiru
modela koji zadovoljava njihove zahteve i potrebe..

KLJUČNE REČI: električni automobil, trend, tržište, karakteristike

Mobility & Vehicle Mechanics, Vol. 48, No. 1, (2022), pp 19-36

THE ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE ELECTRIC CARS
Mladen Josijević, Dubravka Živković, Dušan Gordić, Davor Končalović

INTRODUCTION

According to Eurostat data, transport accounted for 30.5% in the total consumption of final
energy in 27 countries of the European Union (EU-27) in 2018 [1]. The same year, the
energy consumption in the world reached 2808 megatonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe), with
oil products accounting for 92% of that amount. In addition, 49.2% of the oil was consumed
within the road transport sector [2]. According to [3], the transport sector is also a major
emitter of air pollutants and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions because of its dependence on
fossil fuel. In 2017, transport accounted for 24% in the global CO 2 emissions. In 8
gigatonnes of CO2 emitted by transport globally, road transport participated with 74% [2].
Based on the aforementioned data, it is not surprising that The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change has highlighted the critical role that transport plays in
climate changes.
Owing to the environmental concerns, the reduced consumption of fossil fuels, and the
fluctuations in oil prices, electric vehicles (EVs) have gained popularity in developed
countries. Several countries, such as China, the UK, the EU countries, and the U.S., have
promoted the use of EVs during the last decade by providing supports from the local and
national bodies to consumers [4]. The replacement of conventional vehicles, powered by
gasoline and diesel, with zero- and low-emission vehicles has been widely accepted as a
solution to environmental and energy-waste issues. Battery electric cars reduce air pollutant
emissions, such NOx, NO2, and particulate matter [3]. However, their greatest benefit of
EVs is the low emission rate of CO2, together with higher acceleration and lower noise
emissions [5-7]. One-step closer to cleaner transport was also the declaration of electro-
mobility signed by 44 countries, 5 regions/cities and 32 international NGOs [3].
The market diffusion has been facilitated by constant efforts to increase the number and
availability of charging stations, to improve government regulations on carbon emissions,
and provide subsidies and other incentives (i.e. free charging, free access to car parks or
entry into environmental zones) [8]. The factors that should drive the growth of EVs include
high decreases in battery prices, improvements in infrastructure and raised awareness about
environmental issues in consumers [5]. However, the response by consumers is still below
expected levels. The lower acceptability of electric cars (ECs) by end consumers has been
attributed to national and local policy frameworks, insufficient infrastructure development,
existent vehicle technology, and consumer perceptions [9]. The following factors have also
been found to influence the decision to buy ECs: battery size, availability of charging
stations, driving range, cost of ownership, and prices of operation and maintenance [10, 11].
Over the years, many reviews on the abundant literature dedicated to EVs have become
available [12-15]. They strive to analyze and explain the factors which impact the adoption
of “a new technology – electric cars.” Among the technical attributes of ECs, the driving
ranges and battery degradation have received more attention while acceleration and
maximum speeds have been seen as less problematic.
The market of electric cars has been growing exponentially, including the number of
manufacturers expanding their supply of models that are fully electricity-driven. With the
diversity of models already available, a new challenge for customers is now how to choose
the model that they will purchase. These insecurities may hinder faster decisions to buy an
electric car so it is crucial to provide more guidance to end customers. The current databases

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22 Mladen Josijević, Dubravka Živković, Dušan Gordić, Davor Končalović

of all-electric cars usually include the following technical properties and economic
indicators: minimum prices (for the basic packages of equipment), maximum prices (for the
best offered packages of additional equipment), battery sizes (kWh), battery efficiencies
(km/kWh), ranges (mileage per one charging session), acceleration from 0 – 100km, and
maximum speeds that a model can develop. Such presentations may be confusing for
potential customers and result in undesirable procrastination. Obviously, a price is not a
guarantee of performance. Cars with similar characteristics can differ in prices significantly.
On the other hand, cheaper solutions may not be efficient enough as some more expensive
options, so in a long run, customers may eventually end up saving by buying pricier models.
In addition, a battery size does not necessarily mean better range (mileage per one charging
session). More efficient cars may secure better range even though they have lower battery
capacities.
These new challenges that customers are currently facing served as a motivation for this
paper. Four categories of all-electric cars are analyzed here: city cars, family cars, long-
drive cars and SUVs. This research aims at collecting the data on commercially available
models of all-electric cars in order to create a comprehensive systematic review of their
most crucial technical and economic properties. The focus is on their minimum price,
battery capacities, charging powers, efficiency and range. Efficiency and range are
recognized as the most relevant properties in the current literature. We follow this line of
thought. However, we are all aware that theory and practice frequently clash. In practice,
most commonly the most relevant factor is customers’ budget. In other words, no matter
how energy-efficient and environment-friendly a car is, we will not see it on our streets as
we wish if it is unaffordable. Price is not the only economic indicator that should be taken
into account. Since the charging infrastructure is underdeveloped, we shall assume that most
customers will rely on their household electricity sources for re-charging a vehicle. Thus,
the costs of charging a battery are among the most relevant factors for prospective
customers. Based on the collected data on battery capacities, charging powers and model
efficiencies, we calculated the charging costs for electricity used to charge a battery to its
full capacity and charging costs for used electricity per 100km, based on the adopted
average price of electricity in Serbia. These indicators may be also crucial if cheaper models
prove to be inefficient and considerably more expensive to re-charge.

1. TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF ELECTRIC CARS

1.1 Electric cars architecture

Several types of battery-equipped cars have been introduced in the last decade or so, which
are mainly classified into four categories: All-electric cars (AECs), Hybrid Electric cars
(HECs), Plug-in hybrid electric cars (PHECs), and fuel cell-based EVs. The latter category
has lesser emissions and higher efficiency, but high hydrogen production costs,
underdeveloped infrastructure and lower commercial availability are a serious obstacle. The
paper will focus solely on all-electric cars which use batteries as their sole energy source.
AECs use battery packs and electric motors for traction purposes (Figure 1. (c)). AECs have
several benefits over other cars (i.e. conventional ICE cars, HECs, and PHECs), including:
smooth operation, higher efficiency, absence of noise pollution, and minimal local GHG
emissions. The efficiency of AECs has been evaluated at 60 – 70%, which is substantially
higher than 15 – 18%, which is a value range attributed to ICE-based cars [16].

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The analysis of commercially available electric cars 23

Note: PEC-Power electronic converter, BMS-Battery management system, ICE Internal combustion engine, G-
generator
Figure 1 Power train architectures of ECs: (a) Hybrid electric car, (b) Plug-in hybrid
electric car, and (c) Full-electric car
1.2 Trends in electric cars
The car market has recorded a huge expansion during the last few years. The growing
concerns about the environment, reduction of fossil fuels and fluctuating prices of oils
instigated the increases in EC use especially in developed countries. 130,000 electric cars
were sold in only one week of 2021. The same amount was sold during the whole year of
2012. The growth has been very intensive during the last three years, despite the fact that the
global pandemic has had a negative impact on car sales in general. Namely, the crisis has
had no impact on the EC market. In 2020, the total car market reduced, and during the same
year over 3 million ECs were sold (accounting for 4.1% in the global car market).
Even though these improvements are considerable, and the EC sales have grown
significantly, their ratio in the total car sale is still relatively low. For instance, ECs
participated with 2.5% in 2019, and 9% in 2021. Actually, the number of sold ECs doubled
in 2021 with respect to 2020 and it finally reached the number of 6.6 million sold cars. The
estimated number of electric cars on the road across the world is now approximately 16
million. They consume about 30TWh of electricity. Just for a comparison, it must be noted
here that the annual consumption of electricity in Serbia is about 35TWh, in Montenegro
3.8TWh, in Croatia 15TWh, and in Bulgaria 37TWh [17]. The figure 2 shows the sale trends
for electric cars since 2010.

Figure 2 Global sales and sales market share of electric cars, 2010-2021 [18]

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24 Mladen Josijević, Dubravka Živković, Dušan Gordić, Davor Končalović

As the Figure 2 demonstrates, China was a global leader on the market of electric cars in
2021. The sales in this country increased by more than three times in 2021 (3.4 million cars)
in comparison to 2020 (about one million). In China only, more ECs were sold in 2021 than
in the entire world in 2020. The ratio of sold ECs on the global market leaped from 7.2% in
January to 20% in December. With these trends, China has good chances of reaching the
Government’s goal – 20% for the whole 2025. The sales are also expected to increase
during the following year. The sales of electric cars in Europe are also in expansion. The
increase of 70% has been recorded in Europe in a year (2021 versus 2020). In 2021, 2.3
million electric cars entered the roads in Europe. The surge in EC sales in Europe during
2021 was at least partially initiated by new standards on CO2 emissions. In addition, the
purchase subsidies were also increased and expanded in most major European markets.
Overall, ECs accounted for 17% of the total car sales in Europe in 2021. However, there are
tremendous diversities across the different markets. For instance, more than 30% of sold
cars in Germany during the last quarter of 2021 were ECs. Still, Norway appears to be a
European leader since 72% of all sold cars were ECs. Sweden and the Netherlands recorded
45% and 30% respectively, during 2021.
In the United States, the sales of electric cars doubled in 2021 after a period of stagnation
and a decrease in 2019 and 2020. Over one million electric cars were sold in 2021, but they
still account for only 4.5% in the total car sales, which is still a relatively low share.
It should be probably noted here that both governments and car industry faced some
challenges during 2021. Tight supplies of components and increased prices of bulk materials
now place supply concerns as the main priority. Taking into consideration that China,
Europe and the U.S. account for only 60% of the global car market and use above 90% of
electric cars, we can conclude that the whole concept of electric vehicles is extremely
underdeveloped in the remaining parts of the world. For instance, in Brazil and India the
share of electric cars in total car sales is below 2%. These values are unacceptably low. The
reasons for this lag mainly include: the lack of institutional support and subsidies. These
measures should be intensified in the future [19].
The truth is that government policies are the key driving force for global electric car
markets. Many countries have introduced several different incentives for buyers and
production companies in order to promote the use of ECs over fossil-fuel vehicles. In
Europe, the market has been growing rapidly for the last few years. The main contributors
are the Netherlands, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The benefits for buyers
include a tax reduction or a tax exemption. These are generally one-time or annually-based
taxes that are mostly paid while purchasing a vehicle. Other benefits for customers include
free use or discounts on using parking facilities, free charging at public charging
infrastructures, etc. The Netherlands, for instance, offers an exemption to AECs from paying
the registration tax and the road taxes are completely waived. AECs can use other benefits
here as well, such as: free parking, 100% tax benefits (excluding VAT), and waiver in
registration taxes [16, 20, 21].
Still, the supply on the market has grown exponentially. With the growing supply and the
surge of new models that are now available at the market, new challenges for customers
entered the scene. Namely, after making a decision to replace their old car with an electric
solution, they now must make another big decision – which model to choose in this vast
variety. While even laymen are informed enough what to look for in a conventional car,
electric cars have remained a mystery to ordinary customers who do not fully understand
which properties are the most relevant. In order to make an informed decision which electric
car to purchase, it is necessary for customers to have a comprehensive summary of what is

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The analysis of commercially available electric cars 25

currently offered on the market and which options are the most appropriate for their own
context – budget, operational (i.e. charging) costs based on the electricity price in their
country, etc. In the Serbian context, as in many developing countries, the low purchasing
power can be a serious obstacle. On the other hand, Serbia is has the highest production of
electricity from coal per capita in whole Europe. Thus, it is quite possible that all-electric
cars which require greater quantities of energy will fail to fulfill their main purpose – to be
eco-friendly.

2. METHODOLOGY OF COLLECTING AND SYSTEMATING DATA ON

ELECTRIC CARS

The significance of increasing the participation of ECs on our roads and the failure to see
the new technology embraced by consumers motivated us to conduct an analysis of
commercially available all-electric cars. Its main contribution will be to facilitate the
decision-making process by systematizing the data on commercially available models of
electric cars worldwide and providing a comprehensive overview. The data are collected
from the relevant webpage which updates the data on commercially available models of
electric cars and their technical and economical features daily [22]. We focused on car
prices (minimum only), battery capacities, car efficiencies, maximum charging powers and
range. We must highlight that the prices presented here may differ from the prices given on
other websites. However, we shall adopt the values provided by the same source from which
we obtained the data about model properties. Some data about some models are not
provided on the selected website. Even though we could obtain them from other sources, we
decided not to do so in order to avoid the inclusion of data from multiple different sources
and potential confusion. Finally, some models have two options for batteries and with more
capacity there comes a higher range. Here we shall focus only on smaller batteries and thus
smaller ranges.
Based on the collected data on battery capacities, charging powers and model efficiencies,
we calculated the charging costs to maximum capacity for each model (FCC in Equation 1).
We have also calculated the specific costs for 100km (SC in Equation 2).
FCC  BS a  ECa (1)
where:
BS a
EC a -[kWh] - Battery size (average)
-[€/kWh] – Electricity price (average)
SC  EEC  ECa (2)
where:
EEC - [kWh/km] – Electric car efficiency

The mean price of electricity in Serbia equals 0.08 €/kWh [23]. Taking into consideration
that these cars are mostly charged during night (lower prices for used electricity in Serbia),
the prices for charging a car should be lower than this average. We shall neglect this
discrepancy because some factors may simultaneously make the real price higher than this
mean value. Namely, the average annual mileage in Serbia is about 10,000 kilometers [24].
The average electric car whose battery capacity is about 60kWh could pass 250km with a
full battery. This means that an average car should be re-charged about 3 to 4 times a month

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26 Mladen Josijević, Dubravka Živković, Dušan Gordić, Davor Končalović

(about 200kWh of electricity). Taking into consideration that the average consumption of
electricity in a Serbian household is 470kWh, the total consumption with an electric car
would increase by more than 40%. It is reasonable to expect that this increase would result
in exceeding the zone limits. Namely, the Serbian tariff-charging system sets the zone limits
and a kWh of used electricity in a higher zone is pricier than one kWh which is consumed in
a lower one. In addition, due to high investments for purchasing electric cars, it is
reasonable to expect that these cars would be primarily attractive to the richer
subpopulation. They are also known to generally use more electricity in their households
(higher charging zones) so the average value for electricity is significantly higher than the
average for the whole Serbian population. For these reasons, we found it even more
reasonable to increase the value of average electricity price to 0.09€/kWh.
Just for illustration purposes, the paper will compare the ranges per the same amount of
money which associates charging costs and ranges per one re-charge. We find these
examples less abstract. They are thus easier to understand, even for laymen. The adopted
average price of electricity is the same for all cars, and the costs of re-charging session are
calculated based on their battery size and car efficiency. When these costs are related to
cars’ ranges, all most relevant properties and economic indicators are included in their
unique interaction.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

According to the data base retrieved from the selected source, about 63 models of all-
electric cars are currently commercially available. In addition, there are plenty more models
that are not available on all continents and, as such, they are excluded from our analysis. For
instance, there are a few dozen models produced by Chinese manufacturers that are
available only in China and/or in the neighboring countries.
Our analysis focuses on four categories of all-electric cars: city cars (C), family cars (F),
long-drive cars (LD) and SUVs. Long-drive cars are a special category in that they include
all cars from the previous three groups whose batteries allow a car to pass 300km or more
after one charging session. Actually, there are no strict boundaries between these categories
so the same car is classified in two or more groups simultaneously:
Table 1 Overview of models based on their category
C+ C+
Category C F LD SUV C+F
LD SUV
No. of
28 7 3 4 6 2 2
models
C+ F+
F+ F+ LD + C+F C+F
Category LD + LD + ALL 4
LD SUV SUV + LD + SUV
SUV SUV
No. of
12 4 2 6 3 3 14 3
models
Since it is pointless to use this classification due to numerous overlaps between the classes,
the models will be classified here according to their range. Range is generally accepted as
one of the most important properties, especially because the charging infrastructure is
underdeveloped to the extent that it is highly probable that vast majority of customers will
predominantly depend on household electricity sources for charging their vehicles,
especially in developing countries, such as Serbia. The models are classified here based on

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The analysis of commercially available electric cars 27

their range into five categories: (1) less than 200km, (2) 200 – 300km, (3) 300 – 400km, (4)
400 – 500km, and (5) more than 500km.
Range: less than 200km
Only four cars have a mean range lesser than 200km which most customers may find
unfavorable: Citroen Ami (71km), Renault Twitzy (90km), Smart EQ Fortwo (134km), and
Microlino (162km). They are all classified as city cars and their prices range from €5,000
(Citroen Ami) to €19,150 (Smart EQ Fortwo). Renault Twitzy currently costs about
€11,000, and Microlino is about €12,000. Despite the attractive price, the top speed that
these cars can develop is another setback. Namely, Citroen Ami and Renault Twitzy can
reportedly go 48km/h and 80km/h, respectively. The top speed is not reported for
Macroline, so Smart EQ Fortwo is the only car from this low-range category whose speed
exceeds 100km/h (130km/h). In other words, these cars are literally designed for city
driving. Since they may be unattractive even for customers who need car for this sole
purpose, we will exclude them from the further analysis, especially because there are
options that are not significantly pricier that Smart EQ Fortwo, but offer better
performances.
Range: 200 – 300km
The lowest acceptable range (from 200km to 300km) is found in sixteen models. The
following table summarizes their technical properties and economic indicators.
As can be seen from the table above, most models from this category are classified as city
cars (12 models), and/or as family cars (11 models), while there are only five models labeled
as SUVs.
The prices range from €11,407 (Volkswagen e-UP!) to €41,264 (Honda e). By far the
cheapest option is Volkswagen e-UP!, and the next cheapest candidate within this range is
Dacia Spring (€21,614). Nissan e-NV200, SEAT Mi Electric, Fiat 500e, and Renault
Kangoo Ze cost from €24,021 to €29,014, respectively. Fiat appears to be the most lucrative
option within this price range in terms of charging costs (€2.6 per one charging session and
€1.8 per 100 km). However, if we combine charging costs with ranges, we can conclude that
SEAT Mi Electric and Dacia Spring can pass higher distances for the same amount of
money.
Renault Kangoo ZE is not much cheaper than the models from the following price range.
There are seven models that cost between about €31,000 and 34,000. MG ZS V stands out in
terms of its speed (262km/h). With all other models the speed is fairly similar (about 150 –
167km/h). MINI Electric, Hyundai Kona Electric, and Vauxhall Vivaro-e are the most
efficient, and the highest ranges are reported for Kia eNiro, Hyundai Kona Electric, and
Nissan Leaf. The highest charging costs per charging session are calculated for MG ZS V
and Vauxhall Vivaro-e (€9.0 and €6.3). The results indicate that Hyndai Kona Electric and
Kia eNiro can pass the longest distances with the same amount of money. MG ZS V and
Vauxhall Vivaro-e are significantly lagging behind. For nine euros, MGZS V can be
charged once and pass about 290km. Both Hyndai Kona Electric and Kia eNiro can pass
about 826km for the same amount of money. These results indicate that efficiency and range
are the most important properties and that they can provide a clearer image on cars’
performances when combined with charging costs. These should never be observed in
isolation. For instance, MINI Electric has the best efficiency (8.8km/kWh), but its range is
lower by 233km than those found in Hyndai Kona Electric and Kia eNiro. As a result, it can

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28 Mladen Josijević, Dubravka Živković, Dušan Gordić, Davor Končalović

pass just a half of the distance that the other two cars can reach for the same amount of
money.
Citroen ë-Space Tourer, BMW i3 and Honda are significantly pricier (€37,196, €40,592, and
€41,264, respectively). The most efficient option is BMW i3 which also has the highest
range, top speed, and charging price per session. Even though it can pass larger distances for
the same amount of money than other two models, we must note that it cannot surpass
Hyndai Kona Electric and Kia eNiro in this aspect because both its range and efficiency are
lower.
Table 2 Technical properties and economic indicators (range: 200 – 300km)

Charging costs
0-100 km/h [s]

per charge [€]

Accelerating
Battery size

Range [km]
[km/ kWh]

Top speed

[€/100km]
Efficiency
Min.

[km/h]
[kWh]
Model Category price
[€]

Volkswagen e-
C 11,407 32.3 8.42 261 12.32 130 2.91 1.07
UP!
Dacia Spring C, SUV 21,614 27 8.40 225 - - 2.43 1.07
Nissan e-
F 24,021 40 5.39 200 14.5 122 3.60 1.67
NV200
SEAT Mii
C, F 25,576 32.3 8.42 272 12.7 130 2.91 1.07
Electric
Fiat 500e C, F 26,411 24 7.63 185 - 150 2.16 1.18
Renault
C, F 29,014 33 7.11 230 21.0 130 2.97 1.27
Kangoo ZE
MG ZS V C, F,
31,411 44.5 5.89 262 7.56 261 9.0 1.48
SUV
Nissan Leaf C, F 32,415 40 6.20 270 7.6 156 3.60 1.45
MINI Electric C, F 32,421 32.6 8.08 233 7.56 150 2.93 1.11
C, F,
Mazda MX-30 32,475 35.5 6.76 200 10.0 150 3.20 1.33
SUV
Kia eNiro F, SUV 32,845 39 7.10 290 7.77 167 3.51 1.27
Vauxhall
F 33,179 50 4.84 232 - - 6.3 1.5
Vivaro-e
Hyundai Kona C, F,
34,762 39 7.55 290 10.05 167 3.51 1.19
Electric SUV
Citroen ë-
F 37,196 50 5.12 219 - - 4.5 1.25
SpaceTourer
BMW i3 C 40,592 42 6.63 278 7.15 159 3.78 1.36
Honda e C 41,264 35.5 5.66 220 8.60 145 3.20 1.59

Range: 300 – 400km

For sixteen models the range varies from 300km to 400km. Their technical properties and
economic indicators are presented in Table 3.

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The analysis of commercially available electric cars 29

The models with the desired range vary greatly in price and other characteristics. The
cheapest model is Vauxhall Mokka (€30,895), and the most expensive is Mercedes EQV
(€80,840), followed by Mercedes EQC (€78,915) and Audi e-tron (€72,767).

Table 3 Technical properties and economic indicators (range: 300 – 400km)

Charging costs
0-100 km/h [s]

per charge [€]

Accelerating
Battery size

Range [km]
[km/ kWh]

Top speed

[€/100km]
Efficiency
Min.

[km/h]
[kWh]
Model Category price
[€]

Vauxhall
All four 30,895 50 7.19 336 - - 4.5 1.3
Mokka
Vauxhall
C, F, LD 32,565 50 7.47 336 - - 4.5 1.2
Corsa-e
Citroen e-
C, F, LD 34,216 50 7.76 349 9.3 150 4.50 1.16
C4
Renault
C 34,336 52 7.4 383 9.84 - 8.10 1.73
Zoe
SsangYong
Korando e- F, SUV 36,617 61.5 - 338 - 249 9.0 1.46
Motion
Peugeot
All four 41,102 50 6.82 332 9.3 150 4.50 1.32
e2008
Volkswagen F, LD,
42,021 52 6.49 340 6.4 180 4.7 1.4
ID.4 SUV
DS3
Crossback C, SUV 44,308 50 7.02 315 9.32 150 4.50 1.28
E-Tense
Hyundai
IONIQ C, F 44,933 38 8.22 312 5.4 150 3.51 1.39
Electric
Lexus
F, SUV 50,126 53.3 5.70 315 7.77 259 6.97 1.32
UX3003
Nissan
LD, SUV 50,246 63 5.79 359 5.28 - 4.5 1.25
Ariya
Audi Q4 e-
F, SUV 50,222 52 6.6 322 6.4 130 2.91 1.07
tron
Tesla F, LD,
66,030 55 6.76 370 3.6 - 4.5 1.25
Model Y SUV
Audi e-tron All four 72,767 71 5.13 300 3.75 209 6.4 1.8
Mercedes C, LD,
78,915 80 4.65 372 5.28 180 7.20 1.94
EQC SUV
Mercedes
F, LD 80,840 90 3.77 340 - 259 6.39 2.26
EQV

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30 Mladen Josijević, Dubravka Živković, Dušan Gordić, Davor Končalović

Ssang Yong Korando e-Motion (249km/h) and Lexus UX3003 and Mercedes EQV
(259km/h both) stand out in terms of top speed. Tesla and Audi e-tron have the best
acceleration. The highest efficiencies are reported for Hyundai IONIQ Electric, Citroen e-
C4 and Vauxal Corsa (more than 7km per kWh) while the lowest efficiencies are found in
Mercedes EQV, Mercedes EQC, and Audi e-tron. Renault Zoe, Mercedes EQC, and Tesla
Model Y have the largest ranges, while the opposite is the case with Audi e-tron, Hyundai
IONIQ Electric, Lexus UX3003, and DS3 Crossback E-Tense. When charging costs are
taken into consideration, we can see that Audi Q4 e-tron, Hyundai IONIQ Electric, and
Tesla Model Y can pass the largest distances for the same amount of money. This once
again shows that neither highest efficiencies nor highest ranges are a guarantee that a car has
the best performances. These two properties must be observed in their unique interaction.
The results also show that speed adds the price, but impacts the total performance quite
unfavorably. Two fastest cars, Lexus while Mercedes EQV, have high charging costs and
they can pass less than a half of the distance that Audi Q4 can for the same amount of
money. Lexus is more efficient than Audi Q4 e-tron and Mercedes EQV has a higher range.
Still, the model with a better combination of these two properties appears to be the most
acceptable solution if we observe the models from this perspective.
Within the lower price range (€30,895 to €36,617), the most favorable interaction between
efficiency and range is found in Citroen e-C4. After Hyundai IONIQ Electric, this is the
second most efficient car in this category. This Citroen’s solution is cheaper by €10.000
than Hyundai’s IONIQ Electric, and as such, it is more affordable and will probably be
perceived as more attractive option.
Range: 400 – 500km
According to the selected database, 18 models have a range from 402 to 499km per one full
charge. This classifies them all as long-drive cars. Pininfarina Battista and Rimac Nevera are
excluded from further analysis because they are not serially produced and their prices
surpass 2 million euros. The technical properties and economic indicators are presented in
Table 4.
Only two models within the selected ranges are non-SUVs: Volkswagen ID.3 and Tesla
Model 3 (ordered based on their price). The price range for this category ranges from
€33,105 to €51,621. The cheapest cars are MG 5EV and Renault Megane E-tech. The
priciest cars in this category are Ford Mustang Mach-E, Jaguar I-Pace and BMW iX. The
lowest battery capacities are reported for Tesla Model 3, Volkswagen ID.3, and Skoda
EnyaqiaV, while the opposite is the case with Jaguar I-Pace, BMW iX3, and Volvo XC40
Recharge. The best efficiency is recorded for Tesla Model 3, Skoda EnyaqiV, and Hyndai
IONIQ5. Jaguar I-Pace, BMW iX, and BMW iX3 are at the bottom of the list in terms of
their efficiency. Volkswagen, Hyundai, Renault and Jaguare have the best ranges. The
lowest ranges are reported for Ford Mustang, MG 5EV, and Skoda. MG 5EV, Tesla Model
3, Mercedes EQA, and Renault have significantly higher top speeds than the other models in
this category. When costs needed for one re-charging are taken into consideration, the best
results are found for Ford Mustang Mach-E, Jaguar I-Pace, and BMW iX. The opposite is
the case with Tesla Model X and MG 5EV which stand out as the most extreme cases. For
prospective customers it may be relevant to know that with the same amount of money the
smallest distances can be passed with MG 5EV, Skoda EnyaquiV, Ford Mustang, and
Volvo. The largest distances for the same amount of money can be passed with Ford
Mustang, Jaguar I-Pace, and BMW iX. Within that price range, Ford Mustang has the best
efficiency. Within the lower price range (€50,371 to €59,978), the best interaction of
efficiency and range is exhibited by Tesla Model 3 which has both the highest efficiency

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The analysis of commercially available electric cars 31

and the highest range, and the lowest charging costs. Volkswagen ID.3, Skoda Enyaqi V,
and Hyndai IONIQ 5 currently cost from €40,148 to €44,933. The biggest battery capacity is
recorded for Hyundai (72.6kWh) while Skoda and Volkswagen have the batteries with the
same capacity (58kWh). The highest efficiency is reported for Volkswagen, Skoda, and then
Hyndai. Skoda has the highest costs per charging session (€8.1), as compared to Hyundai
(€6.53) and Volkswagen ID.3 (€5.22). For the same amount of money, Hyndai can pass the
largest distances even though its efficiency is the lowest since it has the best range (480km
versus 425 and 412km).

Table 4 Technical properties and economic indicators (range: 400 – 500km)

Battery size [kWh]

Top speed [km/h]

Charging costs
0-100 km/h [s]

per charge [€]

Min.

Accelerating
Range [km]
[km/ kWh]
Model Category price

[€/100km]
Efficiency
[€]

C, F,
MG 5EV 33,015 61 6.55 402 7.56 261 9.0 1.48
SUV
Renault
F, LD,
Megane E- 37,224 60 0.0 470 7.46 209 6.39 1.75
SUV
Tech
Volkswagen
F, LD 40,148 58 7.02 425 9.9 161 5.22 1.28
ID.3
Skoda F, LD,
41,439 58 6.95 412 8.7 - 8.1 2.39
EnyaqiV SUV
Hyundai F, LD,
44,933 72.6 6.60 480 5.4 185 6.53 1.36
IONIQ 5 SUV
Toyota L, LD,
50,372 71.4 6.28 451 7.1 159 6.43 1.43
bZ4X SUV
Ford
Mustang LD, SUV 51,069 75 6.10 401 5.3 180 6.75 1.5
Mach E GT
Tesla
C, F, LD 51,621 55 7.72 430 3.2 261 4.95 1.17
Model 3
Mercedes F, LD,
53.428 70 6.00 420 - - 6.3 1.5
EQA SUV
Volvo
XC40 F, SUV 59,978 78 5.34 417 5.1 180 7.02 1.68
Recharge
Mercedes F, LD,
61,239 66.5 6.29 418 6.42 241 6.75 1.33
EQB SUV
Volkswagen F, LD,
66,444 77 6.4 496 6.42 - 6.93 1.4
ID.5 GTW SUV
F, LD,
BMW iX3 70,665 80 5.73 459 7.0 185 5.49 1.37
SUV
Ford F, LD,
78,146 75 6.1 401 - 150 2.16 1.18
Mustang SUV

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32 Mladen Josijević, Dubravka Živković, Dušan Gordić, Davor Končalović

Mach-E
Jaguar I- F, LD,
78,284 90 5.21 470 4.7 166 3.42 1.09
Pace SUV
F, LD,
BMW iX 83,940 71 5.49 425 6.32 150 4.5 1.21
SUV
Range: more than 500km
According to the selected database, nine cars have a range higher than 500km (Table 5). The
price range goes from €49,166 (KIA EV6) to €120,077 (Lucid Air).
Table 5 Technical properties and economic indicators of models whose range is above
500km

Charging costs
0-100 km/h [s]

per charge [€]

Accelerating
Battery size

Range [km]
[km/ kWh]

Top speed

[€/100km]
Efficiency
Min.

[km/h]
Model Category price [kWh]
[€]

Kia EV6 F, SUV 49,166 77.4 6.82 528 3.66 159 5.22 1.29
Volkswagen
F 60,039 77 - 550 - - 6.39 1.64
ID. Buzz
BMW i4 F, LD 62,326 80 7.29 591 4.0 224 7.20 1.23
Toyota
F, LD 72,046 - - 805 9.5 180 4.68 1.39
Mirai
Mercedes
F, LD 84,054 90 - 660 - 209 6.39 1.75
EQE
Tesla
F, LD 96,038 100 6.10 591 2.4 - 10.8 2.17
Model S
Tesla
All 4 105,644 100 6.18 560 4.56 150 3.2 1.33
Model X
Mercedes
F, LD 109,264 108 7.15 771 - - 6.39 1.64
EQS
Lucid Air F, LD 120,077 90 - 660 3.1 - 4.98 1.58
The differences in prices in models with the selected range (>500km) are huge. The
cheapest model is Kia EV6. The most expensive are Tesla Model X, Mercedes EQS, and
Lucid Air. The most expensive car is about 2.4 times pricier than the cheapest one. The
battery capacity is the worst in KIA EV6, Volkswagen ID. Buzz, and BMW i4 (77kWh,
77kWh, and 80kWh, respectively). The best battery capacity is found in Tesla Model S,
Tesla Model X, and Mercedes EQS (100kWh, 100kWh, and 108kWh, respectively). Not all
values for efficiencies are reported in the selected source. Based on those that are
documented, BMW i4 and Mercedes EQS have the best efficiencies (7.9km/kWh and
7.15km/kWh). The opposite is the case with Tesla Model X and S (6.18 and 6.10km/kWh).
By far the largest ranges are recorded for Toyota Mirai and Mercedes EQS. Only BMWi4
and Mercedes EQE can develop speeds higher than 200km/h. The charging costs per one re-
charge are the most unfavorable in case of Tesla Model S and BMWi4 (€10.8 and €7.2)
while they are the lowest for Tesla Model X and Toyota Mirai (€3.2 and €4.68,
respectively). Just for illustration, with the same amount of money for recharging, Tesla

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The analysis of commercially available electric cars 33

Model S, Volkswagen ID. Buzz, and BMW i4 can pass significantly lower distances than
Tesla Model X and Toyota Mirai. Tesla Model S and Tesla Model X are at the top in terms
of battery capacity (after Mercedes EQS), however both cars are at the bottom in terms of
both efficiency and range. In both aspects they rank as the fourth and fifth best solutions.
However, the differences in charging costs make a significant difference for prospective
customers. With the same amount of money Tesla Model X can pass the distance that is
three times longer than that passed with Tesla Model S. BMW i4’s battery ranks as the third
worst solution within this capacity, so despite its best efficiency it shares the fourth place
with Tesla Model X in terms of range. Taking into consideration the charging costs, which
are the second most unfavorable in this range category, BMW i4 can be seen as the second
least favorable option for customers. On the other hand, Toyota Mirai follows Tesla Model
X in terms of range per the same amount of money so it can be seen as the most attractive
option for the customers, especially if we take into consideration that it is cheaper than Tesla
Model X for about €30.000. The efficiency of this model is not documented in the selected
source, but it has the best range in this category and second best charging costs.
Comparative analysis of different categories
Based on the mean values obtained for each category we can conduct a brief comparative
analysis. The obtained values are presented in Table 6.
Table 6 Technical properties and economic indicators across different range categories
Charging
Range Battery Efficiency costs
Price Range
category size [km/ per
[€] [km]
[km] [kWh] kWh] charge
[€]
200 –
300 30,412 37.29 6.82 242 3.78
300 –
5.42
400 49,384 57.36 6.45 339
400 –
6.0
500 40,416 69.91 6.25 436
> 500 84,295 90.30 6.71 635 6.14
The results show that the mean prices at least partially correspond to the range. As the
ranges increase, so does the price. The only exception are the cars with the range 300 –
400km and 400 – 500km. The latter are cheaper than the previous category. As the ranges
increase, so does the mean battery capacity. Even though the cars with higher ranges are
notorious for being not efficient enough as cars with lower ranges, this analysis shows that
the mean values differ slightly. The selection of the top representatives confirms the same.
In the first category (200 – 300km), the best efficiencies are reported for Volkswagen e-UP!
and SEAT Mii Electric (8.42 km/kWh). With 8.22km/kWh and 7.72km/kWh, Hyundai
IONIQ Electric (300 – 400km) and Tesla Model 3 (400 – 500km) follow this trend. The best
efficiency within the range >500km is reported for BMW i4 (7.29km/kWh). The main
reasons for the discrepancy found with the highest-range models can be attributed to the fact
that efficiencies are not documented for four models. Their values could change the image
significantly.
These results prove that car industry has been putting serious efforts to create all-electric
cars with higher ranges by simultaneously trying to increase their efficiency. In other words,
even though they have kept larger batteries needed for long-range drives, they found a way

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34 Mladen Josijević, Dubravka Živković, Dušan Gordić, Davor Končalović

to make their cars more efficient. Obviously, long-range cars still cannot compete with
short-range models in terms of efficiency, but at least their efficiency is becoming more and
more acceptable. Finally, we must highlight that discrepancies between the models within
each range category can be tremendous, so we should avoid generalizations.

4. CONCLUSIONS

This paper summarizes the main properties and economic indicators of 63 all-electric cars
that are currently commercially available. The prices differ drastically, as with conventional
cars. However, with conventional cars most customers predominantly know what to look for
in a car, while the properties of electric cars remain a mystery for laymen. In addition, the
car properties which are theoretically the most crucial ones (energy-efficiency and eco-
friendliness) are not the most relevant for prospective customers.
Economic indicators must be taken into account because the budget narrows down the
selection. In addition, charging costs may be the second most relevant factor since
customers desire to make lucrative investments. Thus, we must find ways to evaluate model
performances by combining these four features. This paper demonstrates that the best
performances are found in those models which have a favorable combination of price,
battery capacity, model efficiency, range and charging costs. These factors are interrelated
and since there is no objective measure to calculate their impact, we must invent new ways
of comparing them. Namely, this paper demonstrates that the highest battery capacity is very
frequently not a guarantee that models will have neither the highest efficiency nor the
highest range. The results also show that prices of cars, with all other properties being
practically identical, can differ significantly if a car offers better speed and acceleration, or
is produced by a company with long tradition and good reputation. We have also found the
examples that further confirm our hypothesis about the relevance of charging costs. Namely,
there are a few examples in which different charging costs are the most drastic difference
between two models that otherwise have similar specifications. First, if for the same amount
of money a car can pass longer distances, it means that it will be re-charged less frequently.
This can be extremely appealing for prospective customers.
The paper also demonstrates that prices do increase with increases in range. Batteries also
increase significantly, but efficiencies decrease slightly. Charging costs also increase due to
battery size. It is interesting to note that in the first category analyzed here, the most
favorable interplay of technical properties and economic indicators is found in the cheapest
models (Volkswagen e-UP!, Dacia Spring, and SEAR Mii Electric) because these cars have
lower ranges, smaller batteries, and higher efficiency. In the second category, the most
appealing interactions of the features are found in the models whose prices are the lowest.
The only exception is Hyndai IONIQ Electric, whose price fluctuates around the mean
value. The added price can be contributed to the smallest battery, and the highest efficiency.
However, in the third and fourth category, the best combinations of the most relevant
features are detected in pricier, but not necessarily the most expensive, models.
Finally we must conclude that the slight mean differences in efficiency between short-range
and long-range cars are extremely encouraging. This proves that the car industry has been
investing a lot of effort to reconcile what customers want (i.e. higher ranges) with what we
all need (i.e. energy-efficient and eco-friendly transportation). Their attempts give results
and strengthen the vision that that future of car industry is electric.

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The analysis of commercially available electric cars 35

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Authors acknowledge the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development

of the Republic of Serbia for the support through Contracts No. 451-03-9/2021-14/200378
and 451-03-9/2021-14/200107.

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