PSIR 2

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PART A
UNIT 1: COMPARATIVE POLITICS - NATURE, SCOPE AND MAJOR APPROACHES
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS
Discuss the main limitations to the comparative methods to the study of political
science. (2022)
• Discuss the political economy approach to the comparative analysis of politics.

(2021) • Discuss the subject matter of comparative politics. Outline the
limitations of comparative political analysis. (2020)
Examine the significance of the comparative method in political analysis Discuss

its limitations. (2019)
Describe the changing nature of Comparative Politics. Briefly explain the Political
Economy approach to the study of Comparative Politics. (2018)
Explain the Political-Sociological Approach in the field of comparative politics

and discuss its limitations (2017).
Critically examine the Marxist aspect of political economy approach to the study of
comparative politics. 2016
• Which are the major approaches of comparative politics? Explain in brief, the
political economy approach to the study of comparative inquiry. (2015) Discuss
David Easton's model of systems analysis. (2015)
Background
Comparative Government and Politics is an important sub-field of the discipline of

political science. Comparative study of politics is about comparing political
phenomena. Its primary goal is to encompass the major political similarities and
differences between countries around the world. Within the field of Political
Science, we do engage in the activity of comparing different
political systems, institutions, process, activities, etc. across countries.
. For example - When we say that China is economically stronger than India or that
US president is stronger than the Indian president or that Pakistan is less
democratic and secular than India, we are using the comparative method.
Standard Introductions
According to M. G. Smith, 'Comparative politics is the study of the forms of

political organizations, their properties, correlations, variations and modes of
change. • According to E. A. Freeman, 'Comparative politics is comparative analysis
of the various forms of government and diverse political institutions."
According to M. Curtis, 'Comparative politics is concerned with significant

regularities, similarities and differences in the working of political institutions
and political behaviour. All these definitions provide a basis for the study of
comparative governments in its contemporary term. It involves a comparative study
of the institutional and mechanistic arrangements along with the empirical and
scientific analysis of non-institutionalized and non-political determinants of
political behaviour.
Three fold functions of comparative politics
Analysis of political system to identify problem areas
Develop a pool of verifiable knowledge
Prediction of institutional and behavioral trend
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Nature and scope of comparative politics
While comparative government deals with an extensive study of different political

systems with special emphasis on their institutions and functions, comparative
politics has a much broader scope. It covers all that which comes under the study
of the latter, along with the study of non-state politics. Hence, comparative
politics covers a much wider area in the study of politics.
Comparative politics is engaged in the study of
Comparative politics is a dynamic field of study that seeks to understand and

analyze political phenomena across different countries and regions. By comparing
and contrasting diverse cases, comparative politics provides valuable insights into
the complexities of governance, political processes, and societal dynamics. At its
core, comparative politics focuses on investigating a wide range of topics like
1. Regime types: Comparing and categorizing political systems based on their

institutional
characteristics, such as democracies, authoritarian regimes, and hybrid regimes. 2.

Institutions: Analyzing the formal and informal rules, structures, and
organizations that shape political behavior and decision-making, such as
constitutions, parliaments, courts, and interest groups.
3. Political culture: Examining the shared beliefs, values, norms, and attitudes of
a society that influence political behavior and shape political institutions.
4. Comparative method: Employing systematic and rigorous comparative analysis to

identify patterns, causal relationships, and generalizations across cases.
5. Democratization and authoritarianism: Exploring the processes and factors that

contribute to transitions to democracy or the persistence of autocratic rule.
6. Political economy: Investigating the interactions between politics and

economics, including the role of institutions, policies, and socioeconomic factors
in shaping political outcomes.
Evolution and historical overview of the comparative politics
Comparative politics has a long intellectual pedigree, going back to Aristotle and
continued by thinkers like Niccolo Machiavelli, John Locke, and Max Weber etc..
• Greek philosopher Aristotle studied the constitutions of 150 states and

classified them into a typology of regimes. He not only described and classified
regimes and political systems in terms of their types e.g., democracy, aristocracy,
monarchy etc., but also distinguished them on the basis of certain norms of good
governance.
Machiavelli compared different types of principalities (hereditary, new, mixed and

ecclesiastic
ones) and republics to arrive the most successful ways to govern them. During The
Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century's Comparative studies taken up were
Eurocentric because the rest of the world of Asia, Africa and Latin America were
either European colonies or under their sphere of influence as ex-colonies.
⚫ Studies were largely concerned with a comparative study of institutions, the

distribution of power, and the relationship between the different layers of
government. It may thus be said that these studies were in fact not genuinely
comparative in the sense that they excluded from their analysisa large number of
countries.
⚫ Behavioural movement after the Second World War a powerful critique of the
institutional approach emerged in the middle of 1950s. The critique had its roots
in behaviouralism which had emerged as a new movement in the discipline of politics
aiming to provide scientific rigour to the discipline and develop a science of
politics.
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Different approaches to study comparative politics Political investigators employ

various approaches and tools to enhance their understanding of politics. In the
field of comparative politics, two major approaches have emerged: the traditional
approach and the modern approach.
The traditional approach to the study of comparative politics focuses on the

analysis of political systems, institutions, and structures. It emphasizes the
examination of historical context, cultural factors, and legal frameworks to
understand political phenomena. This approach often relies on qualitative methods,
such as case studies and historical analysis, to gain insights into the
similarities and differences among political systems.
⚫ Modern approach to comparative politics adopts a more quantitative and

scientific approach. It emphasizes the use of statistical analysis, surveys, and
data-driven methodologies to study political phenomena. This approach seeks to
establish generalizable theories and principles by systematically comparing large
sets of data across different countries and regions.
Traditional comparative politics
The traditional approach to Political Science was broadly predominant till the
occurrence of the Second World War. These approaches were mainly associated with
the traditional outlook of politics which underlined the study of the state and
government.
Consequently, traditional approaches are principally concerned with the study of

the organization and activities of the state and principles and the ideas which
motivate political organizations and activities.
Characteristics of Traditional approaches
The traditional approaches to the study of comparative politics are characterized

by certain key features: Normative Focus: Traditional approaches emphasize the
values and ethics of politics, evaluating political phenomena based on subjective
judgments.
⚫ Study of Formal Political Structures: Traditional approaches analyze formal

political structures like institutions, constitutions, and legal frameworks to
understand their roles and interactions. ⚫ Limited Theory-Research Linkage:
Traditional approaches have been criticized for their limited integration of
theoretical concepts with empirical research.
Subjectivity in Political Science: Traditional approaches acknowledge the influence

of subjective factors and values in the study of politics.
There are many types of traditional approaches that are as follows
1. Philosophical approach
This approach is the oldest approach to the study of politics.
Many Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle were main proponents of this
approach. Philosophical approach tries to explore the truth of political incidents
or events. It discovers the objective of political writings or the purpose of
political writer.
Application of the philosophical approach in political science focuses on the great

ideas, values and doctrines of politics.
Critics of this approach argued that
It is based on the idealism, Critics argued that idealism itself is quite good but
when its practical application arises it appears to be a myth.
As an academic discipline, philosophical approach is appropriate, but in practical

guide for action, it has barely any importance.
2. Historical approach
Historical approach to the comparative politics tries to analyse the things from
the past events.

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The approach assumes that the history provides the best materials upon which theory
and principles of political science are built.
History communicates researchers how government, political parties and many other
institutions worked, their successes and failures and from these, they receive
lessons which guide them in determining the future course of action.
Critics to this approach
Alan Ball has also criticized the historical approach. He debated that "past
evidence does leave-alarming gaps, and political history is often simply a record
of great men and great events, rather than a comprehensive account of total
political activity.
The dual nature of the history - history has two faces. One is documentation of
facts which is quite naive and the other is construal of facts and phenomena. So
the construction of the fact can change the real analysis of the political
phenomena. 3. Institutional approach
These approaches mainly deals with the formal aspects of government and politics
This approach focuses on the rules of the political system, the powers of the
various institutions, the legislative bodies, and how the constitution worked.
The proponents of this approach have argued that institutions have shaped political
behaviour and social change. These authors have taken an "institutionalists"
approach which treats institutions as independent variables.
Critics to this approach
• Disregard of the informal aspects of politics, such as, individual norms, social
beliefs, cultural values, groups' attitudes, personality and the processes.
。 Too narrow-Institutional approach is also criticized for being too narrow.
4. Legal approach
This approach is associated with the legal process, legal bodies or institutions,
and judiciary. It considers the state as the central organization for the creation
and enforcement of laws.
• In this approach, the study of politics is mixed with legal processes and
institutions.
⚫ The supporters of this approach are Hobbes, John Austin, Dicey and Henry Maine.
Critics of this approach
。 This approach is narrow. Law include only one aspect of people's life. It cannot
cover entire behaviour of political action.
Overall Analysis of the traditional approaches

Discuss the main limitations to comparative methods to the study of political

science. 2022 The traditional approach to Political Science was broadly predominant
till the occurrence of the Second World War. These approaches were mainly
associated with the traditional outlook of politics which underlined the study of
the state and government.
Main body
Roy Macridis, author of Modern Political Regimes, has criticised the Traditional
approaches essentially as non-comparative, descriptive, parochial, static and
monographic. It has been also criticised on the various grounds like
⚫ Ethnocentric in nature - It included just the study of the constitutions of the

western world. Since rest of the countries were colonies and had no independent
political systems. The traditional approaches considered the western institutions
as model and other outside that as barbarians.

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Static in nature because the focus of the traditional approach was more on the
study of constitution rather than changing political dynamics.
Parochial in nature - Traditional comparative politics was very narrow in its

nature and scope. It is assumed that traditional analysis is inappropriate for all
types of political systems both Western and non-Western.
Textual in nature - because of the focus on institutions rather than the political
process. Neglecting the role of Individuals - The traditional approaches have
gloomily unsuccessful to identify the role of the individuals who are important in
moulding and remoulding the shape and nature of politics.
Speculative in nature -It lacked scientific approach, in the absence of scientific

method, theories were speculative or arm-chair theories In absence of scientific
approach, political scholars were normative, prescriptive, did not adhere to the
norm of value neutrality.
Significance/Conclusion of the traditional comparative politics
The traditional approach in comparative politics has played a crucial role in

shaping the discipline. It has provided a methodological framework, contributed to
theory development, emphasized the importance of comparative case studies, focused
on institutional analysis, and maintained policy relevance. These contributions
have laid the groundwork for the later development and continued relevance of
comparative politics as a discipline.
Comparative politics cannot ignore the institutional approach which has helped in
developing structural functional approach.In recent times also we are witnessing
the revival of institutional approach with the idea of Bringing the state back.
Modern Approaches to the comparative politics
Development of the modern approach
The emergence of modern approaches to the study of comparative politics can be

attributed to two significant developments: decolonization and the behavioral
movements that followed World War II. These approaches are seen as a response to
the limitations of traditional approaches and aim to bring a more scientific
perspective to the study of politics.
⚫ Decolonization, the process through which colonies gained independence from

colonial powers, challenged the Eurocentric perspective of traditional approaches.
It highlighted the need for a more inclusive and diverse understandings of
political systems, taking into account the experiences and perspectives of formerly
colonized nations.
The behavioral movements, which gained momentum after World War II, emphasized the
use of scientific methods and empirical analysis in political research. Scholars
sought to apply systematic approaches, such as quantitative methods and statistical
analysis, to study political phenomena. The focus shifted from subjective judgments
to objective observations and data-driven research.
Characteristics of Modern Approaches:
Empirical basis: Reliance on empirical data for drawing conclusions.
Beyond political structures: Exploration of factors beyond political structures and

historical analysis.
Interdisciplinary study: Emphasis on integrating various social sciences for a

comprehensive understanding.
⚫ Scientific orientation: Use of scientific methods and principles to draw

scientific conclusions in political science.

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There are various approaches under the modern comparative politics like
1. Systems approach
After the Second World War, the social scientists claimed for the amalgamation of
sciences for which
they took the help of the systems theory. This approach describes the relationship
of political life with other aspects of social life. The idea of a system was
initially borrowed from biology by Talcott Parsons who first promoted the concept
of social system. Later on David Easton further developed the concept of a
political system. In the decade of sixties, the systems theory became an important
tool to evaluate and investigate key factors in Political Science. Among political
scientists, David Easton has been the first to apply this theory to political
analysis.
This approach signified that a political system operates within the social
environment. Consequently, it is not possible to analyse political events in
isolation from other aspects of the society. To put in other way, influences from
the society, be it economic, religious or otherwise, do shape the political
process.
Environment Input Demands Support Decisions Political System Policies Output

Feedback
System theory of the David Easton works on the Input-output model. In this model
the demand comes from the environment which can be for fulfilling the particular
demand of the public. Both demand and support has been considered as input. It has
been mainly classified in 4 parts and corresponding output of the input.
Environment
Demand Support Demand for allocation of Goods Material support and services Demand
for regulation of Obedience to the law behaviour Demand for participation Output
Extraction -e.g.-payment of taxes fee etc Regulation of behaviour Support by
participation by paying Allocation of goods and services Symbolic -respect national
flag anthem Demand for communication Support and participation attention
Because of the system theory presently, the term 'political system' has been chosen
to the term state or government because it includes both formal informal political
instructions and processes those continue to exist in a society.
Significance of the Systems approach
It helped in addressing fundamental weakness of traditional comparative politics of

being - static, non-comparative, normative
⚫ System approach helped in giving a systematic approach to the political system

which was seen in very narrow perspective as the comparison of the government and
institution.
It also addressed to some extent the drawbacks of the traditional approaches of

being Eurocentric.
It can also be used to understand the developing areas.
It became a model for the later approaches like structural functional approaches.

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Critics of the systems approach
The general systems theory has been criticized for failing to sufficiently provide
for concepts such as political power and influence or to handle mass behavioural
aspects such as voting It is of limited utility in studies of political policy-
making.
• Critics also refer to the problems of empirical operation, when applied to social
sciences. It is also pointed out that the entire approach is ingrained in
conservatism and reaction. No fully developed attempt has yet been made to apply
the theory of political analysis.
Concluding line for systems approach
Although System approach suffers from certain limitations yet we need to

acknowledge the urge to make study of politics scientific. System approach shows
the need to go beyond the study of constitutional and to understand the
environmental factors shaping the political system.
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL APPROACH According to this approach, the society is a single

inter-related system where each part of the system has a definite and distinct role
to play. The structural-functional approach may be considered as an offshoot of the
system analysis. These approaches accentuate the structures and functions. Gabriel
Almond was an advocate of this approach. He described political systems as a
special system of interaction that exists in all societies performing certain
functions. According to him, the main attributes of a political system are
comprehensiveness; inter dependence and
existence of boundaries. Like Easton, Almond also believes that all political
systems perform input and output functions.
Input functions of political systems are
Political socialization and recruitment
Interest articulation
Interest-aggression
Political communication.
Almond makes three-fold classifications of governmental output functions relating

to policy making and implementation. These output functions are
• Rule making,
Rule application
Rule adjudication.
Therefore, Almond believes that a stable and efficient political system converts
inputs into outputs. The above input and output can be represented through the
diagram like
Family, Friends Structural Functional Approach Political Socialisation Pressure

Groups Interest Aggregation Political System Political Party Interest Articulation
E Law Making Legislature Law Execution Executive Law Adjudication Judiciary Redia
Political Communication

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Advantages of the structural functional approach over the systems approach It

emphasizes that certain structures that are found in developed administrative
systems may not have their counterparts in developing nations, yet administrative
functions are common in both. It takes into the view that different political
systems are at diff stages of development. Suitable for both developed and
developing countries.
It gave the more detailed view of the structure and function as well as input and
output addressing the shortcomings of the systems approach. It is 'systemic' in
nature, looking at interactions and interrelationships among various structures.
Limitations of the structural functional approach
Scholars have identified several limitations of the structural functional approach

in political science: ⚫It often takes a static and conservative view, focusing on
stability and equilibrium. It oversimplifies complex political realities by
emphasizing institutional functions. It downplays the role of individual agency and
behavior in political outcomes. It has limited explanatory power for understanding
political change and conflict. It tends to neglect the influence of broader
societal factors on political systems. • It lacks a normative analysis, failing to
evaluate ethical and democratic dimensions.
Concluding line for the Structural Functional Approach Structural functional

approach takes the more dynamic and more encompassing view of the political system.
It offers a new vision to look at the diversity in the nature, scope, performance,
and impact of political systems in a comparative context.
POLITICAL ECONOMY APPROACH
1. What is political economy?
Political economy is the intersection of economics and politics. Political economy

refers to a specific way of understanding social and political phenomena whereby,
economics and politics are not seen as separate domains. It affirms that there
exists a relationship between politics and economics and that this relationship
works and makes itself manifest in several ways.
2. Basic premise of the approach
• It is based on certain premise that
。 There exist a relationship between the political and economy.
The assumption that this relationship unfolds in multifarious ways.
o Policy implications: The approach aims to inform policy-making by examining the

political and economic factors that shape policy outcomes.
3. Proponents of the political economy approach
• As far as east is concerned political economy is not new - Political economy goes
back to Kautilya's Arthashashtra. It can be treated as first text on political
economy. According to him, the most obligation of the State is to secure the
material well-being of its people. In modern time or west Adam smith called as
father of political economy -Defined political economy as science of statesman.
David Ricardo- He advanced Smith's philosophies. His work with reference to

comparative advantage, which postulated that states should produce and export only
those goods that they

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can generate at a lower cost than other nations and import those goods that other
countries
can produce more efficiently. Marxist scholars - It can be found most notably in
works of Max Weber, Karl Marx, and Friedrich Engels. Marx never defined political
economy, but Engels did. Political economy, according to the latter, studies the
laws governing the production and exchange of the material means of subsistence.
Major perspectives to the political economy approaches
1. Liberals - Adam Smith - He has been called as the father of modern political
economy. He called political economy as Science of statesman to bring prosperity to
the nation He was the critic of the Mercantilism and supporter of the lassie faire
state.
2. Marxist school - Marxist school views are primarily a critique of the liberal
views of political economy.
Marx - He was the Critique of PE of Adam Smith. He held that it will bring wealth
only to few and not nation as a whole.
Structural Marxist-Hamza Alavi -He has studied the political economy of Pakistan.
Structuralist school represented by Hamza Alvi is utilised for the analysis of the
states in South Asia.
Neo-Marxist added new approaches which can be used for the analysis of post
colonial societies. The instrumentalist approach known as dependency school led by
AG Frank has been utilised to study the states in Latin America, Africa, and Middle
East.
3. Amartya Sen - He has analysed the relationship between the political issues like
democracy and economic development. He has praised the Chinese investment in human
capital but he believed that development needs to be democratised.
Appraisal of the Political Economy approach
1. Significance
The approach has both Academic and Practical Significance Practical utility -The
approach can provide guidance to agencies how to channelize the aid in different
field and countries.
Political economy has become an increasingly popular part of the working at the
World Bank and other development agencies.
⚫ Milan Vaishnav- good economics leads to good politics
Helpful in shaping developmental discourse - It can also be utilized for

determining the flaws in development strategy and shaping the development discourse
It is useful approach because it has qualities of being quantitative and
descriptive
The approach has been found useful in study of developing nations. Political
economy approach helps in understanding the flaws of the development model and
making prescriptions
The approach is useful in studying political science in more comprehensive manner.

The approach finds utility in other social sciences as well.
2. Limitations of the political economy approach
It focuses too much on economics which can lead to economic reductionism and only
one approach is not sufficient as politics is too complex.
This approach employees quantitative techniques which require specialised knowledge

Resource intensive - Since it involves data collection it needs more resources for
research It is highly prescriptive in nature. It is a value-based approach.

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⚫ Its focus is limited to the economic policies hence it may not give the
comprehensive picture. Hence multiple approaches and combination have to be used.
Concluding line for Political Economy approach
Importance of political economy approach can be judged by the fact that the famous
book why Nations fail points out poor economic institutions as one of the key
reasons of a nation's failure.
PYQ-2018 Describe the changing nature of Comparative Politics. Briefly explain the
Political Economy approach to the study of Comparative Polities
Introduction
Comparative politics is concerned with significant regularities, similarities and
differences in the working of political institutions and political behaviour. It is
the study of the forms of political organizations, their properties, correlations,
variations and modes of change. Main Body
The field has undergone numerous adjustments over the years. The process of
comparison was primarily normative and philosophical until the middle of the 18th
century. A blueprint and recommendations for the state's future were produced as a
result of the study.
The study of constitutions and laws has been more important since democracies were
established in the west starting in the 18th century (legal-institutional
approach). Since the rest of the world was made up of colonies and without an
independent government, it was solely concerned with western nations. Many new
countries (formerly colonies) were founded after the Second World War. There was a
distinction between theory and practise in these regimes, as well as between text
and context. In these
states, social structure was important, and understanding the constitution was
insufficient. The legal institutional strategy was deemed ineffective. This
inspired a lot of contemporary comparative methodologies. Among these, political
sociology and political economy are well-known. Political economy approach
Political economy refers to a specific way of understanding social and political

phenomena whereby, economics and politics are not seen as separate domains. It
affirms that there exists a relationship in politics and economics and that this
relationship works and makes itself manifest in several ways. It benefits from
being both prescriptive and quantitative. Political economy also comes in a wide
variety. Marxist scholars propose common ownership of the means of production,
whereas liberal scholars such
as Adam Smith favour the laissez-faire economic model.
The political economy approach has the drawback that it only considers economics
and can't be employed on its own. For a deeper and more comprehensive knowledge, it
should be combined with
other methods.
But the approach has been Helpful in shaping developmental discourse for
determining the flaws in development strategy and shaping the development
discourse.
POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY APPROACH
In basic term, political sociology explores to understand the process of

interaction between government and society, decision making authorities and
conflicting social forces and interests. It believes in a two- way relationship
between sociology and political science, giving equal importance on social and
political variables. Political sociologist researches in areas of Caste, class,
religion, ethnicity, elite structure, political parties, and pressure groups.
Revolution social change, culture and civil society.

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Defining Political Sociology
⚫ A.K.Mukhopadhyaya: "political sociology is the child from the marriage between

sociology and political science and as in human issues, cannot be solely
characterized by its parental qualities alone".
Robert.E.Dowse and John.A.Hughes: "political sociology is the study of political

behaviour within a sociological perspective of framework".
Michal Rush and Philip Althoff: Political sociology is the interactions and
linkages between society and polity, between social structure and political
structure and between social behaviour and political behaviour.
Smelser N. J. - "Political Sociology is study of the interrelationship between

society and polity, between social structures and political institutions".
Political sociology is not solely the study of the social factors condition the
political order.
Development of Political Sociology approach
Aristotle Aristotle is considered as father of political sociology. He explained

first the sociological factors like rising inequalities and analysing the causes of
the revolution. Machiavelli - He also connected the society to the government. He
believed that form of the government depends on the nature of society it and him
also advice the prince to device his policy based on the nature of the people.
Karl Marx has been called as the father of modern political sociology. Karl Marx
suggested that
to understand the politics we have to understand the basic structure of the

society. PS approaches were further enriched by behavioural studies and methods.
Even scholars like David Easton that instead of institutional approach, politics
should be studied with systemic perspective (which means nature of society and
culture). It is said that especially in the case of developing areas, the study of
the Constitution will not suffice, one needs to understand socio- cultural
environment.
There are 2 major approaches to Political Sociology
1. Marxist school
Marxist scholars analyse class structure of the society, nature of state,

revolution, protest etc.
Marx - He held that to understand politics we need to first understand the basic
structure of the society that is economy.
Instrumentalist school suggests that state is an instrument of dominant class. ⚫

Structuralist school suggests that in some situations state gains relative
autonomy. Gramsci has highlighted the role of civil society through his concept of
Integral state. 2. Weberian school- Max Weber was a critic of Karl Marx and a
supporter of Capitalism. He has challenged the following assumptions of Marx:
Economic structure is a determinant of all that happens in superstructure.

• Weber criticised it as a mono causal explanation.
• Weber does not believe in Marx's concept of Class antagonism and his division of
society into Haves and Have Nots. On the contrary, he believes that there will be
Proliferation of classes( growth of middle class)
Weber was an admirer of Capitalism unlike Marx and considered it most rational
3. Max Weber has contributed significantly through the concepts like Method of
Ideal types, The Concept of Authority, Theory of Bureaucracy, and the Concept of
Political Parties.

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Political Sociology in Indian case
In the Indian context, several prominent scholars have utilized political sociology
to analyze various aspects of society and politics. Andre Beteille, Christophe
Jaffrelot (with a focus on the RSS), Paul Brass (exploring religion and communal
riots), and Yogendra Yadav (studying electoral behavior) are notable examples of
scholars who have applied political sociology in their
works.
However, due to its specific focus on society, political sociology alone may not
provide a comprehensive understanding of political phenomena. Therefore, it is
beneficial to complement the insights from political sociology with other
approaches in comparative politics, such as political economy and the political
approach. By combining multiple perspectives, researchers can gain a more holistic
and nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics of politics and society in the
Indian context.
Appraisal of the Political Sociology approach
1. Relevance of the political sociology approach: The relevance of the political

sociology has been
analysed by Maurice Duverger in detail The approach ends isolated study of politics
and locates it in broad spectrum of social phenomena. It emphasise on essential
unity of social sciences It broadened the understanding of political phenomena It
has opened new frontiers of research.
Highlights that politics doesn't take place only in govt institutions
2. Limitations of the political sociology approach
• Sartori: we have to establish autonomy of politics. We cannot ignore how politics

shapes society.
Threat to autonomy of political science as discipline- Danger of political science
losing its autonomy and getting submerged in sociology.
It is resource intensive and cumbersome process it requires empirical study,

collection of data, field work etc.
• Undermining role of political institutions - It undermines the role political

institutions; these institutions are the main factor which affects the power
relations. Society is a complex interaction of various actors and it is difficult
to compare societies as unlike institutions and constitutions, it is not definite
Current status of Political Sociology
In the initial times the political sociology have attracted the attention of many
scholars but in the later phase it has been highlighted by the scholars that for
the sake of connecting politics to the sociology it has been threatened to lose its
autonomy as a discipline. But there was effort by the scholars to bring back the
status of political science.
Theda Skocpol - Bringing the state back in
There was effort by the Theda Skocpol to arrest the decline and establishing itself
as autonomous discipline. She held that it true that society impacts politics but
politics also equally impacts society. Thus she suggested to bring the state back
in' and uphold the centrality of state in the discipline of Political
science.

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Conclusion for Political Sociology
Political sociologist contributed towards expanding the scope of politics. They

introduced new concepts like political culture, governability and then contributed
in big way towards strengthening of Trans disciplinary nature of politics,
consequently political sociology at present itself has developed as
interdisciplinary or Hybrid discipline.
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT APPROACH Political development as the political prerequisite

of economic development. Political development as the politics typical of
industrial society: Some scholars like WW Rostov try to identify the process of
political development as the politics of typical industrial society.
It has been understood differently by different scholars
Political Development as political modernisation: The scholars like James S.

Coleman, Karl Deutsch and S M Lipset defined political development as the crucial
character of political modernisation, characteristics of modern societies.
⚫ Political development as the operations of nation state: A good number of social

theorists like KH Silvert, Edward A Shils and William McCord have pointed out that
political development consists of the organization of political life and the
performance of political functions in accordance with the standards expected of a
modern nation state.
⚫ Political development as administrative and legal development: Scholars and

thinkers like Max Weber, Talcott Parsons and Joseph La Palambra have laid stress on
the point that political development is intricately linked to the legal and
administrative order of a community. ⚫ Political development as mobilization and
participation: Political development has been defined as mass mobilization and
participation. It involves new standards of loyalties and the involvement of the
citizens.
⚫ Political development as the building of democracy: The thinkers like Joseph la

Palambra and J Ronald Pennock are of the view that political development is the
building of democracy and inculcating values of democratic order in the minds of
people.
⚫ Political development as mobilization and power: James S Coleman, G A Almond and

Talcott Parsons have taken the view that the concept of political development can
be evaluated in terms of the level or degree of absolute power which the system is
able to mobilize.
Political development as stability or orderly change: Karl Deutish and F W Riggs

have laid stress on the point that political development is a process that ensures
stability and orderly change. ⚫ Political development as one aspect of a multi
dimensional process of social change: Max F Millikan, Donald L M Blackmer and
Daniel Lerner argued that it is unnecessary and inappropriate to try to isolate
completely political development from other forms of development.
Lucian Pye Political Development
According to Lucian Pye, political development could be traced at three different

levels. With respect to the population as a whole
With respect to the level of the governmental and general systemic performance, and
• With respect to the organisation of the polity.
"Lucian Pye" has given three parameters of Political Development at these three
levels. Equality: The subjects of political development do suggest mass
participation and popular involvement in political activities. Participation may be
either democratic or in a form of

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totalitarian mobilization, but the key consideration is that subjects should become
active citizens. i.e., increasing participation of people in the political system,
means the political equalities Capacity: It refers to the capacity of a political
system by which it can give outputs and extent to which it can affect the rest of
the society and economy. It also associates with governmental performance and the
conditions that directly or indirectly influence such performance. i.e., "State's
capacity", the capacity of the state to enforce the law.
Differentiation: Differentiation is diffusion of specialization. It is the

specialization of structure resulting in increased functional specificity of
various political roles within the system. The offices and agencies tend to have
their distinct and limited functions. i.e., the functional specialisation of the
state
Gabriel Almond
Political development is characterised by specialisation and secularisation. He

categorised it under primitive, traditional, transitional and modern. According to
almond, a structurally differentiated system with secularised political culture
will have increased capability to shape domestic and international environments.
Critical appraisal of the Political Development approach.
1. Definition The definition of political development is biased. It is defining

development in the line of western liberal democracies.
2. Riggs Called this concept of development trap because of the imbalance between
the levels of development of different parameters of political development.
3. Samuel P Huntington has added the concept of political decay i.e., a mismatch in
the level of political participation and political institutionalisation.
In his book, "Political Order in changing society" Huntington explains that if

political participation increases but, complexity, autonomy adoptability, Coherence
of the societies, political institution do not increase then it will result into
political decay. Political decay will result in violence and political instability.
Significance/Relevance
Since the late 1970s, a significant wave of democratization, commonly known as the
third wave of democratization, has swept across the globe. This wave of
democratization has had a profound impact on developing countries in the post-
colonial world, as well as on communist and authoritarian regimes. As a result,
there has been a renewed interest in the political development approach.
Overall, the third wave of democratization has reignited scholarly attention on the
political development approach, as researchers seek to comprehend and promote the
complex dynamics of democratic transitions in diverse contexts.
Resultant of democratic transition today there is a broad consensus that the

economic environment in which political development occurs (whether it originates
from internal sources- social, cultural or political-or external sources) is a
crucial explanatory factor for the emergence of various political forms including
political democracy.
Conclusion

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1. Defining Political Modernisation
The concept of 'political modernisation' like political development is very vague.

Different scholars have defined it differently. Most of the western political
scientists regarded modernisation as westernization.
Political development approach became controversial because it projected political

system of western countries as an ideal type biased towards liberal democracy
except all countries to move in that direction.
Political modernisation approach attempts to be more neutral. Scholars suggested

not to give too much importance to the type of political system but to study the
level of modernisation. The idea is to compare modernisation.
2. Basic Premises -
The assumption is if any society will go for modernisation it will automatically

result in the growth of functional specialisation, consciousness and development.
⚫ Close relationship between economic development and political modernization. ⚫

Need for institutional transformation to accommodate societal changes. 3. What is
Modernisation?
To avoid the biased nature of the approach scholars devised certain parameters
which were not related to political rather they held that it is an economic
category and gave new parameters of modernisation
According to them the 4 parameters of modernisation are:
o Industrialisation
o Urbanisation
o Rationalisation
。 Secularisation
Proponents of the approach
1. David Apter -According to Apter, the process of political modernization passes

through four stages, viz.,
Contact and control
Reaction and counter-reaction
Contradiction and reaction
Search for a new generative solution.
His model is in line with process of colonisation and decolonisation.

2. Edward Shils postulated five models of political modernisations.
At the outset, he divided all the existing political systems into two groups -
democracy and oligarchy
Democracy is again subdivided into political and tutelary democracy, and oligarchy
into modernisation, totalitarian and traditional oligarchy
3. Samuel P Huntington
Modernisation indicates industrialisation + urbanisation secularisation + expansion

of modern education + development of mass communication (network) + spread of
democracy. Modernisation is described as the increasing capacity of man to control
his environment.
According to Samuel P Huntington, there are 5 consequences of modernisation.
Increase in social mobilisation which signifies increasing competition for

political and economic resources.

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Demand for functional differentiation for ex; modernisation resulted in the

separation of executive and judicial power in Britain.
Rationalization of Authority Governed by rational law rather than religious laws.

Increase participation in politics.
All these things culminate in nation building process. It itself require

democratization.
Criticisms of Political Modernisation
1. Inadequacy for studying socialist countries: Critics argue that the tools and
frameworks used in the concept are not suitable for analyzing political systems in
socialist countries like China and Russia. The concept tends to promote
Westernization and overlook the unique political experiences and systems of non-
Western nations.
2. One-sided and politically motivated: The concept of political modernization has

been accused of being one-sided, distorted, and politically motivated. It is seen
as a means to impose Western values and ideologies on other societies, disregarding
their own cultural and historical contexts.
3. Ambiguity and manipulation: The tools used in the concept of political

modernization have been criticized for being ambiguous and open to manipulation.
Critics suggest that these tools serve the interests of neo-colonial powers,
allowing them to maintain their dominance and exploit resources in other countries.
4. Neglecting non-Western perspectives: The concept is viewed as a manifestation of
Western- centric biases, ignoring the diverse perspectives and alternative models
of political development found in non-Western societies.
The concept of political modernisation has certain weaknesses. In spite of all the
weaknesses they contribute much for the study of political system. The concept are
said to be more relevant. Almond and Powell praise the concept for the dynamism
generated by them. Thus, the concept holds an important place in Modern political
analysis.
POLITICAL CULTURE APPROACH
It was developed by Gabriel Almond and Sydney Verba which was reflected in their
book "Civic Culture". Political culture approach can also be useful for the study
of developing countries and comparisons.
What is Culture- Culture is a set of value, attitude, beliefs which form a way of
life. Culture is a long term phenomenon. Since it is a long-term trend we can
develop a methodology based on the comparison between culture.
• What is Political Culture- Political culture is a subset of 'culture'. We can

study attitudes of people and their orientations towards the political systems.
Conclusion
Almond and Verba.
They have presented various ideal types of political cultures. They have applied
Easton's input and output approach and Max Weber's methodology of ideal types.
Types of political cultures
• Parochial Political Culture: Situation where people do not associate themselves

with the political system. They prefer to live under their community rules or local
rules. No role in input and output. • Subject Political Culture:-Where people act
as a subject rather than citizens. They do not feel that they have the capacity to
influence the input. They simply obey the output. For ex; Culture in most of the
south-east Asia Countries whose guided democracy exists.

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• Participant Political Culture: Here, citizens play an active role both in input
as well as output For long, political culture in western countries has been a
participant but they have also witnessed the decline of social capital. In India,
highly participant culture is emerging. ⚫ Civic culture: According to Almond and
Verba, Civic culture is best for democracy. Civic culture means a situation where
the majority has participant culture, but some people also have parochial and
subject political culture.
Limitations of the political culture approach

It often oversimplifies cultural beliefs, overlooking diversity. Measuring
political culture is challenging and subject to biases.
Causal relationships between political culture and outcomes are difficult to

establish Individual agency is neglected in favour of collective beliefs.
The approach may struggle with cross-cultural applicability and overlook cultural
nuances. Political culture is dynamic and evolves over time, posing challenges for
the approach's ability to capture and adapt to these changes.
Relevance
The post-cold war era has witnessed the upsurge of ethnic and national differences
among the nations as well as within the nations. This testifies that relevance to
cultural components to be taken into account to make sense of such upsurges and
political realities. The post-cold war era has witnessed the upsurge of ethnic and
national differences among the " nations as well as within the nations. This
testifies that relevance to cultural components to be
taken into account to make sense of such upsurges and political realities.
Conclusion
The civic culture is thus a goldilocks concept - a means to overcome the fragility
of democracy through a scientific inquiry. Presently the concept is undergoing a
renaissance in the current situation of growing political apathy in many countries.
Civic culture is considered to be relevant, not only for the stability of any
democratic regime, but also for its quality.

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UNIT 2: STATE IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE
Describe the changing nature of the State in the developing societies in the
context of inclusive growth in the 21st century. (2018)
⚫ "A combination of internal pressures (ethnic and regional forces) and external
threats (EU, UN, TNC, global market, etc.) has produced what is commonly referred
to as a 'crisis of the nation-state." Elaborate. (2016)
• Do you subscribe to the view that the modern constructs of the State and politics
are preeminently Eurocentric and not indigenous and appropriate for the analysis of
non-western societies? (2015)
The struggle for democracy has been marked by bitter strife and tribulations.'
Examine the statement, illustrating the cases of Pakistan, Nepal and Myanmar.(2015)
• A minimal State ensures a maximum of Individual Liberty.' Examine the concept of
Minimal State. (2013)
According to Garner, political science begins and ends with the State. Thus, state
is the core concept but it still remains contested.
Irrespective of the society we live in, be it liberal, capitalist, or socialist,

the State is the dominant political institution standing above all other
institutions, which has an influence in politicseconomy, culture and almost all
aspects of the contemporary society. Indeed, it would not be exaggeration to say
that we begin and end our lives within the confines and jurisdiction of State.
The rise and evolution of the state needs to be understood as a long drawn out and
uneven process in different time and space like advanced industrial, socialist and
the developing countries.
Characteristic and changing nature of the State in Capitalist Societies
Capitalist Societies: Capitalist societies are characterized by an economic system

where the means of production, such as factories and businesses, are privately
owned and operated for profit. Examples of capitalist societies include countries
like the United States, Germany, Britain, and France. In these societies,
individuals and corporations engage in market transactions and competition, and the
allocation of resources is primarily determined by market forces.
Changing Nature of State in Capitalist Societies: The characteristics and evolving

role of the state in capitalist societies can be analyzed from various
perspectives. Different theories and viewpoints offer insights into the
relationship between the state and the capitalist economy.
The nature and functions of the state in capitalist societies are subject to
ongoing debates and can vary across different countries and historical contexts.
Liberal and Neo-liberal perspective:
1. For Liberals
• State is created by man to remove inconveniences present in the state of nature

[John Locke]. • State is regarded as instrument of utility [Bentham]. • According
to Liberals, the State is neutral arbiter of conflicting interest.
2. Welfare state

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Initially, in capitalist societies, we find the idea of laissez faire state or

night watchma state. However, after economic depression, laissez faire states have
been replaced by welfar state i.e. State making positive intervention in the
economy for the disadvantaged sections. 3. Neo-liberalism
And post 1970s, we see the idea of rolling back of the State or emergence of neo-
liberalism. It emerged as welfare state became unsustainable.
4. Social-liberals
Again, there was revival of welfare state by social liberals but the focus was not
direc intervention but rather capacity building. And since the beginning of 21st
Century, these State. are oscillating between the idea of 'night watchman state' to
'welfare state'. For example, in USA, the Republicans support the neo-liberal
policies while Democrats base their policies or social liberalism.
5. Volatile phase
• Since the 2008 financial crisis, liberal states are going through another phase,
which Habermas calls "volatile phase". When capitalism is in crisis, it leads to
rise of Left or rise of the Right •In Greece and Canada, we see rise of Left while
in Britain and USA, there is rise of Right. Neo-liberal ideas in extreme form
results in neo-fascism and BREXIT and US First are apt examples.
Marxist Perspective:
Marxist theory challenges the notion that the state is a neutral arbiter and
instead argues that the state is a class institution. According to Marxism, the
state is not an impartial entity that represents the interests of society as a
whole, but rather a tool used by the ruling class to maintain its dominance and
protect its economic interests.
Marxists believe that in capitalist societies, the state serves the bourgeoisie,
the capitalist class that owns and controls the means of production. The state is
seen as a means for the bourgeoisie to enforce and uphold the capitalist system,
including the protection of private property rights, maintenance of social order,
and preservation of exploitative class relations. Laws, policies, and institutions
are shaped in a way that benefits the bourgeoisie and reinforces the capitalist
mode of production.
WITHIN MARXIST PERSPECTIVE, THERE ARE TWO MAIN PERSPECTIVES.
Instrumentalist:
According this perspective, State is executive committee of the Bourgeoisie class

(Karl Marx). Ralph Miliband has analysed the nature of state in post capitalist
societies in a study titled "The State in Capitalist Societies".
According to him, even welfare states remain the instrument of capitalist class.
Economic power remains concentrated and the class that controls economic power also
controls political power. Habermas predicts that welfare states will also suffer
from legitimation crisis.
Relative Autonomy or Structuralist:
Nicos Poulantzas notes that in specific situations, State gains relative autonomy
i.e. it no longer
acts as instrument. This idea has been drawn from "The 18th Brumaire of Louis
Bonaparte". According to it, state begins to appear as neutral or as equilibrium
maker. However, in times of crisis, it become difficult
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to maintain this autonomy or neutrality and ultimately, State comes in support of

the dominant class.
Elitist Perspective:
C Wright Mills notes that democracy in capitalist nations like is governed by

political elites. Power is in hands of corporate groups, federal politicians and
top leaders of military. For instance, the decision to use nuclear weapon on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not taken by people but by power elites.
Pluralist Perspective:
According to pluralist, power is not concentrated in hands of elites but is

distributed among various interest groups.
⚫ Thus, for Robert Dahl, capitalist nations are not oligarchies but polyarchy.
⚫ However, Robert Dahl and Charles Lindblom modified this stand and suggest that
power is tilted towards corporate groups. Thus, polyarchy is deformed polyarchy.
Changing trend
Nature of state in capitalist countries is shaped by the changing requirements of

capitalism itself. • Initiation as laisez faire state- Started as laisez faire
states on the ideas of John Locke, Adam smith and Malthus, Ricardo.
⚫ Changing nature as welfare state - The Laissez faire state got its nature
changed to welfare state to protect capital arm from socialist revolution. Welfare
state based on the ideas of scholars like John Rawls, Dworkin, Keynes etc.
Rolling back of the state - The welfare state conceptdominated till 1970s. Then
started rolling back of state in the form of Reagenism and Thatcherism
Now they swing between social liberalism and neo liberalism like Democrats v.s
republicans in USA similarly Labour vs. conservatives in UK
Advanced industrial economies is not a homogenous idea as east European economies

still continues to follow socialist mode of economy Scandinavians countries
continue to follow welfare state model. Since 2008 financial crisis these countries
are facing economic and political crisis with the rise of neo-rightist, anti
refugee movement, Brexit etc. Liberalism is being rolled back and states are
following the protectionist and nationalist policies.
Characteristic and changing nature of the State in Socialist Societies
Socialist nations are based on ideas of Marx, Lenin and Mao. The first socialist
economy was in Russia/USSR.
The other examples of Socialist nations are formed Yugoslavia, China, North Korea,
Cuba these countries started with the hope that State will wither away but some of
these countries have withered away.
⚫ However, after communists' revolution, very powerful states came into existence.
In place of dictatorship of proletariat, these states became dictatorship of
communist parties. • As far as Europe and East Europe is concerned, communism
collapsed in countries that adopted democracy.
. This was explained by Samuel P Huntington as third wave of democracy.
However, the transition from authoritarianism to democracy remains farfetched

dream. Many have gone back to path of authoritarianism and semi-authoritarianism.
Russia, central Asia, Eastern Europe nations also neo-fascist authoritarian trends.

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In China, we see tightening of communist party's hold over people.
.There is no change in dictatorial trend in North Korea. Cuba continues to be one-

party State but it is not as exploitative as other nations.
There has been a rise in socialist parties in Latin American countries like
Venezuela, Bolivia.
Venezuela is facing severe crisis for external and internal reasons. •

Characteristics and changing nature of Socialist societies can be understood from
different perspectives:
Marxist/Socialist Perspective:
According to Marxist perspective, socialist societies are people's democracy.
In contrast, to them, capitalist States are bourgeoisie democracies or

dictatorships of the bourgeoisie, and socialist states are dictatorships of
proletariat.
Others Perspective:
Hannah Arendt and Karl Popper, prominent Western scholars, have labeled socialist
societies as totalitarian. They argue that these societies are characterized by the
dominance of the communist party, which they view as a form of dictatorship.
According to their analysis, socialist states suppress individual freedoms, limit

political pluralism, and exert control over various aspects of society, including
the economy and civil liberties. Arendt and Popper highlight the concentration of
power in the ruling party, the suppression of dissent, and the absence of
democratic processes as key features of these societies.
Elitist scholars
They believe that oligarchy is iron law but Raymond Aaron stated that situation in
western liberal nations is better than in socialist states.
⚫ This is because in capitalist nations, the elite structure is fractured. But in

socialist nations, there is "monolithic elite".
In the western capitalist societies, people at least have a choice among different
elites, which is not present in socialist nations. When one looks at the
Constitutions of socialist nations, there are no enforceable civil and political
rights but only enforceable duties.
Changing recent trends
Communist states started collapsing and replaced by democratic states after the
fall of USSR which Huntington described as third wave of democracy
⚫ Collapse of economy as seen in Venezuela and Greece due to excessive welfare

policies
The economy of even so called Communist states like Russia and China is based on
capitalism.
Characteristic and Changing Nature of Developing State
Developing countries are post-colonial societies known as global south. They suffer
from colonial legacy in administration and economy. They face problem of mass
poverty and deprivation. The study of developing area has been area of study by
modern comparative politics. The nature and changing trend can be understood
through different perspectives.

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Behavioural and Post-Behavioural perspective:
It can be understood by utilizing techniques developed in comparative politics

primarily for these societies.
If we apply political developmental approach, these countries can be called as

prismatic courtiers in the words of Riggs.
⚫ In the words of Riggs, they are under development trap.
⚫ Gunnar Myrdal has given the concept of 'soft state' (for India and Indonesia).
If we apply the idea of Huntington, most of these States have witnessed political
decay.
Marxists perspective:
1. Neo-Marxists:
⚫ The neo-Marxist of Dependency School call these states as periphery States. They
remark that ruling class of developing states act as instrument of the bourgeoisie
of the metropolis. AG Frank calls such states as puppet regimes.
AG Frank and Samir Amin say these states suffer from development of
underdevelopment. 2. Structuralist:
Another Marxist perspective is by Hamza Alvi; who uses the structuralist approach
and calls developing nations 'over-developed'.
⚫ He notes that there is mismatch between economic development and political

development
Changing Trend
This region has been in the state of transition.
⚫ They adopted democracy. But it did not sustain and were replaced by
authoritarian regimes with the exception of India.
Many countries also adopted communist model. Since 1990s, most shifted to the model
of liberal democracy with exception of Cuba, Israel, China and North Korean.
⚫ With the exception of India, democracy becomes fragile and most states remain
authoritarian or semi-authoritarian.
The developing states are not unaffected by global trends. Around the globe, there
is decline of Liberal World Order and there is rise of Right and Left. Even in
third world countries, we see the rise of Rightist parties and authoritarian
leaders.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION -2018
Describe the changing nature of state in the developing societies in the context of
inclusive growth in the 21st century. (2018)
Introduction
Developing countries are post-colonial societies known as global south. They suffer
from colonial legacy in administration and economy. They face problem of mass
poverty and deprivation.
Main Body
A prospective path for the evolution of these societies has been demonstrated by
many developmental scholars. Prismatic societies are a concept introduced by FW
Riggs. Transitioning from being traditional societies to becoming ideal
contemporary capitalist democracies, developing societies are
in this stage.
Samir Amin, on the other hand, advocates for removing the periphery nations from
the development plans and demands of the core nations.

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The western nations have evolved into their current states over many years, and
democracy has grown naturally. The challenge of nation-building, state-building,
participation, and distributive justice,
however, fell squarely on the shoulders of the developing nations. Majority of

nations first opted for communism or socialism but later switched to liberalism.
China, a powerful nation, launched its economy while concurrently claiming to be
communist. India began with a mixed economy and is now rising to become a business
hub, but it continues to support state's beneficial role and uphold its fundamental
goal of creating a welfare society.
Conclusion
PSIR
Thus Unlike the advance Industrial state and their nature of laisez faire the state
in developing countries have been protecting the interest of the vulnerable section
successfully promoting the inclusive growth. Even during the COVID-19 the state in
developing nations has been more responsive to the pandemic and better protected
the health and security of their people.
Characteristic and changing Nature 1. Who are advanced industrial states Advanced
industrial states are those countries where industries dominate mode of production.
Industrial Revolution was first to take place in these countries e.g. Russia, UK,
France, USA, Canada, Germany and some east European countries. . They are called as
Global North or the OECD countries. As per Marxist terminology, they
of Advanced Industrial Societies
are 'core countries' and from Marxist perspective, the drain of wealth is
continuing. 2. Features of the advanced industrial states They have been the powers
in the past. They continue to have dominance in politics, economic, cultural and
ideological sphere even after the formal end of decolonization.
3. Changing nature of the state-
• Till the end of Cold war- advanced industrial states were divided into two blocks
- capitalist and socialist. Socialist bloc countries could not survive. With the
collapse of USSR, they adopted the western model of politics and economy.
• Since the end of cold war -
• Since the end of Cold War till the beginning of the 21st century, western
countries had been in dominant position. Most of them are now developing countries
despite having the industrial base.
。 However since 2001 onwards, there is a decline in the hegemony of the west marked
by the rise of the east. The centre of gravity started shifting towards Asia
Pacific from Atlantic. BRICS countries started giving challenge to these countries
in different sectors. Most affected sector in these countries is manufacturing the
most affected section is low-skilled workers.
Since 2000, there is decline in hegemony of west marked by rise of the rest
(BRICS). The centre of gravity shifted from Atlantic to Asia Pacific. BRICS
countries started challenging these countries in different sectors. Most affected
sector is manufacturing and most affected section are low-skilled workers.
Since 2008, there is financial crisis. These countries are not only facing economic
crisis but also political crisis. Whether in Western Europe or USA, there is a rise
of neo-Rightist and neo-Fascists.
• Rise of neo- rightist- In these countries, people have become susceptible to

political agenda of populist parties.
Populist parties got lease of life due to combination of economic crisis, migrant
crisis, transnational terrorism and Islam phobia. The victory of Right started in
Poland, Hungary reaching

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to France, Germany, Netherland and Sweden. Some say that this is also the case with
USA. These countries are also in the state of transition.
COVID-19 and Advanced Industrial states
With the advent of globalization we see the further rolling back of state and
increased role of Private sector and greater liberalization or opening up of these
economies of these countries. COVID-19 and growing state centrality
Covid crisis has been interpreted by some scholars as a move towards de-
globalization -after crisis the state has regained the centrality people have
realized the importance of public sector so Covid crisis has actually has
strengthened the state.
The trend is that whenever the crisis comes like war or pandemic people start
looking towards the state because state is the only institution which can mobilize
the resources during crisis even by using coercive power
However it is also feared that state will try to grab power because of Covid
certain scholars has pointed towards rise of surveillance state and impact towards
informational privacy. It is believed that If enhanced state retain limited to
crisis period it is better but it should not become
the normal because once states increases it power it become difficult to roll back
it. Rolling back of state may become all the way problematic because of the growing
tendencies of protectionisms and neo-fascism and growing tendencies of rightist
trend in politics and it is believed that in the long term state led economic model
may not be that much conducive for the economic
growth.
Standard Conclusions
The Covid-19 pandemic has caused a global shock and directed a spotlight on the
rapidly changing role of the state. It has resulted into expansion and reach of the
state and the centralisation of power all over the world. The pandemic's aftermath
will test whether different version of states is capable of systemic changes to
ensure better and equitable governance.
⚫ State does not operate in vacuum so the nature of state gets influenced by
internal and external circumstances. It has been the result of multiple sub system
at interplay with each other. Historical peculiarity and nature of society also
impact the nature of state. Nature of state is changing fast with the change in the
emerging world order in the era of complex interdependence.
• In the recent decades, the state is confronted with new challenges. Externally,
these challenges are arising from the rise of a number of non-state actors on the
international stage. Internally, there has been a growing assertion of identity by
several groups which shapes the nature of the state in contemporary world.

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UNIT 3: POLITICS OF REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION
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• Discuss the role of social movements in strengthening the democratic process in

developing countries. (2022)
Political parties and pressure groups are sine qua non of democracy. Comment.
(2021) Explain the impact of electoral systems and cleavages in shaping party
system with reference to developing countries. (2021)
Write an essay on new social movements in developing countries. (2019)
Comment on the decline of political parties and examine whether new social
movements shall
be alternative strategy for establishing link between government and society.(2016)

Do interest groups help to promote democracy or to undermine it? Give your opinion.
(2016)
What is the difference between Interest Groups and Pressure Groups? Are the
Pressure Groups in India in a position to fully protect or promote the interests of
their members? (2015)
Party system in India is neither western nor indigenous. Explain (2014)
Is the rise of social movement a sign of opening up of popular space in political

process or decline of representative politics? Examine. (2013)
How did the struggle for representation increase the level and quality of democracy
in the industrial societies? (2012)
Political parties
Political parties are indispensable to any democratic system and play the most
crucial role in the electoral
process in setting up candidates and conducting election campaigns. Political

parties are the essential components of representative democracy. They are the
umbilical cord that links citizens to their govts.
Standard Definitions/Introductions
1. Political party is a group of people that seeks to get its candidates elected to
public offices by supplying them with a label-a party identification-by which they
are known to the electorate. 2. Edmund Burke had defined political parties in 1770
as, 'a body of men united for promoting, by their joint endeavours, the national
interest upon some particular principles in which they are all
agreed'.
3. Max Weber has called Political parties as "Power Houses.
4. Harold Joseph Laski defines political parties as 'big or small groups of people
which are organized to establish their legitimate control over the government of
the country, through the process of elections.
5. Zoya Hassan - Party is "a keystone political institution in representative

regime", and parties regularly fulfil three crucial functions.
Nominating candidates for public offices.
Formulating and setting the agenda for public.
Mobilising support for candidates and policies in an election.
Different view on political parties
Scholars from various schools of political science offer diverse perspectives on

political parties, shedding light on their functions, dynamics, and impacts

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1. Pluralist Perspective: Emphasizes parties as essential for representing diverse

interests and facilitating democratic participation, allowing for healthy
competition and mediating between government and the public.
2. Elitist Perspective: Highlights the influence of powerful elites within parties,

suggesting that parties primarily serve their interests rather than representing
the broader public, with power and money shaping party politics.
3. Constructivist Perspective: Focuses on the social and cultural aspects of
parties, exploring how collective identities, ideologies, and shared understandings
shape party goals, strategies, and interactions.
4. Behavioral Perspective: Analyzes individual and group behavior within party

systems, studying factors like party identification, political socialization, and
patterns of support to understand party dynamics.
5. Feminist Perspective: Examines parties through a gender lens, studying the

representation of women, promotion of women's rights, and gender dynamics within
parties.
6. Comparative Perspective: Compares parties across countries and regions to

identify patterns, similarities, and differences, exploring contextual factors that
shape party politics. 7. Marxist view -
According to the Marxist view, parties represent classes. The situation of

exploitation can be remedied only with the successful completion of class-struggle
resulting in the victory of proletariat.
⚫ The bourgeois parties do not represent true democratic process. Therefore, they
must be eliminated. The party that represents the working people alone has the
right to exist. 8. Lenin on Political Parties - Lenin in "What's to be done?" has
given the theory of communist party based on structure of a Pyramid.
According to Vladimir I. Lenin, a party (i.e., the Communist Party), is a well

organized group of chosen elite, intellectuals and political activists. The
Communist Party, therefore, is said to
be a chosen group of intellectuals in the sense that their knowledge of Marxism

maintains purity of Marxian principles and ideology, and shows the correct path to
the party. • Communist party are the pyramidal organisations, broad-based and
filled with local units which are called as cells.
• People in cells decide the program and communicate their aspirations to the top
leader. In this way it is democratic. Leaders convert peoples' aspirations into the
practical program of actions. Once the program is decided it has to be implemented
by all. In this way, there is a centralisation.
By Maurice Duverger-
Maurice Duverger has classified Political Parties as 1. Elitist or traditional

parties -
The parties which are not cadre-based and do not have their support among the
masses may be described as elitist or traditional parties.
These parties do not throw their doors open to one and all.
They are selective in admitting members.
2. Mass parties -
⚫ The communist parties based on the ideology of Marx and Lenin seek close
contacts with the
masses.
After 1924, they were reorganised on the directions of Communist International
headquartered in Moscow.

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Maurice Duverger's Classification
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They followed the pattern of Soviet Communist Party. ⚫ The communist parties
everywhere are much better organised and disciplined as compared to other parties.
These parties attract workers and peasants. But, unlike other parties, their local
units are generally not regional in nature; they are organised at places of work.
3. Intermediary parties
According to Maurice Duverger, there is a third category of political parties that

maybe described as the intermediate type
These are different from both elitist and mass parties; yet they are closer to the
mass parties
These are called Indirect Parties or intermediate parties.
There is one problem with this classification of Duverger. At times it becomes

difficult to distinguish one from the other.
In his own words, "In all mass parties, the leaders form a group quite distinct
from the rest of the membership and from the party militants: this inner circle
resembles some with the leadership of traditional parties submerged, as it were, in
the heart of a mass organisation.
PARTY SYSTEM
between electoral system and Party system.
Duverger's Law: Relationship First Law of Duverger - Plurality electoral rules tend
to produce two-party systems. If a country has the simple majoritarian (FPTP) type
of system then it will lead to two party systems. Second law - Proportional
representation tends to produce multi-party systems. if the country has
proportional representation it will to development of multi-party system.
India as an exception to Duverger's law
A relative exception to this rule is India. Here, the party system is quite
diverse. But the increasing tendency of parties to be part of two opposing and
large coalitions has functionally brought India's case closer to Duverger's Law.
States like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar used to buck the trend with a high number of
effective political parties, but even these, especially Bihar, have moved closer to
becoming a two-coalition system.
1. One party system - One-party system implies the existence of only one party in a
country. The countries committed to certain ideologies such as Marxism or Fascism.
In One-party systems there is no opposition. Parties other than the ruling party
are either constitutionally debarred, or they are crushed by the rulers.
• Ex: Communist Party of the USSR after the Bolshevik Revolution.
⚫ Mustafa Kemal Pasha's one-party rule in Turkey was claimed to be democratic.

Fascist Party in Italy (1922-43) and Hitler's Nazi rule in Germany (1933-45). 2.
Two party systems
In modern democracies, there are two or more competitive parties. There are,
obviously, at least two parties. None of these is more stable or powerful than the
other on a permanent basis. If, however, one party remains in power for a very long
period of time and the other continues to occupy opposition benches then it becomes
a dominant party system.
In the two-party system, there is constant competition between the two parties for
securing majority of popular votes and seats in the legislature.
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Both the parties keep on occupying either the treasury benches or sit in the
opposition, though this may not always be alternate.
There may be presence of smaller parties but smaller parties neither come to power
nor do they normally influence the outcome of elections.
At times, a third emerging party may even compete with the major parties, as was
done in 1970s by the Liberal-Democratic Party in Britain.
3. Multi party system-
There are several countries that have developed a system of having many parties.
Technically, the existence of three or more big parties may be described as multi-
party system. In Europe, France, Italy and Switzerland are some of the examples of
this system. India has over 40 political parties, big or small, represented in the
Lok Sabha.
In a multi-party system, three, four or more parties may get together at any point
of time to form coalition governments. Coalitions governments generally adopt a
common minimum programme for governance, as they do not have commitment to any one
ideology. The coalition governments generally do not last long, but there can
always be exceptions. In a general election, voters have a wide choice of
candidates. Many of them may belong to smaller parties committed to regional or
sectarian interests. The winning candidates may not necessarily secure even half of
the total votes cast.
Classification of electoral system - Joseph La Palambra and Myron Weimer's They

have classified Party system on the basis of electoral systems. 1. Competitive- A
competitive electoral system can give rise to turn over and hegemonic parties.
Hegemonic Parties- o Ideological: BJP to some extent o Pragmatic: INC till 1967.
Other parties can't displace. Turn-over: o Ideological = British o Pragmatic USA
2. Non-Competitive
Political parties in developed countries
There are three major models have evolved.
1. US model: Turn-over pragmatic
Two party system
2. British Model: Two party system but at times coalition govt. Also exists.
Turn-over ideological.
3. Continental Europe
Multi-party system and coalition governments with the exceptions of Italy other
countries have mature coalition culture. Italy's coalition culture is very similar
to India's culture.
Political parties in 3rd world countries:
Politics in the Third World is characterized by its multi-dimensional nature.

According to Duverger, political parties in undeveloped countries can be described
in various ways. In some developing countries, parties follow the patterns seen in
the United Kingdom or the United States, while in others, one party is established
based on the Soviet model. These parties often revolve around factors such as
caste, religion, class, language, and ethnicity,
lacking internal democracy. They tend to be built around charismatic leaders, and
when these

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leaders exit the political scene, the parties often lose their momentum. The
presence of dynasty systems is prevalent in many South Asian countries, where
political power is concentrated within specific families.
In some African countries, two parties are formed, each with its own unique style.
These parties are often described as intermediate types, as they are still in the
process of being fully organized as disciplined political entities.
Comparing parties in developed and developing countries Developed as well as

developing world internally heterogeneous. Comparisons can be done at a very
generalist level.
Parties in developed countries 1. Institutionalised democracy 2. Parties mostly on
class line Party in developing countries 1. Non institutionalised democracy 2.
Identities like Religion and caste has been dominant 3. Western political has been
one 3. In developing countries parties has been multi dimensional dimensional 4.
Western parties are internally 4. There has been lack of internal democracy in the
democratic& transparent. developing countries. 5. There is clear distinction
between 5. No clear distinction between the parties and the parties and the
government. government.
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION Explain the impact of electoral systems and cleavages in
shaping party system with reference to developing countries. (2021)
Party system is not shaped in the vacuum. Party system is shaped by the complex
interpretation of the various systems" Politics in the developing country is more
complex and multi dimensional they reflect paradoxical features. Parties are modern
in nature however they are traditional in their functioning which represents the
uniqueness of prismatic societies.
Impact of Electoral system on party system
Electoral system is one of the most important aspects of the representative

democracy. Thus it has the greater impact on shaping the party system.
As per Duverger law The FPTP (First-Past-the Post) system or the majoritarian
system results into 2 party systems or the Plurality/Majority systems generally
revolves around the two parties, often gravitating towards a party on the left and
one on the right, alternating in power. It gives rise to a single- party government
and to a coherent opposition party that means the effective 2 party system.
On the other hand Proportional representation results into the multi party system
and coalition governments. Proportional representation systems promote the creation
of several political parties that often reflect societal policy, ideology, or
leadership differences.
India as an exception
Ideally India's majoritarian system should have stabilized the 2 party systems but
we see the trend either the system settles for one party dominant system be it
congress system or BJP system or it goes for the multi-party system or the
coalition government.
Thus we can hold that as electoral system will influence how the political party
system evolves; the actual political party system in place also influences
electoral system.
Impact of Social cleavages on political parties
Scott C. Flanagan defines cleavage as 'potential lines of division within any given
society'.
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Social cleavages According to Douglas divide the members of a community or sub

community into groups with important political differences. They can be based on
caste, religion, ethnicity or ideology. Impact of social Cleavages on the party
system
Since developing countries are represented as prismatic society social cleavages

are bound to play the role in shaping the party system and the politics.
Atul Kohli held that Democracy in traditional society leads to mobilisation on

ethnic lines. The traditional elites fearful of losing their privilege try to
mobilise people on ethnic lines. Similarly Rajni Kothari also held that in
traditional society mobilisation of the people of identity like religion and caste
is natural.
In the developing countries the prime social cleavages are the religion and caste.
For example in India different political parties can be associated with a
particular caste and religion in fact situation is not very different as far as
national parties are also concerned.
The role of social cleavages has also been considered to be a tool towards the
strengthening of democracies and it has been held as important factor for the
success of democracies in these third world countries where it was expected/
destined to fail.
Conclusion
Thus we can say that various factors together working in complex interdependence
defines the party system in the developing countries. In the heterogeneous country
like India becomes more important where various factors come at play together
including identity, leadership and electoral system.
PRESSURE GROUPS
Pressure groups are voluntary associations of people who have common interests to
promote and protect. These interests may be economic, social, cultural, linguistic
or religious. They do not have any political characteristics which differentiates
them from political parties. There are certain essential features of the pressure
groups. These are:
Pressure groups are part of the political process of a country
They attempt either to strengthen or change the direction of government policy They
do not seek, as pressure groups to directly capture political power and run the
government. In modern democracies, pressure groups are considered as the vital for
democracy. Democratic countries gave not only freedom of speech and expression but
freedom to form associations also.
Gabriel Almond classification of Pressure groups
1. Institutional-
Formed by people who are part of the government like interest group of civil
servants, bank employees, Army welfare Association.
⚫ These are most powerful because the operate within the system and can influence
the policy- making directly with least struggle.
2. Associational
These groups mostly are interest based. For example Trade union, business union
etc. In comparative terms they are more prominent in western countries. The reason
being the domination of rationality. Society is driven by interest.
3. Non-Associational
⚫ These pressure groups are community based or based on some identity. For example
some caste organisations like Jat Sabha etc.
4. Anomic
These denote the ad-hoc approach. They are least institutionalised, informal and
short term.

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Jean Blondel classification
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These are most prominent in developing countries because of lack of

institutionalisation of democracy.
To address the shortcoming of the Almond's classification of being static Jean

Blondel have re-classified the pressure groups which is more dynamic.
1. Community interest groups
Customary groups
Institutional groups
2. Associational groups
Protective groups
Promotive groups
According to Blondel as society moves from developing to developed community based

pressure groups gives way associational. Similarly from protective pressure groups
society moves towards promotional pressure groups.
Pressure groups in developed and developing countries
1. In developed countries, pressure groups tend to be more interest-based and

influential, particularly in countries like the United States. Corporate lobbies
and other elite groups often wield significant power and influence over the
political process. C. Wright Mills, a prominent sociologist, argued that these
elitist groups play a central role in shaping the politics of developed countries.
Their ability to mobilize resources and advocate for their specific interests can
have a
substantial impact on policy decisions and the overall direction of government

actions.
2. In developing countries, the landscape of pressure groups is often different.

Non-associational and anomic groups are more prevalent, representing diverse
interests and causes. These groups may lack formal organization and structure but
can still exert influence through various means, such as protests, demonstrations,
or grassroots mobilization.
According to post-colonial structural Marxist scholar Hamza Alvi, in countries like

Pakistan, the state itself can be considered the most powerful pressure group due
to its overdeveloped nature and control over resources.
In countries like India, there is a mix of interest-based groups like the

Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI), alongside
traditional non-associational groups like the Karni Sena, which represent specific
regional, caste, or cultural interests.
Difference in developed and developing countries
Pressure groups in developed countries 1. Primarily class based pressure groups 2.

They take part in most part of the state including foreign policy. 1. Pressure
groups in developing countries. Based on identity and ethnicity. 2. Less interest
in higher issues like foreign policy. 3. Mostly centred around the economic and 3.
Centred on the vote bank politics. business interest 4. They are well recognised by
the state 5. Mostly apolitical in nature 4. They are not well recognised by the
state. Sometime have to face wrath of the state. 5. Divided on political lines.

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Standard Conclusion for the Pressure Groups Pressure groups help in making
democracies deliberative and participative through communicative action in public
sphere. Through their activities, pressure groups help foster a vibrant and engaged
civil society, encouraging active citizen participation and strengthening
democratic governance.
Political Parties and pressure groups are sine qua non of democracy."Comment (2021)
Pressure groups and political parties are considered as legitimate institutions of
liberal democracy. Political parties are indispensable for the working of
representative democracy at the same time pressure groups has been considered as
vital for making democracy participatory in nature.
Political parties and pressure groups have been accorded the significant place to
the political parties in the success of representative democracy
Political parties and pressure group has been playing significant role in making
democracy more participatory and deliberative..
JS mill who is seen as a champion of democracy has not only suggested the
importance of freedom of speech and expression but even freedom to form association
like pressure groups and political parties for effective articulation of interest
of the people.
In modern times scholars like Robert Dahl and Charles Lindblom in their pluralist
theory of democracy highlight role of pressure group in American democracy.
Considering role of pressure group Robert Dahl pressure to call American democracy
as polyarchy or deformed polyarchy.
In Indian case for example - The Congress party inclusive nature and its allowed
for representation from every sections covering all social groups across religious,
linguistic, caste lines which is important for strengthening democracy in a diverse
country like India.
Even constitution of India recognises freedom to form association with reasonable

restriction as fundamental right which gives the legitimacy to these institutions.
Thus we can say that there can be certain pressure group which may undermine the
security of the country and the democratic nature of the state as highlighted by
various agencies and there can be certain political parties also who work for the
narrow interest and divide the society
Yet pressure groups and political parties certainly help in making democracy
consociational deliberative and the more participatory which sine qua non for a
healthy democracy.
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
- its Social movements are universal found in all societies in the past and
present. Their nature, scope and frequency vary. In the early period of political
formations social movements shaped the state functions, responsibilities as well as
accountability and also its political boundary. Social movements involve collective
struggle aimed at bringing social transformation questioning prevailing order,
power relations, and struggle for justice etc.
Standard Introductions/Definitions
⚫ Paul Wilkinson defines social movement as "a deliberate collective endeavour to

promote change in any direction and by any means, not excluding violence,
illegality, revolution or withdrawal into 'utopian' community.
• According to Herbert Bulmer. "Social movements can be viewed as collective

enterprises to establish a new order of life
• For Doug McAdam, social movements are "those organized efforts, on the part of
excluded groups, to promote or resist changes in the structure of society that
involve recourse to noninstitutional forms of political participation."

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Sidney Tarrow," collective challenges, based on common purposes and social
solidarities in sustained interaction with elites, opponents and authorities"
Thus the above definitions of the social movements encompasses three elements
Collective Action: Social movements involve coordinated efforts by a group of
individuals to address a specific issue or pursue a cause. They mobilize people
through protests, demonstrations, boycotts, and other forms of collective action.
Social Change: Social movements aim to bring about transformative changes in

society. They challenge existing power structures, norms, or policies and advocate
for alternative visions or the resolution of social injustices.
• Common Purpose: Social movements are united by a shared goal or common purpose.
Participants work together towards achieving this objective, whether it is
advocating for civil rights, environmental protection, gender equality, or any
other social issue.
Social movements in developed and developing countries
1. Social movement in developed countries
⚫ Old social movements - Old social movement in developed countries were mostly
working class movement. Because of Industrialisation being started in western
world. The movements started with issues like alleviating the working conditions of
the working class. New social movements - Unlike old ones that talked of basic
necessities of life, the new social movements focus on the "quality of life."These
movements exhibit plural ideas and values and
hence difficult to compartmentalise as socialist, capitalist, right or left.
Post materialist movements Post materialist movements focussed more on

developmental issues like sustainable development, disarmament, LGBT, social media
movements like ME TOO.
2. Social movements in developing countries
In the developing countries there was not clear distinction between the old and new
movements. In developing world considering the prismatic nature of the society old
and new social movements are not entirely distinct. They are overlapping.
• For example -
In India we see movements against corruption along with working class movements
Indian environmental movement is a mix of old and new. As an old social movement,
it deals with the livelihood concerns of the tribal, poor, but as a new social
movement, it takes up the issues like protection of environment.
New social movements
New social movements- New social movements are primarily socio-cultural as

elaborated by Habermas who called it "new politics" concerned with human
emancipation and individual self realisation, as opposed to old politics focus on
economic and political security.
New social movements offer an alternative social imaginary to both capitalism and
socialism as they were both the systems to be retaining the elements of domination
and unfairness. Taking a cue from Foucault and Laski, they argue that social power
can no longer be seen a centrally located in the state or the economy but instead
it is exercised as well as resisted at the
societal level.
Some examples of the new social movements
Occupy wall street movement in USA
Yellow vest movement in France

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⚫ Recent protests in Hong Kong, Algeria, Sudan. India against corruption, #Me Too,
Environmental movement like Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu) Recent protests in Kazakhstan
due to high inflation
Difference between old and new social movements
Basis 1. Aims Objectives Old social movements New Social movements It deals with
the subsistence issues. It deals with above the subsistence 2. Composition of Lower
classes like working class. the people. 3. Leadership 4. Techniques 5. Ideology and
goes to quality of life. Middle class and upper middle class. only. Leadership
always from the upper Leadership from the upper class class. Political techniques
like protest and Modern techniques like use of art, demonstration. literature,
social media etc. New social movements are post materialistic. Old movements were
mostly related to materialistic demands of bread and butter issues.
Standard Conclusion for overall social movement
The new social movements are indicators of the pulse of the people that they are no
longer ready to accept the developmental paradigms that keep them out and preclude
their participation. • Social movements bring otherwise divided humans on one
platform around a single issue mobilise them to struggle for one cause which is the
defence of all living beings, born and unborn

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UNIT 4: GLOBALISATION: RESPONSES FROM DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING SOCIETIES

What are the main challenges faced by developing countries in era of globalization?
(2022) What is globalization? Why is there an intense debate about globalization
and its consequences? (2021)
Critically examine the impact of globalization from the perspective of the

countries of the Global South. (2020)
Critically examine globalization in past 25 years from perspective of Western

world. (2017) Discuss the impact of globalization on the internal functioning of
the state. (2016) How is it that economic and neoliberal globalization is being
interrogated from inside even in developed countries? What are the economic
consequences of such globalization? (2015)
Is globalization essentially a process of the 'universalization' of capitalist

modernity? (2015) What is a 'global village"? Elaborate on its main characteristics
and also the factors that contributed to its growth. (2014)
How would you describe the contemporary worlds beyond the languages of
'North/South' and 'Developed/Developing"? Is the present transformation driven by
domestic compulsions or an external overall crisis of the global economy? (2012)
Examine the nature and dynamics of contemporary globalization. (2011) Critically

examine globalization from a Third World perspective. (2010)
Antony Giddens defined Globalisation as world becoming "compressed in terms of

space and time".
⚫ Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and integration of the

world's? economies, cultures, and societies.
• Globalization is a term used to describe how trade and technology have made the
world into a more connected and interdependent place. Globalization also captures
in its scope the economic and social changes that have come about as a result.
What is Globalisation?
Globalisation is a process of increasing interconnectedness and integration among

individuals, businesses, and countries around the world, which has resulted in a
more interconnected and interdependent global, economy. It involves the increased
flow of goods, services, capital, and people across national borders, facilitated
by advancements in technology, transportation, and communication. Globalisation has
led to the creation of a global market, which has increased competition and allowed
companies to operate on a larger scale. It has also resulted in the sharing of
information and ideas across
borders, and the spread of culture and values on a global scale.
Modern Globalised Economy
The modern globalized economy came into existence in the second half of the
twentieth century. It was a product of two phases. The first phase, which lasted
from the end of WWII to the early 1970s, was characterized by new arrangements for
the management of the international financial system in the post-war period which
became known as the Bretton Woods system.
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⚫ Through a system of fixed exchange rates, regulation and support, Bretton Woods
aimed to prevent a return to the 'beggar-thy-neighbour' economic policies that had
contributed to the Great Depression of the 1930s and, in the process, helped to
fuel political extremism and aggression. Nevertheless, the collapse of Bretton
Woods in the 1970s, allowing major currencies to float instead of staying fixed,
initiated the second phase in the development of globalized capitalism. This
economic interconnectedness achieved truly global dimensions in the 1990s thanks
to the collapse of communism in eastern Europe and elsewhere and the opening up of
the Chinese economy.
of Globalisation According to Scholars
Anthony Giddens: According to Giddens, globalisation refers to the intensification

of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that
local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away. He also refers to
it as the world becoming "compressed in terms of space and time".
⚫ Joseph Stiglitz: Stiglitz defines globalisation as the closer integration of the

countries and peoples of the world which has been brought about by the enormous
reduction of costs of transportation and communication, and the breaking down of
artificial barriers to the flows of goods, services, capital, knowledge, and (to a
lesser extent) people across borders.
David Held: Held sees globalisation as the widening, deepening and speeding up of
worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life, from the
economic to the cultural. ⚫ Thomas Friedman: Friedman views globalisation as a
process of the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states and technologies to
a degree never witnessed before, in a way that is enabling individuals,
corporations and nation-states to reach around the world farther, faster, deeper
and cheaper than ever before.
Immanuel Wallerstein: Wallerstein argues that globalisation is the result of the

expansion of capitalism on a global scale, leading to the creation of a global
economic system in which the rich countries exploit the poor countries.
Marshal McLuhan: The World becoming a "Global Village"
⚫ Kenichi Ohame: The process of creating a "Borderless World"
Features of Globalisation
Increased international trade: Globalization has led to an increase in

international trade as barriers to trade, such as tariffs and quotas, have been
reduced.
Greater mobility of capital: There is now greater mobility of capital across

borders, allowing businesses to invest in new markets and take advantage of cheaper
labor and resources. • Increased migration: Globalization has led to an increase in
the movement of people across borders for work, study, and other purposes.
Advances in technology: Advances in technology have made it easier and cheaper to

communicate and conduct business across borders.
⚫ Standardization of products and services: As companies expand globally, they

often standardize their products and services to meet the needs of consumers in
different markets. • Cultural exchange: Globalization has led to greater cultural
exchange between countries, allowing people to share ideas, values, and traditions.
Growing importance of multinational corporations: Multinational corporations now

play a significant role in the global economy, with many operating in multiple
countries and having a significant impact on local economies.
• Increased competition: Globalization has led to increased competition between

businesses as they compete for customers in a global marketplace.

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Theories of Globalization
Theories of globalisation provide different perspectives on globalization, ranging

from the role of nation states and the impact of economic forces to the dynamics of
capitalism and its consequences on globa power structures and social inequalities.
1. Mercantilist Theory:
Rejects the concept of economic globalization and emphasizes intensified economic

interdependence.
Believes nation-states maintain their sovereign and independent status.
⚫ Views nation-states as strengthened by advanced technology, regulating internal

and external relations.
Competition among donor states reduces hegemony in aid and technology transfer. 2.
Economic Theory:
Based on neo-liberal market economy principles.
⚫ Believes capitalism promotes prosperity, welfare, and opportunities.
Argues that global capitalism creates more opportunities and benefits.
• Emphasizes the importance of nation-state participation in globalization for

economic progress.
• Considers economic forces, nation-state interdependence, ideology, and the North-

South division.
3. Marxist Theory:
Focuses on the cosmopolitization of capitalism.
⚫ Views economic globalization as an extension of capitalist dynamics.
Analyzes the power relations and exploitation within global capitalism. Highlights
the impact of globalization on labor, class struggles, and social inequalities.
Critiques the dominance of multinational corporations and the perpetuation of
economic disparities.
Evolution of Globalisation
Globalization has evolved over time, and it has gone through several phases. Some
of the key phases in the evolution of globalization:
• Pre-modern globalization: This phase of globalization began in the ancient world,

with the expansion of empires and the establishment of trade routes. Examples
include the Silk Road, which connected China and Europe, and the Arab-Islamic trade
network, which connected Africa, Asia, and Europe.
Modern globalization: This phase of globalization began in the 19th century with
the rise of industrialization and the development of new transportation
technologies, such as steamships and railroads. This enabled the movement of goods
and people across borders on a scale that was previously impossible.
Post-World War II: This phase of globalization began after World War II, with the
creation of international institutions like the United Nations, the World Bank, and
the International Monetary Fund. These institutions aimed to promote economic
cooperation and development among nations. ⚫ Neoliberal globalization: This phase
of globalization began in the 1980s and was characterized by the adoption of
neoliberal economic policies, such as free trade, deregulation, and privatization.
This led to a surge in international trade and investment, but also resulted in
greater income inequality and environmental degradation. Although the policies were
first adopted by the US and UK, the major beneficiaries of this this phase have
been India and China along with other emerging economies.
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⚫ Digital globalization: This phase of globalization began in the 1990s with the
widespread adoption of the internet and digital technologies. This has led to
greater connectivity and the emergence of new business models, such as e-commerce
and the gig economy.
Data Related to Globalisation
Global trade has grown significantly: Between 1990 and 2019, world merchandise
trade grew at an average annual rate of 3.4 percent. In 2019, the value of world
merchandise trade was $19.5 trillion.
⚫ Foreign direct investment (FDI) has increased: Between 1990 and 2019, global FDI
inflows increased from $195 billion to $1.5 trillion. However, FDI flows have been
volatile in recent years, with a decline in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
⚫ Globalization has increased economic growth: According to the World Bank,

globalization has helped to lift millions of people out of poverty and has
contributed to global economic growth. Between 1990 and 2019, global GDP grew at an
average annual rate of 2.7 percent. • Emerging markets have become more important:
Since 1990, emerging market economies,
particularly in Asia, have grown rapidly and have become more integrated into the
global
economy. In 2019, emerging markets accounted for nearly 60 percent of global GDP
growth. • International migration has increased: Between 1990 and 2020, the number
of international migrants increased from 150 million to 281 million. International
migration has become a key driver of demographic and economic change in many
countries.
od ⚫ Global inequality has increased: Despite the overall benefits of

globalization, it has also contributed to growing income inequality within and
between countries. According to the World Inequality Database, the share of global
income held by the top 1 percent increased from 16 percent in 1980 to 20 percent in
2016.
Responses towards Globalisation
Responses to Globalisation Asia and the emerging Economies Average annual rate: 5.3
percent, (2.4 percent for the world.) Asia accounted for 67 percent of global
merchandise trade and 48 percent of global services. (2019) Extreme poverty in Asia
fell from 36 % to 7.1% (World Bank) Developed West Annual growth rate of five
Western countries between 1990 and 2019 was approximately 1.34%. In 2000, the
Developed West accounted for 65% of Global merchandise trade which came down to 60%
in 2020 Others regions. Africa's share of global merchandise trade has increased
from around 2% in 2000 to over 3% in 2019. Latin America has seen economic growth
with GDP per capita increasing from $5,602 in 2000 to $8,156 in 2019

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Responses from the Developed World
Although it is the policies of the developed world led by US and Western Europe
that laid the origins of modern globalisation, their responses towards
globalisation can be understood in various phases.
Initial Phase- Post World War II
Formation of international institutions: The establishment of international

institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) helped to promote economic
cooperation and facilitate international trade. • Reduction of trade barriers:
Governments of developed countries worked to reduce barriers to
trade, such as tariffs and quotas, to promote the growth of global trade.
Growth of multinational corporations: Multinational corporations grew in size and

number during this period, as they took advantage of new opportunities for
international trade and investment.
Expansion of global markets: The growth of international trade and investment

created new opportunities for businesses to expand into global markets. This led to
increased competition among firms, as well as greater consumer choice.
• Limited to Developed World: This phase of globalisation was limited to US, Canada
and Western Europe or the "Liberal West" and 1st world countries. India and China
remained closed economies focussing on developing their indigenous markets, while
the Communist World led by USSR focussed on domestic strength.
Intermediate Phases (1980-1990's)
Rise of Regionalism: In the 1980s and 1990s, some developed countries began to
criticize the negative effects of globalization on domestic industries and workers,
as well as the impact on the environment and social welfare. This led to a shift
towards regionalism, with countries forming economic blocs such as the European
Union and NAFTA to protect their domestic industries and reduce their dependence on
global markets.
Rise of Emerging Economies: In the 1990s and 2000s, many developed countries saw
globalization as a means of promoting development and reducing poverty in
developing countries. This led to the establishment of the Millennium Development
Goals and a focus on promoting free trade and investment in developing countries.
This period also saw the end of Communism and extension of markets for the
developed nations in Eastern Europe, Central Asia and South Asia.
Current Phases (2000- onwards)
1. Competition from Developing: In recent years, there has been a backlash against
globalization in some developed countries, particularly in the United States and
Europe. This has been fueled by concerns about job losses, income inequality, and
cultural homogenization, as well as the perception that globalization has benefited
multinational corporations at the expense of workers and local communities.
2. Decline: Events like the 9/11 and 2008 financial crisis also led to the rise of
skepticism in the Neoliberal concept of globalisation. The following events also
triggered a global backlash from the developing world:
Rise of China: This made western manufacturing redundant causing job losses in the
developed economies due to the cheap Chinese labour cost and high exports. ⚫
Climate Crisis: The climate change debate also challenged the rampant spree of
development at the cost of environmental degradation.

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⚫ War on Terror: This made the cross border movement of people more difficult and
thus making globalisation limited.
Rise of protectionism: Through the rise of right wing governments, and notions of
uplifting the indigenous economies. Example: Brexit, Make America great again
policies. • Covid Pandemic: The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which disrupted
global supply chains and highlighted the vulnerabilities of the global economic
system.
Different approaches to globalisation
Hyperglobalism is an approach to globalization that views it as a central and

irreversible process, with traditional nation-states becoming less relevant in a
global economy. It emphasizes the emergence of international civil society and
supra-state governance as replacements for nation- states. Hyperglobalists argue
that globalization fundamentally reconfigures human action and leads to a more
complex distribution of economic, political, and social power.
Skeptics, on the other hand, criticize hyperglobalism as a myth and emphasize the
continued political power of states. They argue that national governments play a
crucial role in regulating economic activity and shaping the global system.
Skeptics point out the regionalization of the world economy and the persistence of
inequalities between the North and the South. They also highlight the re-emergence
of local identities and the dominance of Western interests in the process of
globalization.
A balanced view is provided by transformationalists, who see globalization as a

transformative force driving social, political, and economic changes. They
acknowledge the contradictions and uncertainties of globalization but emphasize its
long-term historical process. Transformationalists focus on the complex
relationship between sovereignty, territoriality, and state power in the
contemporary world, challenging the notion of a fixed ideal type of globalization.
Responses from the Developing World 1. Positive:
Emerging nations of the developing world like China and India have favoured the
Globalisation seen since 1991. The fall of the Soviet Union had compelled China and
India to undertake economic liberalization policies, opening up their economies to
the global market.
⚫ Coupled with the increase in MNC investment and FDI inflows, these nations
benefitted from the overall globalisation especially due to their cheap labour
rates and growing services sectors. This also led to the outsourcing of work
towards India and China, increasing jobs and reducing poverty levels.
o Data: Globalization has helped to reduce poverty in India, with the poverty rate
declining from around 45% in the early 1990s to around 22% in 2011-12.
o India's trade with the world has increased significantly since globalization,
with exports growing from around $19 billion in 1990 to over $300 billion in 2019.
2. Negative:
⚫ Unequal distribution of benefits: While globalization has brought about economic

growth and increased trade, the benefits of globalization have not been distributed
evenly. Many developing countries feel that they have not received their fair share
of the benefits and that globalization has primarily benefited developed countries.
• Dependency on developed countries: Developing countries often rely on developed

countries for imports and exports. This can create a dependency relationship where
developing countries become vulnerable to economic fluctuations in developed
countries. For example, a decrease

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in demand for a particular commodity in a developed country can have severe

consequences on the economy of a developing country that relies on that commodity
for its exports. • Cultural Hegemony: Globalization can also have cultural
consequences as Western values and ideas are promoted through media and
advertising. Some people in developing countries may feel that globalization is
leading to the loss of their traditional culture and values. Example: The most
critical argument against globalisation comes from the Islamic world,
which has inherently felt threatened by the western values replacing the
traditional norms.
Discuss the impact of globalization on the internal functioning of the state.

(2015) The impact of globalization on the internal functioning of the state has
been widely debated among scholars. Some scholars argue that globalization has led
to a decline in the power of the state, while others believe that globalization has
reinforced the power of the state. Additionally, some scholars suggest that
globalization has created a more complex and interconnected international system
that requires a new form of statecraft.
One view is that globalization has led to a decline in the power of the state.
According to Susan Strange, globalization has resulted in the "decline of the
state" as the state loses its ability to control its own economy and protect its
citizens. The rise of multinational corporations and international financial
institutions has limited the ability of the state to regulate economic activity,
and the growth of international trade has made it difficult for the state to
control the flow of goods and services across borders.
However, other scholars argue that globalization has reinforced the power of the
state. According to Jagdish Bhagwati, Globalization has led to an increase in
economic growth, which has enabled countries to invest in areas such as education
and healthcare. States that can offer a favorable investment climate, stable
political environment, and efficient infrastructure can attract foreign investors
and gain a competitive advantage in the global economy. In this way, globalization
has given states greater economic power and leverage in international affairs.
Additionally, some scholars suggest that globalization has created a more complex
and interconnected international system that requires a new form of statecraft.
According to Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, states must adopt a "complex
interdependence" approach that emphasizes cooperation and collaboration among
states to address global issues. States must also work together to regulate the
activities of multinational corporations and international financial institutions
to ensure that they operate in the best interest of the public.
In conclusion, the impact of globalization on the internal functioning of the state

is complex and multifaceted. While some scholars argue that globalization has led
to a decline in the power of the state, others suggest that globalization has
reinforced the power of the state. Additionally, some scholars argue that
globalization has created a more complex and interconnected international system
that requires a new form of statecraft. Ultimately, the impact of globalization on
the state will continue to be debated as the global economy and international
system continue to evolve.
GLOBALISATION - REALITY OR MYTH?
Globalisation as a Reality:
Increase in cross-border trade, investment, and international treaties. •

Communication revolution has compressed time and space. Growth of cosmopolitan
cultures in metropolitan areas. Emergence of global threats.
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Globalisation as a Myth:
Marxist scholars view globalisation as a self-serving myth to promote Western

capitalism and US hegemony.
⚫ Critics like Arundhati Roy argue that globalisation is a mutated form of

colonialism controlled by remote digital operations.
Hirst and Thomson argue that the international economy is less open compared to the
past and genuine transnational companies are limited.
• Flow of trade and investment is concentrated in specific regions, and there is

regionalization rather than true global integration.
Debate on the consequences of globalisation is considered more fertile than

debating its existence.
Views of Scholars
1. Those in Favour of Globalisation Jagdish Bhagwati:
• Globalization, when properly managed, can bring many benefits to people around
the world, particularly those living in developing countries.
o International trade, which has increased due to globalization, has created many
jobs and helped to lift millions of people out of poverty.
。 Globalization has led to an increase in economic growth, which has enabled

countries to invest in areas such as education and healthcare
。 Globalization has contributed to the spread of technology and innovation around
the world, leading to new products and services.
o Bhagwati has argued that protectionist policies, such as tariffs and trade
barriers, are counterproductive and can harm both domestic and international
economies. 。 Bhagwati has also emphasized the importance of properly regulating
globalization to
ensure that workers are protected and that the environment is not harmed.
⚫ Amartya Sen: He has agreed that those nations that have been globalised, have
had better economic results in terms of growth and development than those who have
not been integrated within globalisation however he also also held that
globalisation has increased inequality in many areas.
⚫ C. Rangarajan: Rangarajan acknowledges that globalization can have some negative

consequences, particularly in terms of job displacement and income inequality.
However, he believes that these challenges can be addressed through policies that
promote education and training, as well as through safety nets for workers who are
adversely affected by economic changes.
2. Those Against Globalisation
• Immanuel Wallerstein (Marxist View): He represents the dependency school of

Marxism. According to him, there is no difference between globalisation and the
capitalist exploitation that emerged during the colonial times. According to him,
globalisation has created haves and have nots, where the developed countries have
made the developing countries dependencies.
。 Example: The Developing countries are the net exporters of raw materials, for
this they are dependent on buyers from the developed nations, whereas developing
nations are net exporters of finished goods to the same nations which have to buy
it at higher costs. Wallerstein believes that globalization has led to cultural
homogenization, with the spread of Western cultural values and practices at the
expense of local cultures. He argues that this homogenization is eroding cultural
diversity and is contributing to the marginalization of non-Western cultures.

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Noam Chomsky: In his book "Profit over people" he has been highly critical of
globalization. He argues that globalization has led to the concentration of power
in the hands of transnational corporations and financial institutions, which have
been able to weaken democracy and undermine social welfare programs. He also argues
that globalization has contributed to income inequality, environmental degradation,
and the erosion of labor standards.
Naomi Klein: She has been critical of what she calls "disaster capitalism," the
idea that corporations and governments use crises and disasters as opportunities to
push through policies that benefit the rich and powerful. She argues that
globalization has facilitated this process, and has allowed corporations to exploit
workers and natural resources in developing countries with little regard for social
or environmental consequences.
Vandana Shiva: She has been critical of the way that globalization has impacted
agriculture and food systems. She argues that the rise of corporate agriculture has
led to the displacement of small farmers, the degradation of soil and water
resources, and the loss of biodiversity. She also argues that globalization has led
to the spread of genetically modified crops, which she sees as a threat to food
sovereignty and public health.
Joseph Stiglitz:
o In his book "Globalization and its Discontents," Stiglitz is highly critical of

the way that globalization has been managed, arguing that it has contributed to
inequality, poverty, and social unrest. He argues that the policies promoted by
international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund and the
World Bank have been misguided, and have often made the problems they were intended
to solve worse.
In his book "Making Globalization Work." In this book, Stiglitz argues that
globalization can be a force for good, but only if it is managed in a way that
promotes social welfare and equality.
He advocates for greater democratic accountability in international institutions,

arguing that these institutions have often been dominated by wealthy countries and
multinational corporations, to the detriment of poorer countries and marginalized
communities.
o He believes that globalization can be made to work better for all people, through
policies that support social welfare, labor standards, environmental protection,
and human rights. He argues that a more equitable and sustainable form of
globalization is both possible and
necessary.
⚫ Pratap Bhanu Mehta: In general, Mehta has been critical of the way that
globalization has been managed, particularly in India. He has argued that
globalization has led to economic growth and modernization, but that it has also
exacerbated inequality, eroded traditional cultures, and weakened democratic
institutions.
3. Those taking the Middle Path
Raghuram Rajan: He has argued that globalization has led to a significant increase
in global economic growth, which has helped to reduce poverty and improve living
standards in many countries. He has also acknowledged that globalization has
contributed to rising inequality within and between countries. He believes that
this inequality needs to be addressed through policies that promote inclusive
growth, such as investment in education, healthcare, and infrastructure.
⚫ Dani Rodrik: Rodrik is an economist and professor at Harvard University who has
written extensively on globalization. He argues that globalization can be a force
for good, but that it needs to be managed carefully to ensure that its benefits are
shared more equitably. He has called for a "trilemma" approach to globalization,
which emphasizes the need to balance economic globalization with national
sovereignty and social solidarity.
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Globalisation and its Current Challenges
1. COVID 19 Pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant disruptions to

globalization, including travel restrictions, supply chain disruptions, and changes
in consumer behavior. It has also pushed nations to boost their own domestic
productions and rely less on global supply chains thus impacting globalisation.
2. Protectionism: Some countries are implementing protectionist policies such as

tariffs, quotas, and subsidies to protect their domestic industries, which can
limit the benefits of globalization. 3. Environmental concerns: Climate change and
environmental issues require global cooperation to address, but some countries may
prioritize their own economic interests over global environmental concerns.
4. Geopolitical tensions: Tensions between major powers such as the US, China, and
Russia can create uncertainty and disrupt global economic relationships.
• Example: One year after Russia invaded Ukraine in Feb 2022, global economy is
still enduring the consequences crunched supplies of grain, fertilizer and energy
along with more inflation and economic uncertainty in a world that was already
contending with too much of both.
5. Technological disruption: Automation and digital technologies are transforming

the workforce and can lead to job losses, particularly in low-skilled industries.
• Example: Automated factories and supply chains could replace traditional

manufacturing jobs in developing countries, reducing their competitiveness in the
global economy. At the same time, companies in developed countries that invest in
automation could become more self- sufficient and less reliant on global supply
chains, reducing their need to import goods from other countries.
Impact of Globalisation on State Sovereignty
The impact of globalization on state sovereignty has been a topic of much debate
and discussion among scholars and policymakers. While some argue that globalization
has eroded state sovereignty, others contend that states are still the primary
actors in global affairs. Here are some ways in which globalization has impacted
state sovereignty:
Economic globalization: Economic globalization has led to the growth of global

trade and investment, making it easier for corporations to move capital and
production across national borders. This has limited the ability of states to
control their own economies, as they must compete in a global marketplace. For
example, countries may be pressured to lower labor and environmental standards to
attract foreign investment.
• International institutions: The rise of international institutions such as the

United Nations, World Trade Organization, and International Monetary Fund has
limited the sovereignty of states. These institutions have the power to set global
standards and regulations that states must adhere to. For example, the WTO can
force countries to open their markets to foreign goods and services.
⚫ Migration: The movement of people across national borders has challenged state
sovereignty. This can lead to tensions between states and the people who live
within them. For example, the influx of refugees into Europe has put pressure on
the EU to coordinate its response to the crisis. ⚫ Security challenges:
Globalization has led to the emergence of new security challenges that are
difficult for states to address on their own. Issues such as terrorism, cyber
attacks, and pandemics require international cooperation to be effectively
addressed. This can limit state sovereignty as they must work with other countries
to address these challenges.
• Cultural globalization: The spread of cultural products and practices across

national borders

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has challenged state sovereignty in terms of cultural identity. As people become

exposed to new ideas and values from other cultures, it can erode the cultural
traditions and values that define a nation. For example, the popularity of American
culture around the world has led to concerns about the homogenization of global
culture.
Positives
PSIR
• Increased cooperation and partnerships: Globalization has led to increased

international cooperation and partnerships between states, which can enhance a
state's sovereignty. States can work together on common challenges such as climate
change, terrorism, and economic issues. • Access to technology: Globalization has
increased access to technology, which can enhance a state's ability to exercise its
sovereignty. States can use technology to improve their economic
competitiveness, increase security, and enhance their citizens' quality of life.
Overall, globalization has both enhanced and challenged state sovereignty. While it
has made it easier for states to engage in global trade and investment, it has also
limited their ability to control their own economies and populations. The impact of
globalization on state sovereignty will continue to be a topic of debate as
globalization continues to shape the world we live in.
India and Globalisation
India has had a complex and evolving relationship with globalization. The country
began opening up its economy in the 1990s, moving away from the socialist policies
of the past and embracing more market- oriented reforms. Since then, India has made
significant progress in integrating into the global economy and has emerged as a
major player on the world stage.
Economic growth: India's economic growth has accelerated since the early 1990s when
it started opening up to the global economy. According to the World Bank, India's
gross domestic product (GDP) grew from $263 billion in 1990 to $2.8 trillion in
2020, making it the sixth-largest economy in the world.
Foreign direct investment (FDI): India has attracted significant FDI inflows over
the past two decades, which have helped create jobs and promote economic growth.
According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, India was the
ninth-largest recipient of FDI inflows in the world in 2020, with $64 billion.
Exports: India has become an important player in global trade, with its exports
growing at a rapid pace. According to the World Trade Organization, India's
merchandise exports increased from $17
• billion in 1990 to $323 billion in 2020, making it the 18th largest exporter in
the world. Employment: Globalization has created employment opportunities for
millions of Indians, particularly in the services sector. According to the National
Sample Survey Office, the number of people employed in the services sector in India
increased from 13.3 million in 1993-94 to 34.7 million in 2017-18.
Poverty reduction: Globalization has contributed to poverty reduction in India by

creating jobs and boosting economic growth. According to the World Bank, the
percentage of Indians living below the poverty line decreased from 45% in 1994 to
12.4% in 2016.
Regionalism
Regionalism refers to the trend of countries or regions to cooperate and integrate

more closely with other countries or regions in their vicinity, rather than on a
global scale. It can take many forms, including economic, political, and cultural
cooperation among neighboring countries.

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Examples:
European Union (EU) North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Why did Regionalism emerge since the 1980's?
Economically, the rise of regionalism can be linked to the failure of globalisation

to provide equal economic opportunities for all countries. Developing countries, in
particular, felt left out and marginalised by the global economic system, which
they perceived to be dominated by developed countries. In response, these countries
began to form regional trading blocs as a means of increasing their economic
competitiveness and negotiating better terms with other countries.
Politically, regionalism emerged as a result of the increasing polarisation of the

world along political and ideological lines. The end of the Cold War in the early
1990s led to a shift in the global political landscape, with countries becoming
more focused on their own national interests rather than a global agenda.
Regionalism provided a means for countries to pursue their own interests and goals
within their own regional sphere of influence.
• Culturally, regionalism was driven by a desire to preserve and protect local

cultural identities and traditions in the face of globalisation's homogenising
influence. Many people felt that globalisation threatened their local cultures and
sought to resist this by promoting regional identity and cultural distinctiveness.
Overall, the emergence of regionalism in the 1980s and later was a response to the
failures of globalisation to provide equal economic opportunities, the increasing
polarisation of the world along political and ideological lines, and the perceived
threat to local cultural identities posed by globalisation.
As a Challenge to Globalisation
1. Fragmentation of markets: Regionalism leads to the formation of smaller,

regional markets, which can result in a fragmentation of global markets. This
fragmentation reduces the potential gains from trade and investment, and hampers
the efficient allocation of resources across borders. • Example: In Europe, the EU
has implemented strict emission standards that make it difficult
for non-European automakers to compete in the region.
2. Trade diversion: Regionalism can result in trade diversion, where regional trade
agreements
between countries result in the diversion of trade away from more efficient
producers outside the region. This can increase the cost of goods for consumers and
reduce overall economic welfare. Example: With the creation of the EU, trade within
the region became easier and more streamlined, as countries within the EU agreed to
eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers between themselves. However, this also
meant that goods from outside the EU faced higher tariffs and trade barriers, which
led to trade diversion.
3. Proliferation of rules and standards: Regionalism can lead to proliferation of

different rules and standards in different regions, which can make it difficult for
businesses to operate globally. This can create unnecessary barriers to trade and
investment, and increase the cost of doing business. 4. Erosion of the multilateral
trading system: Regionalism can erode the multilateral trading
system, which is based on the principle of non-discrimination and open markets.

This can undermine the progress made in global trade liberalization and reduce the
potential gains from trade for all countries.

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Globalisation's Impact on Gender
Globalisation has had a complex impact on gender relations, both positive and
negative. On the one hand, it has created new opportunities for women to
participate in the formal economy and gain access to education, health care, and
other resources that were previously unavailable to them. On the other hand, it has
also led to new forms of inequality and exploitation that disproportionately affect
women, particularly those in developing countries.
One of the positive impacts of globalisation on gender relations is that it has

created new job opportunities for women in the global South. For example, the
growth of the textile industry in countries like Bangladesh and Vietnam has created
jobs for millions of women who would otherwise have limited employment
opportunities. This has allowed many women to gain economic independence and
contribute to their families' income.
Globalisation has also led to an increase in women's education levels. As more

countries have become integrated into the global economy, access to education has
become more widespread. This has resulted in an increase in literacy rates and a
decrease in the gender gap in education.
However, globalisation has also led to new forms of exploitation that

disproportionately affect women. For example, women working in the global garment
industry are often paid very low wages and work long hours in unsafe conditions. In
addition, many women in developing countries are employed in the informal economy,
where they are not protected by labor laws and often face discrimination and
harassment.
Moreover, the increasing availability of cheap consumer goods has led to a rise in
consumerism, which can have negative consequences for gender relations. Advertising
often promotes unrealistic and harmful images of women, which can lead to body
dissatisfaction and low self-esteem. In addition, the commodification of women's
bodies and sexuality is often used to sell products, further perpetuating gender
inequality.
In conclusion, while globalisation has had some positive effects on gender

relations, such as increased access to education and job opportunities, it has also
led to new forms of inequality and exploitation that disproportionately affect
women. It is important for policymakers and activists to address these issues and
work towards creating a more just and equitable global economy.
Regionalism as building block of globalization rather than threat
1. Regionalism has been motivated by competitive impulses and not merely

protectionist ones. In these cases, countries have formed regional blocs not so
much to resist global market forces but, rather, to engage more effectively with
them.
2. Regional trade blocs have tended to be open and outward-looking, interested in

engaging in global, not merely regional, free trade in embracing the market,
competition and entrepreneurialism 3. Thus we can tell that regional blocs have
functioned more as filters, resisting particular threats to internal interests and
priorities rather than as stumbling blocks to globalization.
4. Hence, regionalism can be a building block to globalization in following ways:
. Such arrangements promote internal and international dynamics that enhance the
prospects for multilateralism;
⚫ Regionalism can have important demonstration effects in accustoming actors to

the effects of liberalization and globalization;
Increased numbers of regional arrangements can weaken opposition to multilateral

liberalization because each successive arrangement reduces the value of the margin
of preference.

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Thus we cannot give any monolithic view about regionalism and its impact on the
globalization as the experiences has been different however theoretically
regionalism and globalization has been understood in two ways which are often
contradictory to each other for some they are the building blocks of globalization
and for other they may be protectionist group impacting multi-lateral process of
integration.
Though globabalisation today faces challenges from all sides, it still remains a
vital solution for redressing many issues concerning growth and development.
• Globalisation to serve the purposes of future generation, must also evolve

keeping in mind the climate and equality is upheld at the same time.
In conclusion, globalization has had a profound impact on various aspects of human

society, including the economy, politics, culture, and the environment. Its effects
have been both positive and negative, depending on the context and perspective.

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UNIT 5: APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Background/Historical development
Historically, there have been different models or paradigms used to explain

international politics. The Westphalian order, which emerged after the Peace of
Westphalia in 1648, emphasized the principles of state sovereignty, territorial
integrity, and non-interference in the domestic affairs of other states. This model
portrayed states as independent entities with their own interests and capabilities,
interacting with each other in a system characterized by anarchy.
⚫ The Billiard Ball model, often associated with realism, portrays states as
individual units or "billiard balls" that collide with one another in the
international arena. Sovereignty is seen as a protective shell that allows states
to withstand the impact of these collisions. This model, emphasizes the self-
interest and power dynamics among states, highlighting competition and conflict as
inherent features of international politics.
During the interwar period (1919-1945), internationalism gained prominence with

Woodrow Wilson's vision of a "new world order" based on liberal values and the
establishment of the League of Nations. This period saw efforts to promote
international cooperation, reduce barriers to trade, and resolve conflicts through
negotiation and diplomacy.
The Cold War era (1945-1991) was characterized by rivalry between US and Soviet
Union, known as superpowers, with competing political and economic systems. The
world was divided into two ideological blocs, and conflicts were often fought
through proxy wars. The establishment of international institutions like United
Nations, International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, I and emergence of nuclear
weapons further shaped international politics during this period.
⚫ Cobweb Model In the present world order, there is a shift towards a more complex
and interconnected system, often referred to as the "Cobweb model" or complex
interdependence. This model recognizes interdependence among states and various
non-state actors in addressing global issues such as climate change, terrorism, and
economic interdependence. It highlights the i importance of cooperation and
collaboration among multiple actors to tackle shared challenges.
Theories of International relations
The most important theories as far as global politics is concerned have come out of
the discipline of f International Relations, which has spawned a rich and
increasingly diverse range of theoretical traditions. The dominant mainstream
perspectives within the field have been realism and liberalism, each offering a
different account of the balance between conflict and cooperation in world affairs.
However, from 1980s onwards, especially gaining impetus from the collapse of
communism and the end of the Cold War, a series of new theoretical voices have
emerged. These 'new voices' have substantially
expanded the range of critical perspectives on world affairs, once dominated by the
Marxist tradition. Theories of International Politics
Mainstream Theories)
Liberalism
Critical Theories
Realism
Marxist
Constructivist
Social
Feminist
Post- Modernist
Post- Colonial

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Why Theories are classified as Mainstream and Critical?
Mainstream theories of global politics, such as realism and liberalism, are based
on the assumption that the state is the primary actor in the international system
and that international relations are primarily driven by state interests. These
theories tend to focus on the balance of power, the distribution of resources, and
the importance of national security. • Critical theories of global politics, on the
other hand, challenge the assumptions of mainstream theories and seek to uncover
power relations that are hidden or obscured by dominant narratives. Critical
theories include Marxism, feminism, postcolonialism, and social constructivism.
These theories emphasize the importance of social structures, identities, and
culture in shaping global politics, and they often focus on issues such as
inequality, imperialism, and the impact of globalization on marginalized groups.
MAINSTREAM THEORIES
REALISM
• What are the great debates between 'classical' and 'modern' realists? Is there
any thin line of continuity between these two traditions? (250 words) (2012) •
Examine major principles of State centric world views. (200 words) (2013)
Write a note on Intellectual precursors of Realism. (200 words) (2013)
• Identify the major differences between the classical realism of Hans J.

Morgenthau and the neorealism of Kenneth Waltz. Which approach is best suited for
analysing international relations after the Cold War? (2015)
Is Realist Approach the best method to understand International Relations? Examine

this in the context of Classical Realism. (2017)
⚫ Bring out the major differences between the Classical Realism of Hans Morgenthau
and the Neorealism of Kenneth Waltz. (2018)
⚫ Discuss the emergence of neo-realism and its basic tenets. (2021) • Discuss the
commonalities between the Marxist and Realist approach to the study of
International Politics.(2022)
What is the realist prescription to the States to ensure their survival in an

anarchical world? (2022)
Realism is a mainstream theory in the field of International Politics, which

contends that the nature of global relations is inherently anarchical and all
actions are based on power and national perceptions of state actors.
Realism is a theory that focusses on States as actors that constantly seek to

improve their power and security situation vis a vis their rivals.
In the Modern era, the realist school of international politics emerged in the
early 20th century as a response to the failures of idealism and the outbreak of
World War I.
Origin
Thucydides: Thucydides is considered one of the earliest and most influential

thinkers in the realist tradition due to his emphasis on power, self-interest, and
the competitive nature of international relations in his account of the
Peloponnesian War.

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Kautilya: Kautilya, an ancient Indian political philosopher, is considered an early

proponent of realism due to his emphasis on power and the use of force in
international relations, as outlined in his work "Arthashastra."
⚫ Thomas Hobbes: Due to his emphasis on the importance of power, the competitive
nature of international relations, and the need for a strong central authority to
maintain order in his work "Leviathan."
Machiavelli: Niccolo Machiavelli is considered a key figure in the development of

realism due to his emphasis on the importance of power, the competitive nature of
politics, and the need for political leaders to be ruthless and pragmatic in his
work "The Prince."" In Modern Era
One of the early founders of the realist school was E.H. Carr, whose book "The
Twenty Years' Crisis" (1939) challenged the idealistic assumptions of the interwar
period and argued for a more pragmatic and realistic approach to international
relations.
Background
PSIR
The Realist school is thought to have emerged during the period between 2 world
wars, and, consolidated further during in the Post World War 2 era.
The realist school of international relations emerged in response to the failures

of idealism and the outbreak of World War I. Idealistic approaches to international
relations, which emphasized international law, cooperation, and disarmament, had
failed to prevent the outbreak of war. Realists argued that the international
system was inherently anarchic and that power and self-interest were the primary
drivers of state behavior.
Therefore, the realist school emerged as a more pragmatic and realistic approach to
international relations, emphasizing the importance of power, national interest,
and the competitive nature of the international system.
Idealism or the Idealist School of International Politics

Premise
Realism argues that the international system is anarchic, meaning there is no

higher authority above states to ensure their security or well-being. In this
environment, states must be self-reliant and act in their own national interests to
survive. Realists see power as the central concept in international relations, and
they argue that states must compete with one another for power and security.
The idealist school of international relations emerged in the late 19th and early
20th centuries and was rooted in the belief that international relations could be
governed by international law, morality, and cooperation among states. Idealists
believed that by promoting international institutions, promoting free trade, and
establishing rules of law and morality, states could work together to prevent war
and promote peace and prosperity.
However, the idealist approach was challenged by the outbreak of World War I, which
demonstrated the limitations of international law and the inability of states to
cooperate effectively to prevent conflict. The failure of the League of Nations to
prevent the outbreak of World War II further eroded the credibility of the idealist
approach to international relations.
This led to the emergence of the realist school of international relations, which
emphasized the importance of power, national interest, and the competitive nature
of the international system. Realists argued that the international system was
inherently anarchic, and that states were motivated primarily by self-interest and
the pursuit of power. Realism provided a more realistic and objective approach to
international relations, which sought to understand the behavior of states in a
pragmatic and empirical

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manner.
PSIR
Overall, the failure of the idealist approach to prevent the outbreak of wars led
to the emergence of the realist school of international relations, which provided a
more realistic and objective approach to understanding the behavior of states in
the international system.
Schools of Realism
1. Classical Realism 2. Neo-Realism Defensive Neo-RealismOffensive Neo-Realism 3.

Neo-Classical Realism
CLASSICAL REALISM
Scholars of Classical Realism
EH Carr: In his book "The Twenty Years Crisis" Carr rejected the notion that
international relations could be governed by international law or a higher moral
order and argued that states were motivated primarily by power and self-interest.
⚫ Hans Morgenthau: In his book, "Politics among nations" he emphasized the
importance of power and national interest in international relations. He argued
that states act in accordance with their interests, and that international
relations are characterized by a struggle for power.
Key Features of Classical Realism
State sovereignty: Classical realists believe that the state is the most important
actor in international relations and that its sovereignty must be respected. States
are seen as independent entities that make decisions based on their own national
interest.
• International anarchy: Classical realists see the international system as an

anarchic environment where there is no higher authority to enforce rules and norms.
This means that states must rely on their own power to survive and protect their
interests.
⚫ Power and security: Classical realists believe that the pursuit of power and
security is the primary goal of states. They argue that states must be able to
defend themselves and deter potential threats in order to ensure their survival.
⚫ Human nature: Classical realists believe that human nature is fundamentally

self-interested and that this drives the behavior of states in the international
arena. States are seen as rational actors that pursue their own interests, even if
this means using force to achieve their goals. ⚫ Balance of power: Classical
realists believe that the international system is most stable when there is a
balance of power among states. This means that no single state is strong enough to
dominate the others, and that states are incentivized to cooperate and avoid
conflict.
Morgenthau's 6 Principles of Realism
Morgenthau is regarded as the father of realism, for it is through him that we get
the first systematic interpretation of the international politics and its nature.
Morgenthau's book represents the first systematic work and served the purpose of
guiding the American Foreign Policy. Hans Morgenthau's six principles of political
realism, outlined in his book "Politics Among Nations",
provide a framework for understanding the realist approach to international

relations.
Politics is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature: Morgenthau argued

that human nature is the fundamental driver of politics, and that the behavior of
states is rooted in universal human desires and needs, such as the desire for power
and security.

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The main actors in international politics are sovereign states: According to

Morgenthau, states are the primary actors in international relations, and their
behavior is shaped by their national interests.
National interest is defined in terms of power: Morgenthau believed that the

pursuit of power is the primary goal of states, and that the national interest is
defined in terms of power and security.
⚫ The pursuit of power leads to conflict: Morgenthau argued that the pursuit of
power inevitably leads to conflict, as states seek to maximize their power and
influence at the expense of others. Moral principles cannot be applied to the
actions of states: According to Morgenthau, moral principles are not applicable to
the actions of states, as states must be guided solely by the pursuit of power and
the national interest.
The international system is characterized by anarchy: Morgenthau believed that the

international system is anarchic, meaning that there is no central authority to
enforce rules and norms, and that states must rely on their own power to ensure
their survival.
"The main source of order in international relations is the balance of power."-

MORGENTHAU Morgenthau argued that in an anarchic international system, where there
is no central authority to enforce rules and norms, states must rely on their own
power to protect their interests. This creates a situation where states are
constantly seeking to increase their power and influence, which can lead to
competition and conflict. However, Morgenthau believed that a balance of power
could prevent this outcome.
A balance of power occurs when no one state or group of states is dominant, and all
states are roughly
equal in terms of power and capabilities. In this situation, no single state is

able to impose its will on others, and smaller states are able to band together to
counterbalance larger states. This creates a stable and predictable international
system, as states are deterred from taking aggressive actions by the fear of being
counterbalanced or isolated.
Overall, Morgenthau's quote highlights the importance of power dynamics and the
balance of power in shaping international relations. While the balance of power is
not a guarantee of peace, it can provide a degree of stability and order in an
otherwise anarchic system.
Criticism of Morgenthau and Classical Realism in General
1. Neo-Realists:
Neorealists argue that this perspective fails to fully capture the complexities of
the international system, which is characterized by the interactions of many states
and other actors. Neorealists like Kenneth Walz, Another criticise the emphasis on
human nature as a driver of state behavior. Neorealists argue that while individual
leaders and decision-makers are certainly important, they are constrained by the
systemic pressures and incentives of the international system.
2. Stanley Hoffman: He criticises Morgethau's theory as power monism and states

that in the international arena though there is conflict, there is also
cooperation, therefore it is not practically engagement as conflictual.
right to term all
3. Robert Keohane: He argued that classical realism fails to fully account for the
role of institutions in international relations, and that cooperation and mutual
gain can often be more important than the pursuit of power.
4. Alexander Wendt and Social Constructivists: Wendt is a prominent Social

constructivist scholar who challenges the realist assumption that the international
system is inherently anarchic

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and conflict-prone. He argues that states and other actors are capable of
constructing and maintaining social structures that promote cooperation and peace.
5. Hedley Bull (English School): Bull was a prominent scholar of international

society, which emphasizes the importance of shared norms and values among states.
He criticized classical realism for its focus on power politics and its neglect of
the role of norms and institutions in shaping state behavior.
6. Feminists: Ann J Tickner, a prominent feminist scholar who has criticized

realism for its gender blindness and its narrow focus on state behavior. In her
book "Gender in International Relations," Tickner argues that traditional
approaches to international relations have ignored the role of gender in shaping
state behavior and international relations more broadly.
Overall, classical realism's focus on power, security, state sovereignty, and human
nature provides valuable insights into the nature of international politics. By
emphasizing these core elements, classical realism offers a nuanced understanding
of state behavior and the dynamics of power in the global arena.
NEO-REALISM
Neorealism, also known as structural realism, emerged as a response to perceived

limitations of classical realism in explaining and predicting international
relations. Classical realism was dominant in the early decades of the 20th century,
and emphasized the importance of human nature and morality in shaping state
behavior. Classical realists argued that the anarchic international system, where
there is no central authority to enforce rules and norms, leads to competition and
conflict between states.
Associated in particular with the American political scientist Kenneth Waltz,

neorealism was an attempt to translate some of the key insights of classical
realism into the language and methods of modern social science. In the Theory of
International Politics (1979), he argues that international politics could be
developed on three levels of analysis - the human individual, the state and the
international system'. In this light, the defect of classical realism was that it
could not explain behaviour at a level above the state.
Factors that led to the rise of Neo-Realism
Bipolarity: The Post War bipolarity that emerged between US and USSR, changed the
power dynamics in the world. Notably on behaviour of other states, thus Neo
realists argued that this new distribution of power had important implications for
state behavior, and emphasized the need to take into account systemic factors when
analyzing international relations.
Anarchical Nature: Contrary to Morgenthau's analysis where he gives primacy to
human nature as the basis of international relations, neo realists argued that this
approach neglected systemic factors and constraints that shape state behavior in
the international system. Neo realists emphasized the importance of the
distribution of power among states, arguing that this was the primary determinant
of state behavior.
Early Globalisation: With the increasing interdependence and complexity of the

international system, neorealists argued that it was becoming more difficult for
states to make rational decisions based on individual calculations of interest.
Instead, systemic factors such as the distribution of power played an increasingly
important role in shaping state behavior.

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Classical Realism
The first difference pertains to the question why states want power?
According to the classic realists, the answer is human nature. They would argue
that great powers are led by individuals who want to accumulate power and have
their state dominate its rivals. For classic realists, power is an end in itself.
Classical realism assumes that there is a natural hierarchy among states, with some
states having more power and influence than others.
Kenneth Waltz and Defensive Realism
Defensive Realism
PSIR
Neo-Realism
Neo-realism traces it to the structure of international system. In an anarchical

international system, states cannot trust each other's intentions and it makes
sense for them to be powerful enough to protect themselves in case they are
attacked
For the neo-realists, power is a means to an end and the ultimate end for a state
is survival.
It, however, assumes that the international system is anarchic, meaning there is no
central authority or government to regulate the behavior of states.
The international system is anarchic: There is no central authority or global

government that can regulate the behavior of states.
States are the primary actors in the international system: They are concerned with
their own survival and security and must rely on their own power to achieve these
goals. The distribution of power within the international system is the key
determinant of state behavior:
States will balance against other states that they perceive as powerful, forming
alliances and coalitions to counterbalance threats to their security.
⚫ States are rational actors: They seek to maximize their own interests within the
constraints of the international system.
Waltz's structural realism emphasizes the importance of the international system as

a whole, the distribution of power within that system, and the rational behavior of
states as they seek to maximize their own interests and maintain stability
1. Since Neo Realists agree that states seek power for their national interest, the
diversion arises onto how much and till what level states will acquire power. It is
here that defensive realists differ from other realists. Defensive realists content
that States want an appropriate amount of power, not hegemony due to a number of
factors
2. They reject the argument of offensive realists that states seek hegemony and say
that it is strategically foolish to pursue hegemony. States are thus security
maximisers and go on acquiring power till their security is met. In other words,
Defensive Realists urge for "Security Maximisation" compared to "Power
Maximisation" of Offensive Realists. 3. According to them, constant quest for
hegemony creates a situation where others may start to
balance them, and inherently create a power instability. Also seeking power that
outweighs the cost of their security is equally foolish.
Example: If a nation is contend with its military strength ensuring its security,
it will not want to seek out nuclear weapons for the sake of hegemony as this will
cause other regional rivals to also seek nuclear weapons which will cause an infite
security dilemma.
Aspect Focus Approach Power Hans Morgenthau Kenneth Waltz Human nature and
individual behavior Reductionist Means and end International system and structure
Systemic Means

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Returns PSIR Emphasized, but not the sole concern Driven by power politics and
self-interest Individual states Primary concern Driven by the pursuit of security
International system and its structure of Important concept in understanding state
Less emphasis, system structure behavior Not explicitly discussed determines order
Highlighted, excessive power may yield backlash
How Kenneth Waltz redefines Realism
Waltz, in his book "Theory of International Politics," redefines realism by

shifting the focus from individual states to the international system as a whole.
He argues that the structure of the international system, rather than the nature of
individual states, is the most important factor in determining international
behavior.
Waltz's brand of realism is known as "neorealism" or "structural realism." He

maintains that the international system is anarchic, meaning that there is no
overarching authority or government to regulate the behavior of states. In such a
system, states are primarily concerned with ensuring their own survival and
security, and they must rely on their own power to achieve these goals.
According to Waltz, the distribution of power within the international system is

the key determinant of state behavior. States will balance against other states
that they perceive as powerful, forming alliances and coalitions to counterbalance
threats to their security. This balancing behavior, he argues, helps to maintain
stability and prevent the emergence of a dominant power that could threaten the
security of other states.
Overall, Waltz's neorealism is a departure from earlier forms of realism, which

focused more on the internal characteristics of states, such as their ideologies or
the personalities of their leaders. Instead, Waltz's neorealism emphasizes the
importance of the international system as a whole, and the way in which the
distribution of power within that system shapes state behavior.
Offensive Realism
In The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (2001), John Mearsheimer described offensive
realism as Kenneth Waltz's neo-realism's successor. He contends that states
prioritise increasing power over ensuring security. States constantly look for ways
to increase their authority, with hegemony as their ultimate objective. This makes
it more difficult to balance your way to international political stability.
According to offensive realists, balance is frequently ineffective, which permits

an aggressor to exploit its enemies. Threatened states occasionally choose to pass
the buck rather than form an alliance against a foe. This implies that they wait
for other states to check the prospective opponent while they remain on the
sidelines. Aggression is encouraged by such behaviours. Additionally, offensive
realists have claimed that history overwhelmingly favours the side that starts a
conflict in winning it. Although hegemony may be hard to establish, the US had
already achieved it in the western hemisphere by the 19th century.
Key Scholars of Offensive Realism
John Mearsheimer: Mearsheimer is one of the leading scholars of offensive

neorealism. In his book "The Tragedy of Great Power Politics," he argues that great
powers are inherently aggressive and seek to dominate the international system. He
contends that the best way to maintain stability

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and prevent war is for one state to achieve hegemony, or overwhelming power, in the
international system.
Robert Gilpin: Gilpin was an influential scholar of international political economy

and a proponent of offensive neo-realism. In his book "War and Change in World
Politics," he argues that great powers are constantly seeking to expand their power
and influence in the international system. He contends that the rise and fall of
great powers is a key driver of change in the international system.
Criticism
Post Modernist: Scholars like Richard Ashley have criticised Waltz's concept of
scientific nature of realism. Ashley gives the concept of "Anarchy Problematique",
according to him the way Realists look at anarchy is problematic, and this view
essentially will always lead to war.
Hedley Bull (English school): He represents the english school, which contends that
international arena is not just anarchy but rather composed on "anarchical
societies" which states that there is cooperation as well as conflict and scope is
neither complete anarchy and neither complete society. Social Constructivist:
Social Constructivist Alexander Wendt has states "Anarchy is what states make of
it" which means that the anarchy as claimed by realists is a matter of perception
and not based on material reality. To them "Reality exists only as inter subjective
awareness"
Feminists: Scholars like Cynthia Enloe, Ann J Tickner criticse Realism and Neo-
realism for viewing security in narrow, military terms, focused on state survival
and territorial integrity. Feminist scholars argue that security should be
understood more broadly to include economic, social, and environmental threats as
well.
Robert Keohane: Keohane is an American political scientist who has been critical of
neorealism's emphasis on power politics and state-centric approach. In his book
"After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy," he argues
that cooperation and institutions are key factors in international relations, and
that neorealism underestimates their importance.
Neo-Classical Realists: Oversimplification of State Behavior: Neoclassical realists

argue that
neorealism's focus on systemic factors and structural constraints oversimplifies

the behavior of states. According to neoclassical realists, while international
system does influence state behavior, it is only one of several factors that shape
state behavior. Domestic politics, bureaucratic interests, and individual leaders
all play a role in shaping state behavior, and neorealism ignores these factors.
Aspect Time Period Attempt for Preponderance State Motivation Escaping Security
Dilemma Sufficiency of Power Defensive Realism Cold War and détente period
Considered foolish Security maximizers Possible to escape Appropriate power is
sufficient Offensive Realism Post-Cold War period Considered rational Power
maximizers Inescapable No amount of power is enough
Security Dillema
The concept was given by John H. Herz in his 1950 article, "Idealist
Internationalism and the Security Dilemma." In the article, Herz argues that in a
system of sovereign states, each state must rely on its own military capabilities
for security, but the pursuit of security by one state can create a sense of
insecurity in other states, leading to a vicious cycle of arms buildup and mistrust
and this can create a situation in

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Security Dilemma Spiral
which one state's efforts to increase its military
A detrusts B
A interprets B's action as confirming intial basis for mestruat
interprets A's
action as offensive
Bacqures power for own defence
strength are seen as threatening by other states. For example, if one state
increases its military capabilities in order to deter potential threats, other
states in the region may interpret this as a signal of aggression and respond by
increasing their own military capabilities, leading to an escalation of the arms
race and a heightened sense of insecurity. The security dilemma can therefore
create a self- reinforcing cycle of mistrust and insecurity, making it difficult to
achieve lasting peace and stability in the international system.
Notable Examples:
India-Pakistan: The security dilemma between India and Pakistan is a long-standing

issue rooted in historical and territorial disputes. Both countries have invested
heavily in their military capabilities, including nuclear weapons, and have engaged
in multiple conflicts and military standoffs. The highly militarized border and the
Kashmir dispute exacerbate tensions. Lack of trust and communication between the
countries, domestic political pressures, and potential for miscalculation increase
the risk of military escalation
South China Sea Dispute: The dispute between China and its neighbors in the South
China Sea: China has claimed a large portion of the South China Sea as its
territorial waters, which has led to tensions with other countries in the region,
including Vietnam, the Philippines, and Malaysia. These countries have responded by
increasing their own military presence in the region, which has created a sense of
insecurity and mistrust between them and China.
NEO-CLASSICAL REALISM
Neoclassical realism emerged as a theoretical perspective in the late 1990s and

early 2000s, primarily in response to the limitations of neorealism. While
neorealism had made significant contributions to the study of international
relations by focusing on the role of the international system in shaping state
behavior, it had also been criticized for oversimplifying state behavior and
neglecting the role of domestic factors.
• Neoclassical realism seeks to address these limitations by building on

neorealism's emphasis on the role of the international system, but also
incorporating insights from other theoretical perspectives such as constructivism
and domestic politics. Neoclassical realists argue that while the international
system does influence state behavior, it is only one of several factors that shape
state behavior. Domestic politics, bureaucratic interests, and individual leaders
all play a role in shaping state behavior, and neorealism ignores these factors.
How is Neo-Classical Realism different from Classical Realism and Neo-Realism?

Systemic versus Domestic Factors: Neoclassical realism acknowledges that both
systemic and domestic factors influence state behavior. While neorealism emphasizes
systemic factors such as the distribution of power in the international system,
neoclassical realism argues that domestic factors such as the beliefs, preferences,
and perceptions of decision-makers also play a role. ⚫ State Autonomy:
Neoclassical realism sees states as having a degree of autonomy in their decision-
making. Unlike classical realism, which sees states as primarily driven by a desire
for power, and neorealism, which views states as passive actors in the
international system,

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neoclassical realism recognizes that states make strategic choices based on their
perception of the international system and their own interests.
Strategic Choice: Neoclassical realism emphasizes the role of strategic choice in

shaping state behavior. While neorealism assumes that states are driven solely by
their relative power in the international system, neoclassical realism recognizes
that states can make decisions that are not based solely on systemic constraints.
Role of Ideas and Norms: Neoclassical realism recognizes the role of ideas and
norms in shaping state behavior. Unlike classical realism, which assumes that
states are primarily motivated by a desire for power, and neorealism, which ignores
the role of ideas and norms, neoclassical realism acknowledges that states are
influenced by the ideas and norms that are prevalent in their domestic and
international environments.
Scholars
Gideon Rose: He is credited with developing neoclassical realism, and his 1998
article "Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy" he laid out
foundations for theory. He argues that while systemic factors such as international
power structures play a role in shaping state behavior, domestic factors such as
political culture, interest groups, and individual leaders also matter.
⚫ Randall Schweller: In his book, "Unanswered Threats: Political Constraints on

the Balance of Power" he argues that domestic factors such as public opinion,
bureaucratic interests, and the preferences of individual leaders can constrain a
state's ability to pursue its interests in the international system.
• Fareed Zakaria: Zakaria's views on the relationship between domestic and

international factors in shaping state behavior align with key tenets of
neoclassical realism, which argues that both systemic and domestic factors
influence state behavior.
Though realists contend the international sphere is defined by anarchy, like all
theories in political
science, it remians heavily contested and criticised. In contemporary times,

realist perceptions of global politics are gaining more impetus, especially
with the rise of global conflicts and the apparent failure of global norms.
LIBERALISM
What are the major critiques of liberal internationalism? (2009)
Do you agree that liberal international theories are essentially 'Eurocentric' and
not necessarily imperialist? (150 words) (2012)
Discuss the main factors that have contributed to the gradual transformation of the
world from 'Billiard Ball Model' to 'Cobweb Model'. (2014)
What, according to Joseph Nye, are the major sources of a country's soft power?
Discuss its relevance in the contemporary world politics. (2018)
What are the core assumptions of idealism as an approach to study International

Relations? Explain its continuing relevance in peace building. (2020)

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Background
Liberalism is a political ideology that emphasizes individual freedom, equal

rights, and the rule of law. In the context of international politics, liberalism
has its roots in the Enlightenment period of the 18th century, which saw the rise
of ideas about human rights, democracy, and the social contract. These ideas
eventually led to the development of liberal democracies, where individuals are
granted certain inalienable rights and the government is accountable to the people.
In international politics, liberalism has been influential in shaping the global

order since the end of World War I, the primary motivation behind the school is to
establish measures and mechanisms to ensure cooperation amongst nations and limit
the scope for conflict. Post World War -I the first instance of Liberal approach to
International politics was in US President Woodrow Wilson's 14 points speech which
laid the foundation of liberal instituionalism through the League of Nations.
Sources of Influence
1. John Locke: Locke's ideas about individual rights and limited government had an
impact on the development of liberal internationalism. He also gave the notion of
Man being rational and reason dictating him to not harm the other in life, liberty
or property. Same views are enshrined through Liberal Instituionalism wherein
nations are expected to act rationally and respect other nations..
2. Immanuel Kant: His concept of "Perpetual Peace" which later formed the basis of
EU, suggests ways to establish peace amongst nations.
3. Woodrow Wilson: The "Fourteen Points" was a speech delivered by President Wilson
in 1918, outlined his vision for a post-World War I international system based on
democratic principles. The Fourteen Points included proposals for reducing
armaments, creating free trade, and establishing a League of Nations to prevent
future wars. The speech also called for national self-determination, which would
allow people to choose their own form of government, and an end to secret
diplomacy, which Wilson believed had contributed to the outbreak of the war.
Key Features of this Approach
Individuals are the primary international actors: Liberals put the individual at
the centre of the universe and all progress is measured in terms of the interests
of the individuals as the two are
perceived as inextricably intertwined. In other words, progress for liberals has

always meant progress for individuals. John Locke, for example, is accredited with
the creation of a constitutional state through a social contract to protect the
liberties of the individuals. • States interests are dynamic: According to
liberalism, the interests of states are not fixed, but rather change over time as
individual values and power dynamics evolve. Liberals also believe that states are
not solely motivated by self-interest, but rather see their policies as having some
regard for others, particularly as liberal democracy grows. The origins of these
ideas can be traced back to Locke, Rousseau, and Kant. While state survival and
autonomy are important to liberals, they view them as secondary to the primary
interests of individuals.
• Interests shaped by various conditions: Liberals believe that the interests of

individuals and states are influenced by various factors at the domestic and
international levels. While bargaining power ultimately determines interests, they
are shaped by factors such as economic and political systems, personal values,
technological capabilities, patterns of interactions, and international
institutions. These factors affect states' relations and their ability to influence
one another.
⚫ Cooperation through Mutual benefit: With the growth of liberal democracies,

interdependencies, knowledge, international social ties, and international
institutions, the liberals have come to believe that cooperation can be possible
among states without resorting to coercive means. Unlike the Realists who believed
that existence of a hegemonic (dominant) power is a

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prerequisite to cooperation, the liberals are of the view that cooperation can be
achieved through non-coercive bargaining based on identification of mutual
interests.
Evolution of Liberalism in International Politics
evolution of Liberalism is perhaps best explained in John Ikenberry's book "Liberal

Leviathan: Origins, Crisis, and Transformation of the American World Order", where
he distinguishes liberalism have evolved over 3 distinct waves throughout history.
First Wave: This is the period just after the 1st world war, this period saw the
first liberal institution at the global stage; the League of Nations. It was also
seen through free trade, the gold standard, and the spread of democracy.
Second Wave: Due to the failure of the 1st wave and the eventual 2nd world war, the
second wave emerged with the formation of the UN, Breton woods twins as well as
other regional blocs aimed at increasing cooperation amongst nations. This wave
also can be seen in the backdrop of the cold war, where the world was polarised
between the liberal democracies and the Communist nations. Third Wave: This wave
began in since the fall of the Soviet Union and the eventual expansion of democracy
into the former communist republics. It also saw the establishment of the WTO and a
increase in globalisation throughout the world.
Decline in the Liberal Approach to International Relations
According to Robert Kagan, Liberal World order has also been seeing a decline due
to a loss of confidence in neoliberal economic policies, institutions and a rise of
nationalist and right wing politics. Some other reasons attributed to show a
decline:
The rise of authoritarianism in countries such as Russia, China, and Turkey, which
have seen a roll-back of political and civil liberties.
The erosion of democratic norms and institutions in established democracies such as

the United States, Hungary, and Poland.
The growing popularity of populist and nationalist movements, which often reject
liberal values such as individual rights, tolerance, and diversity.
The The to
The increasing influence of illiberal states and non-state actors in global

affairs, which challenge the liberal international order.
The failure of liberal policies to address growing economic inequality, leading to

political polarization and social unrest in many countries.
Threat of global challenges like climate change, terrorism, pandemics, which

require collective action and cooperation, but which are often hampered by
nationalist and protectionist impulses.
SCHOOLS OF LIBERALISM Liberal Institutionalism Functionalism Schools of Liberalism

✓ Interdependence Democratic Peace Theory Complex Interdependence Sociological
Liberalism

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LIBERAL INSTITUTIONALISM
⚫ Meaning: Liberal institutionalism is a theory in international relations that

focuses on the role of international institutions and organizations in promoting
cooperation and peaceful conflict resolution among states. According to this
theory, international institutions can help facilitate cooperation among states by
providing information, setting standards and rules of behavior, and providing a
forum for negotiation and dispute resolution. Quote: "We enter politics to make the
jungle a zoo." - Woodrow Wilson
Proponents
Woodrow Wilson: Wilson believed that international institutions, particularly the

League of Nations, could help to prevent wars by providing a forum for peaceful
negotiation and conflict resolution. He argued that the League could act as a
mediator in disputes between states and use economic sanctions or military force,
if necessary, to enforce its decisions.
• Hedley Bull: One of Bull's most influential contributions to liberal

institutionalism was his concept of "society of states."He argued that institutions
such as the United Nations could help to overcome the problems of anarchy and power
politics that often characterize international relations.
• Andrew Moravcsik: Andrew Moravcsik is a political scientist who has written

extensively on the role of international institutions in promoting cooperation
among states. He has argued that international institutions can help to overcome
collective action problems by providing information, reducing transaction costs,
and creating a shared normative framework. • Anne-Marie Slaughter: Anne-Marie
Slaughter is a legal scholar who has written extensively on the role of
international law and institutions in promoting cooperation among states. She has
argued that international institutions can help to create a more stable and
predictable international order by providing a framework for cooperation and
conflict resolution.
⚫ Parag Khanna: Parag Khanna is a geopolitical analyst and author who has written
extensively about the importance of global platforms in shaping the future of
international relations. He has argued that platforms such as the G20, the World
Economic Forum, and the Internet Governance Forum can help to create a more
inclusive and effective global governance system.] • Nina Tannenwald: In her book
"The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Non-Use of
Nuclear Weapons Since 1945," Tannenwald argues that international norms and
institutions have played a crucial role in preventing the use of nuclear weapons
since the end of World War II. She emphasizes the importance of the norm of non-use
of nuclear weapons, which has been reinforced by a variety of international
institutions, including the United Nations and the International Atomic Energy
Agency.
Key assumptions of Liberal Institutionalism
1. Dispute Resolution: According to scholars, such institutions can help in

addressing bilateral or multilateral issues through dialogue and without the need
for conflict.
• Example: The United Nations was envisaged for such a purpose and to ensure events
that led to the world wars do not occur again.
2. National Commitments: Liberal Institutionalism also ensures that each member

nation commits to the common notions of peace and stability and also abides by it.
3. Collective Action: In the event of violation of any of its principles, the

platform can be used to undertake penal actions on aggressors. In this way each
member nation has incentive to abide to mutually agreed norms.

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4. Address Global Issues: This is also favourable while addressing issues that
concern all nations equally. Such institutions can aid in agreeing to mutual goals
and actions can also be coordinatedExample: Montreal Protocol agreed and ratified
by all nations of the world to address the the late 1980's
. challenge faced by the Ozone hole in
5. More Communication, Less Conflict: International institutions provide a means

for states to communicate and coordinate with one another.
Issues
1. Power imbalances: A limitation of liberal institutionalism is that it assumes

that states are roughly equal in power and that institutions can serve as a neutral
forum for negotiations and decision-making. However, in reality, there are often
significant power imbalances among states, and powerful states may use institutions
to advance their own interests at the expense of weaker states.
• Example: At the UNGA, resolutions are heavily influenced by the larger nations
like the US, China and Russia.
2. Lack of inclusivity: Liberal institutionalism also assumes that all states have
a stake in the success of international institutions, but in practice, some states
may be excluded or marginalized from these institutions. This can create resentment
and mistrust, and limit the ability of institutions to promote cooperation and
reduce conflict.
Example: The United Nations Security Council has 5 permanent members with none from
the Global South or from Africa.
3. Resistance to change: Liberal institutionalism assumes that institutions can

adapt and evolve over time to respond to changing circumstances and new challenges.
However, in practice, institutions may be resistant to change due to bureaucratic
inertia, entrenched interests, or opposition from member states.
4. Limited effectiveness: One of the key criticisms of liberal institutionalism is

that international institutions have limited effectiveness in achieving their
goals. Institutions may lack the resources or the authority to enforce their
decisions, or they may be constrained by the interests and actions of member
states.
Example: UN could not prevent the Vietnam War, Afghan War, Iraq Invasion or the
Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Criticism
The major criticism to this school of liberalism comes from the nations of the
global south or and the post colonial states. According to them the institutions
are often dominated by the discourse of the western nations. Another major
criticism has been that the platforms are ineffective when it comes to take
decisions against the powerful nations.
Scholarly Criticism
Marxist: Marxists like Immanuel Wallerstein criticized liberal institutionalism

from a broader historical perspective. He argues that the liberal international
order has been based on a system of global capitalism that perpetuates inequality
and exploitation, and that liberal institutionalism is unable to address these
underlying structural issues.
John Mearsheimer (Realist): John Mearsheimer is a prominent international relations

scholar who has been critical of liberal institutionalism. He argues that the
liberal institutionalists focus on international institutions and cooperation is
misguided, and that states will always prioritize their own interests over
international norms and institutions.

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⚫ Stephen Walt: Stephen Walt is another international relations scholar who has
criticized liberal institutionalism. He argues that the emphasis on international
institutions and cooperation overlooks the importance of power politics in
international relations, and that the liberal institutionalist approach is too
idealistic and naive.
SOCIOLOGICAL LIBERALISM OR TRANSNATIONALISM ⚫ The communications theory in

international relations is considered to be an integral part of what has come to be
called sociological liberalism strand of thinking. Unlike the Realists who view
international relations exclusively in terms of the study of relations between the
governments of sovereign states, sociological liberals assert that it is also about
transnational relations i.e. relations between people, groups, and organisations
belonging to different countries.
Meaning: James Rosenau defines transnationalism as, "the processes whereby

international relations conducted by governments have been supplemented by
relations among private individuals, groups, and societies that can and do have
important consequences for the course of events".
• The concept of community and the interdependence process are thought to be

significant
components of international relations, as is clear from the definition above. ⚫
The communication theory, which is based on the idea of transnationalism, makes the
fundamental assumption that as transnational activities develop, people in far-off
countries become connected and their governments become more interdependent. This
creates a situation where acting alone and avoiding cooperation with neighbours
becomes increasingly challenging and expensive for states. As a result, nations
start to be cautious about the mounting cost of conflict and try to establish a
peaceful world order.
Proponents
James N. Rosenau: Rosenau is a political scientist who is widely considered to be

the founder of transnationalism. He has written extensively on the changing nature
of sovereignty and the role of non-state actors in global governance.
⚫ John Burton: Burton also emphasized the importance of communication and dialogue
in resolving conflict. He argued that communication was key to building trust
between conflicting parties, and that this could help to break down the barriers of
misunderstanding and mistrust that often underlie conflict.
• Karl Deutsch: Karl Deutsch was a German-American political scientist who is

considered to be one of the pioneers of sociological liberalism. He argued that the
world was becoming increasingly interconnected and that traditional state-centric
approaches to international relations were inadequate to address the challenges of
this new global environment.
Concept of Security Community
1. The Security Community is a concept given by Karl Deutsch as part of

Communicative theory under Sociological Liberalism. Deutsch defined a security
community as a group of states that have developed a shared sense of identity and
common interests, which leads them to resolve conflicts peacefully and work
together to enhance their collective security. Deutsch argued that such communities
could arise through a process of communication and interaction, as states gradually
developed a sense of trust and shared values.
2. Thus when various societies and nations interact and communicate between each
other (through various means like Visa free entries, cultural exchanges, military
exercises etc.) they develop trust between each other to the level where they
overcome their security dilemmas between each other.

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3. This state of complete security between nations and their societies will help
establish common global norms, which will be adhered to by all those who have
formed such a community. 4. Achieving a security community is a complex process
that requires a long-term commitment to; building relationships and promoting
cooperation among states. It requires a willingness to compromise and work towards
common goals, as well as a shared understanding of the importance
of maintaining regional stability and security.
5. In such a community even if disputes arise, states will be bound to resolve them
peacefully because:
The societies will be too integrated to be risked for the dispute.
States in dispute will have enough trust between them to resolve the issue on
mutually a beneficial terms.
6. Examples: The European Union today represents a security community, with

integrated markets and societies, the union has adequate trust amongst members to
resolve issues of bilateral or mutual concerns. Also the North American continent
(US, Canada) and Western Europe,, are believed to be good examples of security
communities
7. This Concept is further based on the notion given by Rosenau which states that
global norms are set by societies and the scope of states in this regard has been
limited.
Criticism
Potential for exclusion: Critics argue that the security community concept may lead
to the exclusion of certain states or groups, particularly those that do not share
the dominant values or identity of the community.
⚫ Limited applicability: Critics argue that the security community concept is

limited in its applicability to certain regions and contexts, and that it may not
be relevant or useful in other areas of the world where there are deep-seated
conflicts and tensions.
Billiard Board and Cobweb Model
The billiard ball model of International Relations (IR) is a metaphor used to

describe a simplistic view of the international system, where states are seen as
independent and self-interested actors, bouncing off each other like billiard balls
on a table. This model assumes that states are the primary actors in international
relations and that they are motivated solely by their own national interests.
The billiard ball model emerged during the early days of IR theory, particularly in
the Realist school of thought, which emphasizes the role of power and self-interest
in shaping international relations. Realists argue that the anarchic nature of the
international system, with no global government to enforce laws and norms, means
that states must rely on their own military, economic, and diplomatic resources to
protect their interests.
The billiard ball model has nevertheless come under pressure as a result of recent
trends and developments. Two of these have been particularly significant. The first
is that there has been a substantial growth in cross-border, or, transnational
flows and transactions - movements of people, good, money, information and ideas.
In other words, state borders have become increasingly porous', and, as a result,
the conventional domestic/international, or 'inside/outside', divide is
increasingly difficult to sustain. The second,development linked to the first, is
that relations among states have come to be characterized by growing
interdependence and interconnectedness.
For Keohane and Nye, such a web of relationships has created a condition of
'complex interdependence , in which states are drawn into cooperation and
integration by forces such as closer trading and other economic relationships. This
is illustrated by what has been called the 'cobweb model' of world politics The
billiard ball model has been criticized for its oversimplification of international
relations. Critics

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argue that this model ignores the complex network of economic, cultural, and social
interactions that shape international politics. Additionally, the model fails to
account for the role of non-state actors, such as international organizations,
multinational corporations, and civil society groups, in shaping international
relations.
In conclusion, the billiard ball model of IR offers a simplistic view of the

international system, which has been largely rejected by contemporary scholars.
While states remain important actors in international politics, the globalized
nature of the world means that the international system is far more complex than a
simple game of billiards.
FUNCTIONALISM
The Functionalist school of thoughts is an alternative view of international

politics which rose in response to the security/conflict conception of the Realist
and Neo-realist scholars. It argues that greater interdependence in the form of
transnational ties between countries could lead to peace.
Scholars
David Mitrany: Mitrany argued that functional cooperation, based on the principle
of specialization, could promote peace and stability among states. He believed that
states should work together to address specific functional issues, such as trade,
health, or transportation, rather than focusing on broader political or strategic
objectives.
Ernst Haas: Haas views integration as a process by which the actors concerned begin
voluntarily to give up certain powers and evolve new techniques for tackling common
problems and resolving mutual conflicts
John Mccormick: In his work "Europeanism' states that Functionalism achieves all
the aims of realism like security, stability and growth with peaceful means.
European Union has successfully overcome its war torn past especially a disturbed
security situation that led to 2 world wars.
Key Features of Functionalism
1. Functionalism posits that functional cooperation can create a sense of

interdependence among states, leading to greater trust and collaboration in other
areas. It also emphasizes the importance of technical expertise and rational
decision-making in addressing complex global challenges. In this view, functional
cooperation can build confidence and create the conditions for further integration
and cooperation.
2. One of the most important assumptions of the Functionalist school is based on

the concept of what is called "spill over" effect. The concept of spill over is
similar to that of "demonstration" effect as used in the discipline of economics.
The underlying belief of the spill over concept is that
cooperation in one area would open new avenues for similar cooperation in other
areas. Example: A successful forging of cooperation in the area of coal and steel
production would spill over into other functional areas like transportation,
pollution control etc. Such a process of cooperation, the Functionalists argue,
would eventually lead to political unification of a given region.
3. In simple terms it means segregation of conflicts/issues between nations. Then

start cooperation in the less conflictual areas, doing so will create a sense of
interdependence in those less conflictual areas. After this a spill over effect
will take place or cooperation in less conflictual areas will help lay the ground
to address more conflictual areas.
• Example: Japan, China and South Korea have very strained political relations
since the 2nd World war, there have been many unresolved political issues between
the 3 nations however all 3 chose to engage in high volumes of trade as a means of
functionalism. Today political

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crisis and threats of aggression are avoided only due to high trade interdependency
which makes political conflict appear irrelevant.
4. Even functionalism appears to give less value to political actions and more to
other aspects like economics and socio-cultural areas.
5. In contrast to the Realists who look at the world in terms of politics of

conflict and irrationality, the Functionalists view the world through the prism of
cooperation and reason.
Neo-Functionalism
While observing the European Union, a good example of functionalism, it has been
seen that the interdependence is not organic, and at many times has stagnated due
to various issues between members. It was thus realised that in such phases of
stagnation, only political will and action of political leaders ended the
stagnation. In such a situation it was observed that the approach of Functionalism
which keeps politicians away and focuses more on other aspects was flawed. Thus it
was realised that even for the goals of segregated approach, political will and the
role of politicians is indispensable.
Criticism
The major challenge with functionalism is that it is an extremely long drawn

process, which involves states to overcome security dilemmas and notions of
national interest. Secondly the whole process can be compromised with small
instances like rise of rightist, nationalism.
DEMOCRATIC PEACE THEORY
The democratic peace thesis resurfaced with particular force in the aftermath of
the collapse of communism, notably in the writings of Francis Fukuyama (see p.
513). In Fukuyama's view, the wider acceptance of liberal-democratic Principles and
structures, and the extension of market capitalism, amounted to the 'end of
history' and also promised to create a more stable and peaceful global order.
Liberals have claimed empirical as well as theoretical support for such beliefs,
especially in the fact that there has never been a war between two democratic
nation-states (even though wars have continued to take place between democracies
and other states).
Meaning: Democratic peace theory is the idea that democracies are less likely to go
to war with each other than non-democracies. This theory suggests that democracies
share certain values and norms, such as respect for human rights, freedom of
speech, and a commitment to the rule of law, which make them less likely to engage
in violent conflict with one another.
Scholars
Michael Doyle: Michael Doyle is a prominent scholar who has contributed

significantly to the development of the democratic peace theory. In his influential
article "Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs," Doyle argues that
democracies are less likely to go to war with one another because they share a set
of liberal values and institutions that promote peaceful conflict resolution.
Francis Fukuyama: Although not directly, but in his "end of history thesis,
Fukuyama has claimed that ideological victory of liberalism over all other
ideologies.
Major Points
The theory arises from the assumption that democracies are inherently at a better
position to resolve differences without the need to go to war.
The reason for this assumption is that democracies hold certain values paramount
like rule of law. sensitivity towards human rights, support for dialogue,
representation and communications. All

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these values are thus extended while dealing with other nations or democracies and
thus limits the scope for war.
Further, democracies also have democratic culture which helps them develop as a
"Zone of Peace". The democratic culture also makes them accountable to their
citizens and citizens will not support war for respect for human life.
Examples: There has been no war in modern times between the worlds most integrated
democracies like US, Australia, UK, France and the nordic countries.
Criticism
PSIR
1. Statistical artefact: One of the primary criticisms of the democratic peace

theory is that the observed correlation between democracy and peace might be a
statistical artefact rather than a real phenomenon. Critics argue that the observed
peace among democracies may be due to other factors, such as economic
interdependence, rather than democracy.
2. Definition of democracy: There is no clear consensus on the definition of

democracy, and different scholars may use different criteria to classify states as
democratic or non-democratic. This has led to debates over which states should be
included in studies of democratic peace and which should not.
3. Western Propaganda: This theory has been criticised by Marxists and nations of
post colonial nature as a means for promotion of western values and reduction of
traditional political values. It also has proved to be a cause of justifying
invasions in countries seen as "non democratic. Example: US invasion of Iraq
Exceptions to the theory
The Falklands War: In 1982, the United Kingdom, a long-standing democracy, went to
war with Argentina, which had recently transitioned to democracy. The war was
fought over the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands, a territory that both
countries claimed.
• Ukraine-Russia Conflict: Both Russia and Ukraine are apparently democracies,

however both have had difficult relations since last few years culminating into war
in 2022.
INTERDEPENDENCE
As the term suggests, interdependence involves the increased economic, social and
cultural integration of nations to the point where they can be regarded as
dependent on each other for various purposes. The theory suggests that as states
become more economically interdependent, they become more reliant on each other for
trade and investment, creating a "web of interdependence" that makes conflict less
likely. This is because conflict between two states could disrupt their economic
relationship and cause both sides
to suffer.
Scholars
Thomas Friedman: Friedman's book "The Lexus and the Olive Tree" is a widely cited
work on globalization and its effects on the world. In the book; he argues that
globalization has created a new system of interdependence between states, in which
economic and social connections have become more important than traditional
geopolitical factors like military power. • Richard Rosecrane: He gives the notion
of trading states which emerges as a result of such interdependencies (Explained
further)

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Major Features of the Theory
Such liberals are of the view that a high division of labour in the international
economy increases interdependence i.e. mutual dependence between states, which
discourages and reduces violent conflicts between them.
Richard Rosecrane calls this the emergence of "trading states" such as Japan and
Germany in the post-War period which provided the strength to the assumption of the
interdependence liberalism.
The underlying assumption of this strand of liberalism is that such trading states
tend to refrain from the traditional military political option of high military
expenditure and instead prefer to focus on the trading option of an intensified
international division of labour that increases interdependence.
Such an assumption received a tremendous fillip in the wake of the end of the Cold
War with the trading option being hugely preferred even by very large states.
Rosecrance is of the view that the end of the Cold War has made the traditional
military-political option less urgent and thus less attractive.
COMPLEX INTERDEPENDENCE
Complex interdependence is a form of interdependence, keeping in view that modern

international relations are not just interdependent through economic and social
ties but also various other complex political and strategic calculations. Since
security itself has become more multidimensional, the interdependence of nations
has also become more multidimensional.
Influences
Richard Cobden: Cobden argued that free trade would draw people of different races,
creeds and languages together in what Cobden described as 'the bonds of eternal
peace'. Not only would free trade maintain peace for negative reasons (the fear of
being deprived of vital goods), but it would also have positive benefits in
ensuring that different peoples are united by shared values and a common commercial
culture, and so would have a better understanding of one another.
David Ricardo: The key theme within commercial liberalism was a belief in the
virtues of free trade. Free trade has economic benefits, as it allows each country
to specialize in the production of the goods and services that it is best suited to
produce, the ones in which they have a 'comparative advantage'.
Scholars
Joseph Nye and Robert Keohane: Both have co-authored the book "Power and
Interdependence" which gives the current model of interdependence in the world as
complex. They have stated that interdependence today is beyond just economics.
• Complex interdependence reflects the extent to which peoples and governments in

the modern world are affected by what happens elsewhere, and particularly by the
actions of their counterparts in other countries. Such a view suggests that
realism's narrow preoccupation with the military and diplomatic dimensions of
international politics, the so-called 'high politics' of security and survival, is
misplaced. Instead, the international agenda is becoming broader with greater
attention being given to the 'low politics' of welfare, environmental protection
and political justice. Relations between and amongst states have also changed, not
least through a tendency for modern states to prioritize trade over war and through
a trend towards closer cooperation co-operation or even integration

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Current position of the "Liberal World order"
The current position of the liberal world order is a subject of much debate among
scholars and policymakers. Here are some critical and supporting views of scholars:
Critical views:
John Mearsheimer argues that the liberal world order is in decline due to the rise
of China and Russia, which are challenging American dominance and undermining the
institutions that support the order.
⚫ Stephen Walt argues that the liberal world order has been undermined by the US,
which has pursued a hegemonic strategy and alienated other great powers.
⚫ Slavoj Žižek argues that the liberal world order is in crisis due to the failure
of neoliberalism, which has created social and economic inequality and undermined
the legitimacy of democratic institutions.
Supporting views:
Joseph Nye argues that the liberal world order is still strong, but faces
challenges from authoritarian powers such as China and Russia. He suggests that the
US should work with other democratic countries to uphold the values of the order.
⚫ G. John Ikenberry argues that the liberal world order is resilient and
adaptable, and can continue to evolve to meet new challenges. He suggests that the
US should continue to play a leadership role in upholding the order, but also work
with other countries to share responsibility and promote a more inclusive and
cooperative system.
Ian Bremmer argues that the liberal world order is undergoing a transformation, but
is not in decline. He suggests that the rise of China and other non-Western powers
presents an opportunity for the order to become more diverse and inclusive.
Views of Keohane and Nye in "Power and Interdependence"
Interdependence is a fundamental feature of contemporary international relations,

characterized
by multiple channels of interaction among states and non-state actors. • Complex

interdependence emphasizes the growing importance of non-state actors in shaping
international relations, alongside states.
⚫ Economic interdependence is a key element of complex interdependence, with

trade, investment, and finance creating linkages between states and non-state
actors.
⚫ Soft power is an important resource for states in the context of complex

interdependence, allowing them to shape the preferences and behavior of other
states and non-state actors. • Complex interdependence has important implications
for how states behave in relation to each other, emphasizing the need for
cooperation and negotiation to address global challenges and advance the interests
of states and other actors.
• Robert Keohane argues that cooperation between states is possible in the absence
of a hegemon, and explores the conditions under which states can achieve mutually
beneficial outcomes. Joseph Nye emphasizes the need for states to cultivate their
soft power resources, such as culture, ideology, and institutions, in order to
build relationships and influence the preferences of other states and non-state
actors.
Both Keohane and Nye see complex interdependence as a key feature of contemporary
international relations, and stress the need for states and other actors to adapt
to this new reality in order to promote stability, security, and prosperity in the
global system.

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Criticism of the Liberal School of International Politics 1. Marxist: Marxists

argue that the liberal approach to IR fails to address the root causes of global
inequality and conflict, which are the result of economic exploitation and
domination by wealthy capitalist countries over poorer nations. This domination is
reinforced by institutions like the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and
World Trade Organization, which promote free market policies and neoliberalism.
2. Cynthia Enloe: Enloe is a feminist scholar who critiques liberalism for ignoring
the gendered dimensions of international politics, including the ways in which
women's labor and experiences are affected by global economic systems.
3. Realists:
PSIR
• Mearsheimer: Liberalism can only be perceived in a unipolar world (immediately

after cold war) and not in a multipolar world where states are powerful enough to
pursue their own ideologies. US wanting China to turn into a liberal democracy has
caused more insecurity between the two nations.
⚫EH Carr: EH Carr in his book-20 years crisis had Called the liberals as
"utopians" and says foreign policies of nations operate on logic of national
interest.
According to Former EU President Tusk, Whoever claims that Liberalism is obsolete
also claims that freedoms are obsolete, that the rule of law is obsolete and that
human rights are obsolete.
MARXIST APPROACH TO INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
Comment: Marxist approach to international politics. (2002)
• Do you agree with the notion that Marxist approach to the study of International
relations is largely based on economic reductionism? Give reasons. (2008)
Does the perspective of Dependency Theory offer a robust critique on the nature of
mainstream development process taking place in Africa and Latin America? (2012) •
How does Marxist approach explain contemporary International Relations? (200 words)
(2013)
Explain the relevance of the Marxist approach in the context of globalization.

(2019) "Marxist approach to the study of international relations has lost its
relevance in the post- cold war era." Comment. (150 words) (2021)
Marxist theory of international politics refers to the understanding of the

economic policies of the state and their consequences in the international sphere.
• Though Marx was not concerned with Internationalism aspects his concepts of
capitalism and proletariat internationalism transcended national differences. His
views on capitalism and its exploitation are equally valid in the international
sphere.
• The Marxist approach to International Relations (IR) is a critical perspective

that emphasizes the role of capitalism, class struggle, and imperialism in shaping
global politics and the global
есопоту.

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Background
Marxism has always been seen as the dominant radical or critical alternative to
realist and liberal mainstream thought, while its influence on academic theorising
has always been relatively small. Marxism, however, is a fairly broad field that
contains two opposing orientations in international theory. The first of them
places a heavy emphasis on economic analysis and is primarily concerned with
exposing capitalism as a system of global and interstate class oppression.
Marx's analysis of international politics may have been relatively overlooked, but
he was aware of the expansionist nature of capitalism. This is evident in his
Communist Manifesto, where he suggests that the drive for capitalism leads the
bourgeoisie to "nestle everywhere and to settle everywhere." In this statement,
Marx acknowledges the globalizing tendencies of capitalism, as capitalist interests
extend beyond national borders in search of new markets and resources.
Schools of Marxism
Dependency School Frankfurt School/Critical School Neomarxist/ Gramscian School
DEPENDENCY SCHOOL
In the context of international relations, instrumentalist theorists argue that

states use their economic and military power to compete with each other for
resources, markets, and power. This competition is driven by the need to accumulate
capital and maintain a favorable position in the global capitalist system.
The instrumentalist theory also emphasizes the importance of imperialism in

international politics. Imperialism refers to the domination of weaker countries by
more powerful countries for economic gain. According to instrumentalist theorists,
imperialism is a natural outcome of the capitalist mode of production, as
capitalists seek to expand their markets and access new sources of raw materials
and labor.
The School of thought is in direct opposition to the political modernisation theory

that says go for greater integration with the world. According to dependency school
scholars, there is no world wide modernisation but rather "Development of
Underdevelopment"
Origins
Lenin: The origin of this school lies in Lenin's theory of Imperialism which states
that the exploitation of colonies and semi-colonies by the imperial powers, he
argues is a key aspect of the global capitalist system. In IR, this has been used
to analyze the relationship between developed and developing countries, with some
scholars arguing that the exploitation of the Global South by the Global North is a
continuation of the imperialist practices of the past.
• French Annales School: The Annales School's focus on interdisciplinary research

and the use of quantitative data also influenced the Dependency School's approach
to analyzing global power relations. Dependency theorists argued that the global
economic system was characterized by a center-periphery structure, in which the
developed countries of the Global North exploited the resources and labor of the
underdeveloped countries of the Global South. This analysis was often based on
statistical data and quantitative analysis, as well as qualitative research on the
social and cultural factors that perpetuated dependency.

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Modern Proponents
PSIR
AG Frank: He argued that the global economic system was characterized by a center-
periphery structure, in which the developed countries of the Global North exploited
the resources and labor of the underdeveloped countries of the Global South. He
also emphasized the role of colonialism and imperialism in shaping the global
political economy. He coined the notion of Development of Underdevelopment to
highlight the impact of the dominance of developed nations onto the resources of
the developing.
⚫ Samir Amin: He argued that the global economic system was characterized by a
hierarchy of power and wealth, with the developed countries of the Global North
dominating the underdeveloped countries of the Global South. He also emphasized the
importance of social and cultural factors in shaping global power relations.
Immanuel Wallerstein: Wallerstein has given the most comprehensive analysis of the
school through his "World Systems Theory" enumerating the relations between the
developed and developing nations.
World Systems Theory
1. According to the world-systems theory, the world economy is best understood as

an interconnected capitalist system that exemplifies many of the characteristics of
national capitalism at the international level, including structural inequalities
based on exploitation and a propensity for instability and crisis that is grounded
in economic contradictions.
2. He describes three elements of world system: Spatial dimension: core, periphery

and semi periphery. Temporal dimension: Denotes the cycle of capitalism. According
to him, capitalism is moving towards its end. He mentions about cyclic rhythms of
boom and bust and secular trends, i.e., the expansion and contraction of economy.
3. Relationships between "core," "periphery," and "semi-periphery" make up the

world system. • Core nations: These are the most developed and economically
powerful countries in the world, with advanced industrial economies and strong
political systems. Examples include the United States, Western Europe, Japan, and
Canada.
• Periphery nations: These are the least developed and marginalized countries in
the world, often characterized by poverty, underdevelopment, and political
instability. Examples include many countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
⚫ Semi-periphery nations: These are countries that occupy a middle ground between
core and periphery nations, with some degree of economic development and political
stability, but not on par with the core nations. Examples include Brazil, China,
India, and Mexico.
Main Features of the System
1. The world is divided into a hierarchical system of core, semi-peripheral, and

peripheral countries. Core The core countries are the dominant and wealthy nations
that control the global economy, technology, and resources.
Semi periphery The semi-peripheral countries are the intermediate states that are
dependent on the core countries for economic growth and development, but also
exploit the peripheral countries for their resources and labor.
Periphery The peripheral countries are the least developed and exploited nations
that provide cheap labor and raw materials for the core and semi-peripheral
countries. 2. The world system is a capitalist system, and the goal of all
countries is to accumulate capital and expand their economic power.

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3. The system is characterized by unequal economic relations, with the core

countries benefiting the most and the peripheral countries being the most
exploited. 4. The system is perpetuated through unequal trade relations, political
domination, and cultural imperialism.
5. The system is not static, but rather evolves over time as countries move between
the core, semi- peripheral, and peripheral positions.
6. The system is inherently unstable, with periodic economic crises and cycles of
expansion and contraction.
7. The ultimate goal of the system is the accumulation of capital, rather than the
well-being of individuals or societies.
Periphery
(Rural source Region) . 2. 3. Low accumulation of capital Low development Low

productivity
The unfair market for
Push
5. 6. agricultural produce Poorly equipped Schools Low educational outcomes . Low

socio-economic development
Rural marginalisation in the policy process
Pull factor
Low quality human resources based
High Profit
High capital accumulation Centralisation of development Centralisation of

industries More and better-quality
Semi- Periphery
schools and higher education
Centralisation of the decision- making process
Large quality human resources based

9. o
CORE
Core (Urban) centres
3.
2.
5.
Periphery
Materials
Wallerstein's World System Theory Model
Time dimension or temporal dimension of the world system
According to Immanuel Wallerstein, the temporal dimensions of the world system

indicate that every system goes through different phases, from its beginning to its
end. Wallerstein disagrees with Francis Fukuyama's assertion that the current phase
of capitalism signifies the triumph of capitalism and the pinnacle of human
ideological evolution. In Wallerstein's view, it actually marks the beginning of
the end for capitalism.
8.
4.
1.
Perceive greener pastures
Better social amenities
7.
6.
More access to national
resources allocation
9.
1-
• Wallerstein argues that capitalism is rapidly approaching its demise as its

exploitative nature becomes increasingly visible. He sees capitalism as a system
fraught with contradictions and subject to regular cycles of economic booms and
bursts. For Wallerstein, the real source of conflicts, whether it be poverty in
Africa or civil wars in the Balkans, lies in capitalism itself. According to
Wallerstein, humanity faces two choices: Either socialism Or Barbarism.
He presents this dichotomy to suggest that the future will be determined by

transitioning to a socialist system that prioritizes social justice and equality,
or descending into chaos and regression characterized by social, economic, and
political turmoil.

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Criticism
Reductionist: Like mainstream Marxism which holds every development due to the
economic factor, even Wallerstein's theory is not free from economic reductionism
Neo marxists: Neo Marxists like Robert Cox has suggested to study both. Material
and ideological structure of capitalism.
Post colonial: Post Colonial scholars suggest even the Marxist perspective is not
free from Euro centrism.
⚫ Feminists: From the perspective of Feminists, it continues to be masculinist

perspective devoid of women perspective Post Modernists: From the perspective of
post modernists even world systems theory is a discourse and aims to build a meta-
narrative.
Criticism and modification to world system theory
World system theory is often criticised as economic reductionism. Wallerstein only

focusses on the economic aspect of IP while rejecting all other parameters.
Modification by Christopher Chase Dunn
Christopher Chase Dunn has tried to modify Wallerstein's model by bringing

political and military dimension in world system theory.
• Rather than just explaining the pattern of world system, he also tries to put
greater focus on interstate relations. Technology is a central factor in the
positioning of a region in the core or the periphery. Advanced or developed
countries are the core, and the less developed are in the periphery. Peripheral
countries are structurally constrained to experience a kind of development that
reproduces their subordinate status. Please Write it as same
Evaluation
Importance of theory is not just in understanding international politics but also

its consequences. According to Wallerstein, the war in Balkans and poverty in
Africa can be traced to the needs of capitalist countries.
The theory can be utilised to understand the current challenges faced by liberal
world order based on neoliberal world order
CRITICAL SCHOOL/FRANKFURT SCHOOL
[Origins and Premise explained in paper I, part A] Critical theory' (often called
'Frankfurt School critical theory', to distinguish it from the wider category of
critical theories or perspectives) has developed into one of the most influential
currents of Marxist- inspired international theory. Critical school or Frankfurt
school of Marxism is concerned with various form of domination and exploitation
rather than their necessity of emancipation of people.
Scholars
Max Horkheimer: Horkheimer was a founding member of the Frankfurt School and a key
figure in developing critical theory. He was interested in exploring the
relationship between reason and domination and how this relationship shapes social
structures. • Theodor Adorno: He was interested in exploring the ways in which
culture and mass media can
be used to reinforce oppressive power structures.

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⚫ Andrew Linklater: He has suggested to end political boundaries and replace them
with moral boundaries, through network of citizen and civil sociey groups. In
addition he also supports the development of Grassroots democracy.
⚫ Jürgen Habermas: Habermas is a contemporary philosopher and sociologist who has

been associated with the Frankfurt School. He has made significant contributions to
the study of communicative action and the public sphere.
In his 1986 article "Beyond Realism and Marxism: Critical Theory and International
Relations," Andrew Linklater argues that neither Marxism nor Realism, in isolation,
can adequately explain international relations. He highlights the limitations of
each approach:
1. Realism: Linklater criticizes Realism for its exclusive focus on power, war,
security, and the anarchical nature of the international system. While Realism
offers insights into these aspects, it lacks an emancipatory role in international
politics.
2. Rationalism: Linklater contends that Rationalism, often developed within the

Realist framework, primarily emphasizes the competitive world order. This
perspective is Western-centric and neglects other global values and existing power
dynamics.
Marxism: According to Linklater, Marxism attributes international tension to

growing economic inequality among nations, downplaying the importance of Realism's
emphasis on military dominance in world
politics.
Key Themes of Critical School
⚫ Critical reflection on capitalism: The Frankfurt School is interested in

exploring the contradictions and negative effects of capitalism, particularly in
relation to the global economy and international relations.
• Emphasis on power and domination: The Frankfurt school is critical of mainstream

theories that downplay the role of power in international relations. It emphasizes
the importance of analyzing how power operates at different levels and in different
forms, including economic power, political power, and cultural power.
. Focus on emancipation: The Frankfurt School of International Relations is

interested in exploring ways to create more just and equal global structures. It is
committed to social transformation and emancipation from oppressive power
structures.
⚫ Recognition of the importance of culture: The Frankfurt School is interested in

exploring the role of culture in shaping global politics, including the ways in
which cultural norms and values can reinforce or challenge dominant power
structures.
Relevance
In a increasingly conflictual world, the critical school's emphasis on creating

moral boundaries is very much required, its focus on grassroot development and
developing citizenry is similar to MN Roy's Radical Humanism which also focussed on
emancipation and all round development.
Gramscian School
Robert Cox- "Theory is always for someone and for some purpose"
The school traces its origin in the thoughts of Antonio Gramsci and his theories of
"Consent" and "Hegemony". If Gramsci had given his notions on how a Capitalist
state operates, Neo Marxists have studied it in the light of international
relations.

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Proponents
PSIR
Gramscian scholars argue that power relations are not just about coercion or force
but are also maintained through consent and persuasion. They argue that the
dominant ideas, norms, and values of society are shaped by powerful groups and
serve to legitimize their dominance. Therefore, to challenge these power relations,
one must challenge the dominant culture and ideas that support them.
Robert Cox: [Explained below]
⚫ Stephen Gill: Stephen Gill has focused on the systematic study of Gramscian
epistemology and Gramscian understanding of the international political economy.
Views of Robert Cox
A neo-Gramscian theorist, Robert Cox, introduced Gramsci to world politics. Based

on his reading of Gramsci, Cox has tried to explain key issues of contemporary
global politics and global social movements. By using the Gramscian conception of
hegemony, he has sought to explain the establishment and stability of world orders.
Cox assumes that world hegemony is not only an order among state but also an order
in world economy. Hegemony can be described as political structure, social
structure, and economic structure.
He argues that three forces- material capabilities, ideas, and institutions-

interact inthe formation, maintenance and declining of hegemony. While explaining
theorigin of hegemony, Cox establishes a correlation between social forces, forms
of state and world order.
With the internationalisation of production, the hegemony of the social forces (of
the powerful state) becomes transnational. Hegemony establishes when other states
accept economic and social institutions, culture and technology of the
hegemonic state.
How is Hegemony maintained in International Politics?
The nation that obtains hegemony under Marxist approaches creates international
groupings. (Western Developed Nations). They are instrumental in maintaining and
advancing the hegemonic world order in five different ways:
First, the hegemonic global order is what led to the creation of international
organisations. Secondly The norms, regulations, and principles that contribute to
the growth of the hegemonic world order are also found in international bodies.
Third, global organisations "ideologically legitimise the rules of the

international system" Fourth, international organisations make the dominant class
more popular in the peripheral governments by involving elites from the periphery
in management.
Fifth, international organisations preserve the hegemonic world order by regulating

counter- hegemonic views. Thus, under the current world order, the institutions of
the global civil society contribute to maintaining the dominance of the powerful
state and its ruling elite.
Explain the relevance of the Marxist approach in the context of globalization.

(2019)
The Marxist approach has been highly relevant in the context of globalization, as
it provides a critical lens through which to view the global political economy and
the inequalities that exist within it. Marxist scholars argue that globalization is
primarily driven by the interests of capital and that it reinforces global
inequalities by increasing the power of transnational corporations and global
financial markets,

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while eroding the power of labor and social welfare states. One key contribution of
the Marxist approach to understanding globalization is its emphasis on the concept
of class struggle. Marxist scholars argue that the global economy is characterized
by a fundamental struggle between capital and labor, and that this struggle is
intensified by the globalization of production and finance. According to Marxist
scholar David Harvey, globalization "creates new opportunities for the accumulation
of capital on a global scale, but it also creates new contradictions, tensions, and
conflicts that threaten the stability of the system."
Another important contribution of the Marxist approach is its analysis of the

global economic system as a world system. Immanuel Wallerstein's world system
theory, which is informed by Marxist thought, argues that the global economy is
characterized by a core-periphery structure, in which wealthy core countries
exploit and dominate poorer peripheral countries through trade, investment, and
other forms of economic activity. According to Wallerstein, this global economic
system is fundamentally exploitative and reinforces global inequalities.
The Marxist approach to globalization also emphasizes the importance of the state
in shaping the trajectory of globalization. Marxist scholars argue that the state
plays a key role in creating the conditions for capital accumulation and in
maintaining the dominance of the global capitalist class. According to Marxist
scholar Robert Cox, "the state is both the product and the instrument of the
dominant class, which uses it to protect its interests in the global economy."
Overall, the Marxist approach provides a critical perspective on globalization by

highlighting the role of capital accumulation, class struggle, and the state in
shaping the global political economy. It offers a framework for understanding the
power dynamics that underlie globalization and provides insights into the ways in
which social and political movements can challenge global inequalities and promote
alternative forms of economic and social organization.
Overall Criticism of the Marxist Approach
Economic Determinism: Marxist approach sees economic factors as the primary

determinant of international relations. While economic factors can be important,
other factors such as ideology, identity, and security concerns can also
significantly impact international relations. • Oversimplification of International
Relations: Marxist approach reduces international relations
to a mere reflection of class struggle. This oversimplification neglects other

important factors that
shape international relations, such as culture, nationalism, ethnicity, religion,

and gender. These factors can significantly affect the behaviour of states and
other international actors. ⚫ Neglect of the Role of the State: According to
Marxists, the state is a tool used by the ruling class to oppress the working
class. However, in the international system, the state also plays a crucial role in
mediating conflicts, negotiating treaties, and providing public goods. Marxist
approach neglects the agency of the state in international relations.
It is important to note that the Marxist approach to International Relations is
often critical and skeptical of the global capitalist system, however it provides a
valuable framework for understanding the structural inequalities and power dynamics
that underlie global politics and the global economy.
• Marxist scholarship provides a useful critique of mainstream theories in

International Relations and encourages scholars to question dominant assumptions
about the nature of the global political
economy.

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FEMINIST APPROACH OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS Feminist perspectives entered the

International Relations discipline at the end of the 1980s, at about the same time
as the end of the Cold War. The first international conference on women, gender and
the study of International Relations (IR) was held in 1988 in Wellesley College,
Massachusetts, United States.
Origin
PSIR
The conference in 1980 led to the start of a new discussion about gender issues in
the discipline of international politics. The growing discussion led to the
creation of a new discourse on the feminist perspective to IR with the publication
of several foundational texts on the subject. Some of these publications were books
like Women and War by Jean Elshtain in 1987; Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making
Sense of International Politics by Cynthia Enloe in 1990; Gender in International
Relations by Judith Ann Tickner in 1992.
Background
The study of international politics has been affected by feminist perspectives in a

variety of ways. The'sexist' exclusion of women and women's issues from traditional
analysis has been contested by so- called 'empirical' feminists. From this vantage
point, conventional approaches to international politics concentrate almost
entirely on male-dominated organisations and bodies, such as governments and
states, transnational corporations (TNCs) and nongovernmental organisations (NGOs),
global organisations, etc.
Scholars
J. Ann Tickner: In her book "Gender in International Relations," argues that gender
is a fundamental aspect of international relations and that gender analysis can
provide a better understanding of power relations, security, and global politics.
She advocates for a feminist approach to IR that challenges traditional notions of
state-centric and militarized security.
⚫ Jean Elshtain: She critiques feminist theories for being overly focused on the
experiences of women in Western liberal democracies and for neglecting the
experiences of women in non- Western contexts. She argues for a more inclusive
feminist approach that recognizes the diversity of women's experiences and the
complexities of power relations in the international system.
Cynthia Enloe: In her book "Bananas, Beaches and Bases," examines the gendered
dimensions of international politics and power relations. She argues that women's
experiences and contributions have been overlooked and marginalised to only "Labour
in plantations, serve as wives to diplomats and as sexual labour at military bases"
Major Points
1. Challenge the Masculinist Theories: Feminists have argued that the theory of
power politics is premised on 'masculinist' assumptions about rivalry, competition
and inevitable conflict, arising from a tendency to see the world in terms of
interactions amongst series of power-seeking autonomous actors. Analytical feminism
is concerned not only to expose such biases, but also to champion alternative
concepts and theories.
Example: Gender stereotypes have forced us to think of men as protectors and women
as those who need protection. "One of the stories that has been told throughout
history is that men fight wars to protect women and children" (Tickner)
2. Emphasis on Agency: Feminist approach recognizes the agency of women in shaping

international politics and power relations, and it seeks to empower women in their
roles as agents of change.

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• Example: Sweden, Spain, France and Mexico all have announced their feminist
foreign policies.
3. Lack of attention to social and cultural factors: Realism and other mainstream
theories tends to prioritize military and economic factors in international
politics, neglecting the importance of social and cultural factors, such as gender,
in shaping power relations.
4. Absence of Women: They also highlight the absence of women in key positions of
power in the international space, and also the neglect and marginalisation of the
few women who are in power. According to them, many women in power also behave
according to the masculinist discourse rather than in an autonomous fashion.
Cynthia Enloe has raised the question of "Where are the Women?" in this context
highlighting that women continue to be restricted to the "Private Sphere" and not
engaged in policy making. 5. Women as victims: Feminist scholars have contested
that the outcome of the major mainstream theories have always resulted in conflict
and war, where women are the worst victims. Therefore they criticise the existing
notions of international relations which are largely a reflection of the male ego
and propensity to engage in conflict to satisfy those egos.
• Example: Since the patriarchal system thinks of women and their bodies as
properties, like the territorial land being conquered in a war, there is also an
attempt to conquer and brutalize women's bodies, thereby owning them. This notion
is best explained in the examples of military rapes and brutalisaion of women in
the Korean War, World Wars and the Balkan Wars.
UN Security Council Resolution 1325
UN Security Council Resolution 1325, adopted on October 31, 2000, is a landmark

resolution that recognizes the disproportionate impact of armed conflict on women
and girls and calls for their full and active participation in peacebuilding and
conflict resolution processes. The resolution emphasizes the need to protect
women's rights during and after armed conflict and recognizes the important role of
women in conflict prevention, peace negotiations, and post-conflict reconstruction.
The resolution calls on all parties to armed conflict to take measures to protect
women and girls from gender-based violence, including rape and other forms of
sexual violence. It also emphasizes the need to incorporate a gender perspective
into all aspects of peacebuilding and conflict resolution, including disarmament,
demobilization, and reintegration programs.
Moreover, Resolution 1325 calls for the increased participation of women in

decision-making processes related to peace and security, including in conflict
prevention and resolution, peace negotiations, and post- conflict reconstruction.
It also emphasizes the importance of providing women with training and support to
enable them to participate effectively in these processes.
Since its adoption, Resolution 1325 has been followed by several additional
resolutions on women, peace, and security, which have further strengthened the UN's
commitment to promoting gender equality and women's empowerment in conflict and
post-conflict situations. The resolution has also inspired the development of
national action plans on women, peace, and security by several countries, which
provide a framework for promoting women's participation in peacebuilding and
conflict resolution processes.
Feminist Criticism of Realism in International Politics
Feminists argue that realism relies on a dichotomy between the public and private
spheres, where the former is considered the realm of politics and the latter the
realm of women and family. This dichotomy reinforces the idea that women's
experiences and perspectives are irrelevant to the study of international politics.

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Feminist scholars argue that realism is based on a narrow conception of power and
security that is rooted in the assumption of a competitive and conflictual world.
They criticise the notion of State Security and urge for Human Security.
Feminist scholars argue that realism ignores the experiences of marginalized

groups, including women and non-Western actors.
Feminist scholars argue that realism perpetuates gendered biases in the study of
IR. Realism assumes that the study of IR is a neutral and objective enterprise,
ignoring the ways in which gender shapes knowledge production.
J Ann Tickner's reformulation of Morgenthau's 6 principles
The male-dominated nature of traditional ideas of international politics has been

made abundantly clear by standpoint feminism. Thus, J. Ann Tickner reworked Hans
Morgenthau's six political realism principles in a groundbreaking analysis to
demonstrate how ostensibly objective rules actually reflect masculine values rather
than feminine ones.
Morgenthau's account of power politics portrays states as autonomous actors intent

on pursuing self- interest by acquiring power over other states, a model that
reflects the traditional dominance of the husband-father within the family and of
male citizens within society at large. However, this gendered view of power as
"power over" or dominion ignores aspects of human interaction that may be more
typical of the experiences of women, such as compassion, dependency, and
cooperative behaviour.
The six principles that Tickner reconstructed are as follows:
Objectivity is culturally defined and it is associated with masculinity - so

objectivity is always partial.
The national interest is multi-dimensional - so it cannot (and should not) be

defined by one set of interests.
⚫ Power as domination and control privileges masculinity.
⚫ There are possibilities for using power as collective empowerment in the

international arena All political action has moral significance - it is not
possible to separate politics and morality. ⚫ A narrowly defined, and
'autonomous', political realm defines the political in a way that excludes the
concerns and contributions of women.
FEMINIST FOREIGN POLICIES (Published by UN WOMEN)
In 2014, Sweden adopted the world's first feminist foreign policy. Since then, more
than a dozen countries and political parties have followed suit or have announced
their intention of developing a feminist foreign policy.
This trend has attracted considerable interest as an alternative approach to

promoting gender equality and the empowerment of women in external action. While
many of its goals overlap with longstanding commitments on women, peace and
security or gender equality in development and humanitarian assistance, feminist
foreign policies can, at the very least, provide a unifying political framework for
the disparate strands of gender related strategies being implemented by
governments, improve coordination and effectiveness and the involvement of the
highest levels of leadership, and become a clear and visible brand that makes it
easier for the public, civil society, or journalists to hold governments
accountable to their commitments to advance gender equality or women's rights.
Most of these policies cover similar themes. They vow to mainstream a gender
perspective in all foreign policy actions and agencies, advocate for progress in
gender equality in their bilateral relations and in

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and adequate resources to gender equality as part of their development and

humanitarian aid
Mexico, for example, has committed to reaching full employment parity, equal pay,
and the application of a gender lens to every foreign policy position, resolution,
and mandate by 2024. France has committed to reach 50 percent of gender-focused aid
by 2022, up from a baseline of 30 percent in 2018. Their priority actions cover a
very broad range of issues, many of them already well established in women, peace
and security frameworks, such as strengthening women's meaningful participation in
preventing conflict and violent extremism or increasing the number of women in
peacekeeping, Several of them place great emphasis on women's economic rights and
empowerment, from women's rights to land, inheritance, and ownership, to access to
decent work, markets, capital, technology, or basic social services, to addressing
the unpaid care burden.
Way Forward According to Feminist School
Inclusion of Women perspective in policy making whether in foreign affairs or in

developmental sphere, as a women's perspective is better suited to actually
consider the practical and human considerations and cost of any decision.
Human security should be prior to state security. Meaning the State security should
not come at the cost of marginalising communities or conflicts that result in high
human costs. To recognise women as the one of worst victims of war and conflict.
Give an assessment of the Feminist critique of contemporary global issues. (2017)

The feminist critique of contemporary global issues is a broad and multifaceted
approach that seeks to analyze and address the gendered dimensions of global
problems such as poverty, conflict, environmental degradation, and human rights
abuses.
One of the key strengths of the feminist critique is its emphasis on the inter
sectionality of gender with other forms of social inequality, such as race, class,
and sexuality. Feminist scholars argue that these intersecting identities shape
individuals' experiences of and responses to global issues. For example, women may
face greater challenges in accessing healthcare or education due to their gender,
race, or socioeconomic status.
Moreover, the feminist critique recognizes the ways in which global issues are
shaped by gendered power relations. Feminist scholars argue that patriarchal norms
and values perpetuate gendered inequalities in areas such as political
representation, economic opportunities, and access to resources. This has led to
women being disproportionately affected by issues such as poverty, conflict, and
environmental degradation.
The feminist critique also emphasizes the importance of women's voices and agency
in addressing global issues. Feminist scholars argue that women's experiences and
perspectives must be central to policy- making and decision-making processes, and
that empowering women is crucial for achieving sustainable and equitable solutions
to global problems.
However, one limitation of the feminist critique is that it is often criticized for
being too focused on gender and neglecting other important factors, such as
economic and political structures. Moreover, some argue that the feminist critique
can be overly essentialist, assuming that all women share the same experiences and
perspectives.
In conclusion, the feminist critique of contemporary global issues is a valuable

approach that highlights the gendered dimensions of global problems and emphasizes
the importance of women's empowerment and agency in addressing them. However, it
must be complemented by other approaches that take into account the complex and
intersecting factors that shape global issues.

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Though Feminist thought has been partially successful till now, this provided an
important discourse that international politics is not exclusively men's business.
Feminism is not just restricted to uplifting female oles in internationalism but
also provides a fresh
discourse towards resolving major multilateral issues plaguing the world.
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO INTERNATIONAL POLITICS Social constructivism has

been the most influential post-positivist approach to international theory, gaining
significantly greater attention since the end of the Cold War. The constructivist
approach to analysis is based on the belief that there is no objective social or
political reality independent of our understanding of it. Constructivists do not
therefore regard the social world as something 'out there', in the sense of an
external world of concrete objects; instead, it exists only 'inside', as a kind of
inter.
subjective awareness. Thus they quote that "Reality exists only as an inter-
subjective awareness" Social Constructivism stands, in a sense, between 'inside-
out' and 'outside-in' approaches, in that it holds that interactions between agents
and structures are always mediated by 'ideational factors' (beliefs, values,
theories and assumptions). These ideational factors affect both how agents see
themselves and how they understand, and respond to, the structures within which
they operate.
Social Constructivism centers around the idea that the culture is a constituent of
mind and therefore provides for structures which determine the construction of
reality. In this sense, no knowledge constructions are asocial or acultural. The
learner appropriate and constructs meanings in response to his or her experiences
in the social contexts
Scholars
1. Nicholas Onuf: The term was coined by Nicholas Onuf in his book "The world of
our own making" which was written on the occasion of the end of the cold war. His
work similarly was done in the context of the cold war. He criticised the notion
that US and USSR were in conflict due to the bipolar structure of the world,
according to him structures do not exist, rather it is constructed to fit into the
narratives. Thus the cold war was not based on a structure but rather on ideas,
beliefs and norms.
2. Alexander Wendt
• Wendt's work emerges as a criticism to the realist school. The realist school has
termed the nature of International politics as anarchical and without any moral or
legal imperatives. According to Wendt, this notion itself is problematic and leads
to war. He says that whether we perceive it as anarchical or not is based on ideas
and norms rather than material structures. Wendt argues that the type of
international system that emerges depends on the shared beliefs and norms of the
actors in the system. He sees international relations as a process of social
construction, in which actors negotiate and create shared meanings and
understandings of the world. He emphasizes the importance of understanding how
actors perceive their interests and the nature of the world around them, and how
those perceptions shape their behavior and interactions with others.
Major Points
Social Constructivism is a theory that challenges neorealist assumptions about the

determinative power of the international system in shaping state behavior.
• Alexander Wendt's assertion that 'anarchy is what states make of it' is a key
tenet of Social Constructivism.
State behavior is shaped by the subjective perceptions and identities of states,

which are constructed through social interactions and not solely determined by the
international system.

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Nations are subjective entities, defined by their members through a particular set
of traditions, values, and sentiments.
⚫ Constructivist analysis highlights the fluidity of world politics, as nation-

states and other key global actors change their perception of who or what they are,
their behavior will change. This perspective can have optimistic or pessimistic
implications for global justice and international
relations.
⚫ Critics of constructivism argue that it fails to recognize the extent to which

beliefs are shaped by social, economic, and political realities.
POST MODERNIST APPROACH TO INTERNATIONAL POLITICS Leotard has defined post
modernism as incredulity towards Meta narratives. This means that postmodernists
reject the idea that there is a single overarching narrative or story that can
explain or define human experience, history, or reality as a whole.
According to postmodernists, meta narratives are inherently limiting and

exclusionary, because they attempt to impose a single truth or perspective on
complex and diverse human experiences. Instead, postmodernists argue that reality
is inherently fragmented and subjective, and that different individuals and groups
experience the world in different ways.
In practice, this means that postmodernists reject traditional forms of authority

and expertise, and question established ideas and practices. Postmodernists also
emphasize the importance of language and discourse in shaping reality, arguing that
language is not simply a neutral tool for communication, but is itself a powerful
form of social and cultural control.
Influences and Views of Scholars 1. Friedrich Nietzsche
The school traces its origin in the works of Friedrich Nietzche who argued that
knowledge is always tied to power relations. In other words, what we think we know
about the world is shaped by the dominant ideologies and power structures of our
time. Thus implying there is no objective truth or theory but rather constructed or
invented truth.
o Example: During the cold war, the American leaders used rhetoric to demonize
communism, often portraying it as an evil force that needed to be defeated. This
was the invented truth according to the US that was invented to establish
themselves over the Soviet led Communist world.
2. Michel Foucault
Foucault's concept of "govern mentality" has been particularly influential in IR.

This concept refers to the ways in which power is exercised through the production
of knowledge and the regulation of behavior. According to Foucault, power is not
something that is exercised solely through coercion or force, but is also exercised
through the production of knowledge and the regulation of behavior. In this sense,
power is seen as something that is productive and positive, rather than solely
negative or repressive.
o Example: Foucault's concept of govern mentality refers to the techniques,

practices, and discourses used by the state to govern and control its citizens. In
the case of Libya, the United States and its NATO allies argued that they had a
responsibility to protect Libyan citizens from the violence of the Gaddafi regime.
This discourse of humanitarianism served to justify military action against the
Libyan government and contributed to the overthrow of Gaddafi.
Postmodernist scholars have used Foucault's insights to challenge traditional

notions of sovereignty and state power in IR. They argue that the state is not a
fixed entity with a clear

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and unambiguous identity, but rather is a contingent and fluid construct that is
constantly being redefined and renegotiated.
They also argue that traditional approaches to IR have tended to ignore the ways in
which power is exercised through discourse and the production of knowledge, and
that a more nuanced understanding of power is needed in order to fully grasp the
complexities of global
politics.
3. Jacques Derrida
Jacques Derrida was a French philosopher who had a significant influence on

postmodernism in general, and on postmodernism in International Relations (IR) in
particular. Derrida's deconstruction method was applied to the analysis of texts,
discourses, and practices in international relations.
Derrida's deconstruction suggests that no theory is based on any absolute knowledge

but rather
knowledge which best suits the entity creating the knowledge. Postmodernists in IR
also emphasized the importance of language and discourse in shaping international
relations. They argued that the way in which events and issues are framed and
discussed can have a significant impact on the outcomes of international relations.
Example: Some postmodernist scholars have argued that the US invasion of Iraq was
driven by a desire to maintain American global hegemony, and that the Bush
administration used the language of "weapons of mass destruction" to construct a
narrative that justified the invasion.
In essence, deconstruction seeks to reveal how the meaning of a text or discourse

is not fixed, but rather dependent on a set of contingent and unstable
relationships.
Example: In international relations, where there is often a binary opposition

between the "West" and the "Rest". Derrida's deconstruction would challenge this by
showing how the category of the "West" is constructed through exclusion and the
suppression of other voices and experiences.
4. James Der Derian
Der Derian emphasizes the importance of technology and the media in shaping our
understanding of the world. He argues that new technologies and media forms have
fundamentally transformed the way we think about knowledge, power, and
representation. For example, Der Derian points to the way in which the Gulf War of
1991 was portrayed in the media. He argues that the war was presented as a high-
tech spectacle, with precision bombing and smart weapons dominating the coverage.
The media presented a sanitized, bloodless version of the war, which masked the
reality of the violence and suffering that was taking place on the ground. In this
way, Der Derian argues that the media played a key role in constructing a
particular understanding of the war, one that reinforced the power of the United
States and its allies.
5. Richard Ashley (Critic of Realist Approach)

In his influential essay "The Poverty of Neo realism," Ashley argues that
traditional neorealist approaches to IR are not only inadequate but dangerous. He
contends that the neorealist focus on power and self-help leads to a state of
perpetual insecurity and the potential for violent conflict.
He has also challenged the realist notions of Anarchy and terms it as "Anarchy
Problematique" wherein he states, that the whole concept of anarchy is problematic
and its realists interpretation leads to conflict (As it suggests that there are no
laws in the international arena and states can act in arbitrary aggression).
According to him, the notion of anarchy is perhaps non existent but it serves the
interest of the powerful nations who can act arbitrarily and justify the anarchy
clause.

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Major Features
Skepticism about objective truth: Postmodernists reject the idea that there is a
single objective truth about the world. Instead, they argue that reality is always
socially constructed and therefore multiple and fluid.
• Focus on language and discourse: Postmodernists emphasize the role of language

and discourse in shaping political reality. They argue that the meaning of
political concepts is not fixed, but rather is constructed and reconstructed
through language and communication.
⚫ Deconstruction of power: Postmodernists reject traditional notions of power as

something that is possessed or exercised by individuals or groups. Instead, they
see power as something that is embedded in social structures and discourses, and
that operates in a diffuse and pervasive way. • Critique of modernity:
Postmodernists challenge the assumptions of modernity, such as the belief in
progress, rationality, and individual autonomy. They argue that these ideas are
historically contingent and culturally specific, and that they have been used to
justify domination and exclusion.
POST COLONIAL APPROACH TO INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
Post colonialism emphasizes on the importance of cultural and historical context in

understanding international relations. It challenges the idea that Western concepts
and theories are universal and applicable to all societies. Instead, it suggests
that different societies have different histories and experiences, and that these
must be taken into account in order to fully understand their political behavior.
The postcolonial approach to International Relations is a critical perspective that

seeks to challenge the Western-centric view of international politics and examine
how colonialism and imperialism have shaped the discipline.
The postcolonial approach to IR is characterized by a critical perspective that
seeks to challenge dominant narratives and power structures in international
politics, while promoting a more inclusive and diverse understanding of the
discipline.
Background
Theorists of post colonialism have tried to expose the cultural dimension of

colonial rule, usually by establishing the legitimacy of non-western and some-times
anti-western ideas, cultures and traditions. In one of the most influential works
of postcolonial theory
Scholars
Edward Said: Edward Said developed the notion of 'orientalism' to highlight the
extent to which western cultural and political hegemony over the rest of the world,
but over the Orient in particular, had been maintained through elaborate
stereotypical fictions that belittled and demeaned non- western people and culture.
⚫ Gayatri Spivak: Spivak is a literary theorist who has written on the

intersection of postcolonial theory and feminism. She is best known for her essay
"Can the Subaltern Speak?" which examines the ways in which Western feminism can
sometimes exclude the voices of non-Western women.
• Chandra Talpade Mohanty: Mohanty is a feminist scholar who has written on the
intersection of race, gender, and imperialism. Her work challenges the idea that
Western feminism is universal and argues that it often ignores the experiences of
non-Western women.

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1. Decentring the West: Postcolonial scholars argue that the West has dominated the
study of IR and that the discipline needs to be more inclusive of non-Western
perspectives. They argue that the experiences of colonized peoples and their
struggles for independence have been largely ignored by traditional IR theories.
2. Examining power relations: Postcolonial scholars emphasize the importance of

examining power relations in international politics. They argue that colonialism
and imperialism have been key drivers of power inequalities, and that these power
dynamics continue to shape global politics today.
3. Critiquing Euro centrism: Postcolonial scholars critique Eurocentric assumptions

and biases in IR theory. They argue that Western theories of international politics
are based on a narrow understanding of the world and often fail to account for the
experiences of non-Western peoples. Example: An example of critiquing Euro centrism
in postcolonial IR can be seen in the study of the Cold War. Traditional Western
narratives of the Cold War often focus on the rivalry between the United States and
the Soviet Union, while ignoring the experiences of non-aligned
and non-Western countries. Postcolonial scholars argue that this Eurocentric view
of the Cold War overlooks the fact that many non-aligned countries were directly
affected by the Cold War
and that their experiences are important to understanding the global impact of the
conflict 4. Analyzing language: Postcolonial scholars emphasize the importance of
analyzing language and discourse in international politics. They argue that
language can be used to legitimize power relations and reproduce dominant
narratives, and that deconstructing these narratives can help to reveal the
underlying power dynamics at play.
• Example: Terms such as "civilized" versus "uncivilized," "barbaric," and

"terrorist" are often used to describe non-Western peoples and cultures, while
Western nations are portrayed as "liberators" and "protectors" of civilization.
5. Empowering the marginalized: Postcolonial scholars seek to empower marginalized

voices and perspectives in the study of IR. They argue that including these
perspectives can help to challenge dominant narratives and promote a more inclusive
and equitable understanding of international politics.
Post Colonial Nations suffer from insecurity dilemma rather than security dilemma -
Mohd Ayoob Ayoob argues that postcolonial nations face an "insecurity dilemma"
rather than a "security dilemma" because their concerns about security are often
more existential than material. Unlike the traditional security dilemma, which is
focused on states' concerns about military power and territorial expansion, the
insecurity dilemma faced by postcolonial nations is rooted in the perceived
vulnerability of their national identity and state sovereignty.
Postcolonial nations are often concerned about maintaining their newly gained
independence and sovereignty in the face of internal and external challenges. This
can lead to a focus on issues such as national unity, identity, and legitimacy,
rather than on traditional military threats. As a result, postcolonial nations may
engage in efforts to project their power and assert their sovereignty, even when
they lack the military capabilities to do so effectively.
The insecurity dilemma faced by postcolonial nations can also be exacerbated by

external factors, such as the legacy of colonialism, economic inequality, and the
uneven distribution of power in the international system. These factors can
contribute to a sense of insecurity and vulnerability among postcolonial nations,
leading them to engage in defensive or assertive behavior in an attempt to secure
their position in the international system.
Overall, Ayoob's concept of the insecurity dilemma provides a useful framework for
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unique security challenges faced by postcolonial nations and the ways in which
these challenges can shape their behavior in the international system.
Standard Conclusion
Post Colonial approach helps understand the nature of international politics beyond
the realm of just mainstream theories.
SYSTEMS THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Mortan Kaplan's systems theory is a conceptual framework in international relations

that seeks to explain the behavior of states and other international actors as a
part of a broader system of interdependent relationships.
The theory emphasizes the importance of analyzing the entire system, including its
inputs, outputs, and feedback loops, in order to understand how it functions as a
whole.
Kaplan argues that the behavior of actors in the international system can be
understood by analyzing how they respond to changes in the broader system. For
example, a change in the balance of power between states, or a shift in global
economic conditions, may trigger a chain reaction of responses from other actors in
the system.
His major purpose has been the scientific analysis of International politics, free
from ideological bias he came up with models to suitably define all possible models
used in politics.
Assumptions of the Systems Approach in International Relations:
• • International Relations are viewed as an international system with

interconnected components. The system involves national and supranational actors
engaging in regular interactions. Actors participate consistently to preserve their
national interests.
Actors exhibit observable patterns of behavior within the system.
• Multiple variables influence the interactions among actors.
⚫ The objective is to develop objective theories to understand the system.
10 Models of international system given by Mortan Kaplan
Balance of Power Model: The balance of power model was prominent in international
politics from the 17th century until the end of World War I. It can be understood
through the analogy of a billiards ball model. The main features include the
security dilemma, a multipolar world order, and the absence of a centralized
international authority or order.
⚫ Bipolar Model (Tight Bipolar Model): In the bipolar model, there are two
superpowers, and other states are considered satellites or subordinate to these
powers. The concentration of power is primarily between these two poles.
⚫ Loose Bipolar Model: The emergence of a third actor weakens the magnetic force
of the superpowers, leading to a loosening of their influence.
Very Loose Bipolar Model: In the very loose bipolar model, the power of attraction
from the two poles diminishes further, and satellites start breaking away from
their orbits. • Universal Actor Model: The universal actor model envisions the
disappearance of poles and the establishment of a world government where all states
come under the authority of a universal actor. However, this is a hypothetical
model.
⚫ Hierarchical System: In a hierarchical system, all states come under the

domination of a single state, such as the United States in a unipolar world. It is
the opposite of the universal actor model.

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⚫Unit Veto Model: The unit veto model suggests that all states possess equal
capacity to destroy each other, often referring to the possession of nuclear
weapons.
Incomplete Nuclear Diffusion Model: The incomplete nuclear diffusion model refers
to a situation where around 14 to 15 states possess nuclear weapons, creating an
imbalance and potential risks.
Détente System: Détente represents a period of reduced tension and improved

relations between major powers, often characterized by diplomatic negotiations and
arms control agreements.
Unstable Bloc Model: The unstable bloc model is the opposite of the détente system.
It signifies a high level of suspicion and rivalry among superpowers, often leading
to a return of Cold War dynamics and representing a dangerous situation.
Critical Evaluation of Systems Theory:
Robert J. Lieber has summarized the major limitations of the Systems Approach as
follows: Only Frameworks: The Systems Approach is seen as a conceptual framework
rather than a comprehensive theory. It lacks the ability to provide an intellectual
policy for international relations.
⚫ Methodological Inadequacy: One significant limitation is the methodological

inadequacy of the Systems Approach. There is a lack of clear operationalization of
concepts, making them difficult to test empirically.
Gap between Theory and Research: Another limitation is the gap between theory and
research. The separation between theoretical frameworks and empirical research has
limited the practical usefulness and value of systems theory, according to David
Singer.
⚫ Limited Scope: The Systems Approach is criticized for its limited scope. It
neglects the study of political institutions and important domestic variables in
international relations. It also overlooks the significance of historical and
ideological factors in shaping international dynamics.
Criticism by Stanley Hoffmann:
"Misstep in the right direction": Recognizes the attempt at empirical analysis but
finds it flawed. Focus on form over substance: Prioritizes structure over the
essence of politics. Inability to capture politics: Fails to grasp complexities and
reduces politics to something it's not.
Models detached from reality: Seen as imaginary, like parlor games, lacking real-
world applicability.
Lack of basic system approach: Fails to define system, boundaries, and environment,
hindering theory development.
Limitations of the System theory
Limited scope of models: Kaplan's models have a narrow focus and may not capture
the full complexity of international relations.
Impracticability of hypothetical models: Some of Kaplan's models are not feasible

or applicable in real-world scenarios.
Ignorance of geostrategic factors: The models may overlook the influence of

geographical and strategic factors in shaping international dynamics.
⚫ Neglect of national and sub national factors: Important domestic factors within
states are not adequately considered in the models.
Generic analysis: The analysis provided by the models may lack specificity and fail
to account for unique regional or conflict dynamics.

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⚫ Arbitrary classification: The categorization of international systems into

specific models may lack clear criteria or justification. • Limited predictive
ability: The models may not possess sufficient predictive power to accurately
anticipate future international events or outcomes.
Conclusion
Systems Approach has been influential in international relations theory, offering a

comprehensive view of international relations and a holistic method of analysis. It
encompasses microscopic and macroscopic perspectives, including the study of
regional sub-systems. However, criticisms regarding its focus on form over
substance and lack of clear boundaries and environment definitions remain. Despite
limitations, the Systems Approach contributes to our understanding of international
dynamics.

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UNIT 6: KEY CONCEPTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
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NATIONAL INTEREST
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS National Interest is an essentially contested concept.

Comment (2022) Explain the instruments and methods devised for the promotion of
national interest (2016) National Interests are Dynamic'. Identify contemporary
world politics with examples (2013) Should National Interest be viewed as a
constant category or is it situation-specific? Bring out your perspective (2010)
Comment: The realist vision of 'national interest' (2004) Comment: National
Interest and Ideology (1999) Comment: National Interest and Capability (1993).
In broad terms, the national interest refers to foreign policy goals, objectives or
policy preferences that benefit a nation and its people as a whole.
National interest can also refer to the actions taken by a government to pursue
these objectives, including diplomacy, military force, economic sanctions, or other
forms of coercion.
Scholarly Views
1. Morgenthau
National interest is the standard by which we judge a political act. There is "one
guiding star", one standard or thought, one rule for action and that is national
interest.
Objective of foreign policy must be defined in terms of national Interest. National

interest will depend upon the political and cultural context in which foreign
policy is formulated. 2. Charles Lerche: "National Interest means: 'The general,
long term and continuing purpose which
the state, the nation, and the government all see themselves as serving."
3. Vernon Van Dyke:- National Interest means: "The values, desires and interests
which states seek to protect or achieve in relation to each other" "desires on the
part of sovereign states"
Background
Meaning: In international relations, the concept of national interest refers to the

goals and objectives that a nation-state seeks to achieve in its interactions with
other nations. These interests may include economic, political, strategic, or
ideological considerations, and they are often driven by a desire to ensure the
security, prosperity, and well-being of the country and its citizens.
Composition: National interest can also refer to the actions taken by a government
to pursue these objectives, including diplomacy, military force, economic
sanctions, or other forms of coercion. The pursuit of national interest can often
lead to conflicts and tensions between different countries, as each seeks to
advance its own interests.
National Interest according to Realists
National Interest is the core concept of the realist school of thought. Realists
view national interest as the primary driver of international politics. They argue
that states are motivated primarily by desire to ensure their own survival and
security, and that competition for power and resources is

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fundamental feature of international relations. According to realists, states must

act in their own self-interest and prioritize their national interests above all
else. This may involve pursuing military power, economic wealth, or territorial
expansion, among other goals. Quote: Hans Morgenthau defines National Interest as
survival that includes "protection of
physical, political and cultural identity against encroachments by other nation-

states"
Morgenthau's Classification
According to Morgenthau, whatever the ultimate aim, power will always be the
immediate aim of foreign policies. He has thus classified national interest as (i)
Core and (ii) Variable. He believes that though the sole aim is always the
accumulation of power, he agrees that the means to achieve it are variable or
dynamic.
1. Core National Interest: Morgenthau defined core components as those elements

required for a nation to survive or retain its identity. He separates identity into
cultural, political, and physical components. Historical ideals upheld by a nation
as a component of its cultural legacy make up its cultural identity. Political
identity is the politico economic system, whereas physical identity is geographical
identity. The ability to survive is crucial to foreign policy. A state may even
wage war to do this.
⚫ Examples: The maintenance of Peace and integrity of Jammu and Kashmir has been
the core national interest of India since 1947.
During the cold war, The U.S. government saw the spread of communism as a threat to
its national security and believed that it had a vital interest in containing
Soviet influence around the world.
2. Variable National interest: These elements vary depending on the situation.

These include decision-makers, the general public, party politics, sectional or
group interests, and political or moral considerations. The states want to see
these goals achieved, but they will not go to war to achieve them.
Example: An example of Morgenthau's variable component of national interest can be

seen in India's economic policy over the past few decades. India's economy has
undergone significant changes since the 1990s, with a shift towards liberalization,
privatization, and globalization.
Thomas Robinson's Classification
Thomas Robinson was known for his work on international relations theory,
particularly his contributions to the study of national interest and foreign policy
decision-making. In addition to Morgenthau's classification, Thomas Robinson has
also further classified them into 6 types of interests: Primary Interests: These
are the interests that no state would ever compromise on, as they are
crucial to preserving the nation's political, cultural, and physical identities.
Secondary Interests: These interests are of less importance than the primary
interests but still necessary for the state's survival. They may include
safeguarding residents who are travelling overseas and providing diplomatic
immunity for diplomats.
• Permanent Interests: These are the state's long-term interests and are usually
driven by strategic considerations. They may include maintaining dominance in a
particular region or securing access to key resources.
⚫ Variable Interests: Depending on the situation, these interests may occasionally

take precedence over primary and permanent interests. For example, during a natural
disaster, a state may prioritize providing humanitarian aid over pursuing its
strategic interests.
• General Interests: These interests are shared by many countries and may include
promoting international peace, ensuring food security, and preserving the
environment.

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⚫ Specific Interests: These interests are specific to certain countries and may be
driven by factors such as geography, history, or culture. For example, Japan's
particular interest in whaling is not shared by many other countries.
Methods to Secure National Interest
1. Diplomacy: One of the effective ways to protect national interests is through

diplomacy. To attain their desired goals and outcomes, nations bargain, compromise,
and work together. It is a successful method of resolving disputes.
Example: India and the United States have developed closer diplomatic ties over the
past few decades in order to secure their national interests. One way that they
have done this is through the signing of the US-India Civil Nuclear Agreement in
2008. For India, it has allowed them to diversify their energy sources and reduce
their reliance on fossil fuels. For the US, it has opened up a significant market
for American nuclear technology companies.
2. Propaganda: According to Frankel, propaganda is an organised effort to influence
the thoughts, feelings, and behaviour of a certain group for a given public goal.
The practice of statesmanship is a part of propaganda. It enables securing national
interest by persuading others of the justice of their objectives. The spread of the
Internet has expanded the reach of propaganda. Social media platforms are utilised
to shape public opinion.
Example: The North Korean government uses propaganda to promote its national
interests by portraying itself as a strong and powerful country, both domestically
and internationally. It also uses propaganda to discourage dissent and criticism of
the regime by portraying the Kim family as heroic and infallible leaders who are
working tirelessly for the good of the people. 3. Economic Methods: Wealthy and
developed nations employ loans and help to further their interests abroad. Powerful
nations rely on weaker nations for technological know-how, international
assistance, manufactured goods, and the sale of raw materials. The free economic
exchange has grown in importance as a measure of securing the interests of nations
during these times of globalisation.
• Example: China's use of predatory economics to secure control of markets in

Africa and Asia 4. Treaties and alliances: These are agreements made between two or
more nations to protect each other's national interests. The allied nation is now
required by law to cooperate towards the specified common objectives.
Example: For instance, to combat the menace of Communism, the US and its allies
established military alliances like NATO and CENTO after the Second World War. On
the
other hand, socialist nations signed the Warsaw Pact. 5. Coercive Actions: Coercive
measures are used by states to achieve their goals and objectives. Coercive actions
that are not war are also permitted under international law. Intervention,
embargoes, boycotts, retaliation, penalties, severance of relations, and other
coercive tactics are used by states to further their objectives.
Example: US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
Should National Interest be viewed as a constant category or is it situation-

specific? (2010) The view of whether national interest should be viewed as a
constant category or as situation-specific depends on the perspective and approach
of different schools of thought in international relations. Realists tend to view
national interest as a constant category, as they see the international system as
an anarchic environment where states must act in their own self-interest and
prioritize their national interests above all else. According to realists, states'
national interests are shaped by objective factors such as geography, resources,
and military power, and are largely determined by the constraints and

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opportunities of the international system.
In contrast, other schools of thought such as liberals, constructivists, and

postmodernists tend to view national interest as situation-specific. They argue
that the meaning and priorities of national interest are not fixed or objective,
but rather are shaped by social, cultural, and historical factors, as well as by
the changing dynamics of the international system.
Liberals, for example, emphasize the importance of cooperation and negotiation

among states to achieve shared goals, such as economic prosperity, human rights,
and global stability. They argue that national interest should be defined in a more
complex and multifaceted way, and that states should pursue their interests through
cooperation and negotiation, rather than through force or coercion.
Constructivists argue that national interest is shaped by social and cultural

factors, such as shared values and norms, and that it can change over time as these
factors evolve. They emphasize the importance of discourse and ideas in shaping
national interest and international relations.
Postmodernists take a critical and reflexive approach to national interest, arguing

that it is not an objective category, but rather is subject to interpretation and
construction. They emphasize the need for a more nuanced and self-reflective
approach to international relations and for greater attention to the ways in which
power and inequality shape the pursuit of national interest.
In conclusion, while realists tend to view national interest as a constant

category, other schools of thought tend to view it as situation-specific, shaped by
a variety of social, cultural, and historical factors, and subject to change over
time.
National Interest as a Pseudo Theory
1. The notion that National Interest is a pseudo theory emerges as a criticism to

the Realist perspective and importance asserted to the scope of National Interest.
2. Raymond Aaron has termed National Interest as a pseudo theory as its meaning is
vague and ambiguous. Its ambiguity limits the concept from being formulated to a
universally acceptable definition.
3. It is also regarded as vague as any action of States can be justified as

National interest, no goal or aim is concrete, and national interest is anything
that suits the objectives of a country or the persons in
power.
Example: Hitler's concept of "Lebensraum" or invading Europe was termed as National

interest when in reality it was only Hitler's interest and not that of the German
people. 4. Similarly Charles Beard in the 1930s criticised the notion of National
Interest terming it a justification for the actions of those in power.
5. Accordingly Mohammad Yunus has explained in his book how Pakistan's National
interests are often what are decided by the Military as its interest.
• Example: Pakistan Military's interest is the destabilisation and invasion of

Jammu and Kashmir and the same is promoted as the National interest of Pakistan. 6.
James Frankel has said there is no single meaning of National interest and it is
defined based on a variety of reasons and purposes.
Criticism of National Interest as a concept
Liberals: Liberals view national interest as a more complex and multifaceted

concept than realists do. They argue that states have many interests beyond just
security, including economic prosperity, human rights, and global stability.
According to liberals, states should pursue these interests through cooperation and
negotiation, rather than through force or coercion. They emphasize the importance
of international institutions and norms in promoting cooperation and resolving
conflicts.

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⚫ Social Constructivists: Constructivists argue that national interest is not a

fixed or objective concept, but rather is shaped by social and cultural factors.
They emphasize the importance of shared values and norms in shaping national
interests and international relations. According to constructivists, the meaning of
national interest is constantly evolving and can be influenced by ideas, symbols,
and discourse.
Feminists: Feminist IR scholars argue that traditional conceptions of national

interest have been shaped by patriarchal assumptions and practices. They argue that
the interests of women and other marginalized groups are often excluded from these
traditional conceptions and that a more inclusive approach is needed. Feminist
scholars often advocate for a more cooperative and egalitarian approach to
international relations and emphasize the importance of addressing gender- based
violence and inequality.
• Post Modernists: Postmodernists challenge the idea that there is a fixed and
objective national interest. They argue that all knowledge and meaning are socially
constructed and that concepts like national interest are therefore constantly
evolving and subject to interpretation. According to postmodernists, the pursuit of
national interest can be a source of conflict and oppression, and they advocate for
a more critical and reflexive approach to international relations.
Analysis of the theory of national interest
Scott Burchill, in his book "The National Interest in International Relations

Theory," acknowledges that the concept of national interest lacks substantive
meaning despite its widespread use in political writing as a tool for
legitimization.
Muhammad Yunus, in his book, argues that theory of national interest reveals how
the national interest of Pakistan has been compromised in favor of the national
interest of the Pakistan Army. Lee Kuan Yew has introduced the idea of a new
national interest for developing countries. According to him, this new national
interest revolves around economic interests. It emphasizes that national interest
should not be conflated with nationalism and should not be driven by emotional
factors. Instead, it should be confined to the realms of the economy and
pragmatism.
Though the concept remains contested, National interest is still a relevant concept
which helps understand how and why states behave the way they do
There is no common standardisation way of defining national interest, any theorist
seeking precision is like a blind man touching elephant. Still national interest is
universally accepted, right of every state.
POWER
Comment: Information Technology - an element of national power. (2000)

"International politics, like all politics is a struggle for power." Comment.
(2000) Comment: Changing nature and dynamics of national security. (2002)
⚫ Discuss various elements and limitations of national power. (2002)
Comment: "International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power.
Why is the 'polarity of power' thesis less relevant and meaningful in the present
architecture of 'balance of power"? (2012)
"The notion of balance of power is notoriously full of confusion." In light of this

quotation, do you think that the concept of balance of power is relevant? (2016)

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Discuss the utility of Nuclear Deterrence Theory in the context of the recent
standoff between India and Pakistan. (2019)
Identify thebenefits of a multi-polarworld.(2019)
Explain the concept of balance of power. What are the various techniques for
maintaining balance of power? (2020)
⚫ Bipolar structure of the world is more stable than the Multipolar one. Comment.
(2022)
Background
Meaning: In the field of International Relations, power refers to the ability of

one actor to influence the behaviour of another actor in order to achieve its own
goals or interests. Power can be seen as a multidimensional concept that includes
various forms of capabilities, resources, and attributes that enable actors to
exert influence over others.
• Composition: Power can be understood in terms of capability; that is, as an

attribute, something that states or other actors 'possess'. Power can be understood
as a relationship; that is, as the exercise of influence over other actors. And
power can be understood as a property of a structure; that is, as the ability to
control the political agenda and shape how things are done. To add to the
confusion, there are also debates about the changing nature of power, and in
particular about the key factors through which one actor may influence another.
Power According to Various Schools of International Politics
Joseph Nye: Nye defines power as the ability to affect others to get the outcomes
one wants. He distinguishes between two types of power: hard power, which involves
coercion, threats, and military force, and soft power, which involves attraction,
persuasion, and the ability to shape preferences and values.
Kenneth Waltz: Waltz defines power as the ability to achieve one's objectives in
the face of opposition. He emphasizes the importance of military power and the
balance of power in shaping international relations.
⚫ Michel Foucault: Foucault defines power as a pervasive and diffuse force that
operates through discourses, institutions, and practices. He argues that power is
not something that individuals or
groups possess, but rather a social relation that is constantly being negotiated
and contested. ⚫ Hedley Bull: Bull defines power as the ability to influence the
behavior of others, and distinguishes between two types of power: material power,
which involves the use of force or the threat of force, and institutional power,
which involves the ability to shape the rules and norms of the international
system.
Determinants of Power
Military strength Economic Resources Determinants of Power Soft power Geopolitical

position Diplomatic clout

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Two dimensions of power
PSIR
1. Internal Dimension:
• The internal dimension corresponds to definition of power as a capacity for

action. A state is powerful to the extent that it is insulated from outside
influence or coercion in th formulation and implementation of policy.
A common synonym for the internal dimension of power is "Autonomy".
2. External Dimension:
The external dimension corresponds to definition of power as a capacity to control

the behaviour of others ie: "to enforce compliance".
For Morgenthau, international politics is struggle for power, and whatever may be
the ultimate end, power is always immediate end both internal and external.
Types of Power
Recent debates about the changing nature of power reflect less on the emergence of
conceptually new forms of power, and more on the changing mechanisms through which
relational power is exercised.
Two alleged shifts in this respect have attracted attention:
The first is a general shift from military power to economic power. (China) The
second shift is the alleged wider decline of 'hard' power, which encompasses both
military: power and economic power. Hard power is 'command power, the ability to
change what others do through the use of inducements (carrots) or threats (sticks).
By contrast, there has been a growth in 'soft' power.
Hard Power
Hard power refers to the ability to influence others through coercion, threats, or
the use of military force. It is the ability to achieve one's goals through the use
of tangible and often aggressive means Examples of hard power include military
force, economic sanctions, and the threat or use of military intervention.
Hard power is often associated with the realist perspective in international

relations, which emphasizes the importance of military power, national interests,
and the balance of power. Countries that possess strong military capabilities and
are willing to use them are often seen as having more hard power than those that do
not
Scholar's view on hard power
Joseph Nye: - Hard power involves "the ability to use the carrots and sticks of
economic and military might to make others follow your will". Here, "carrots" stand
for inducements such as the reduction of trade barriers, the offer of an alliance
or the promise of military protection. On the other hand, "sticks" represent
threats including the use of coercive diplomacy, the threat of military
intervention, or the implementation of economic sanctions.
Ernest Wilson: Hard power is the capacity to coerce "another to act in ways in
which that entity would not have acted otherwise".
Soft Power
Soft power is a concept developed by political scientist Joseph Nye, which refers
to a country's ability to influence the behavior of other countries through
attraction, rather than coercion or force It is the ability to shape the
preferences of others through culture, values, policies, and institutions, rather
than through military or economic means.

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• Soft power can be projected through a range of channels, including diplomacy,

media, education, and cultural exchanges. It is often based on a country's
reputation, values, and the perceived legitimacy of its political system. For
example, a country that is admired for its democracy, human rights record, or
cultural achievements is more likely to exert soft power than a country that is
seen as authoritarian or oppressive.
SOFT POWER Based on attraction and persuasion Involves cultural, educational, and
diplomatic means Focused on shaping others' preferences and values Employs non-
threatening and non-violent means HARD POWER Based on coercion and force Involves
military and economic means Focused on achieving strategic goals through dominance
Can involve threats, military interventions, or economic sanctions Generally less
expensive and less risky than hard Can be very expensive and involve significant
power Takes longer to produce results risk Can produce results more quickly Can be
used to build lasting relationships and Can produce short-term gains, but may
damage influence long-term behavior relationships and provoke backlash Examples:
diplomacy, cultural exchanges, Examples: military force, economic sanctions,
development aid trade barriers
Which Power is relevant in the 21st Century?
The relevance of soft power and hard power is a subject of ongoing debate among
scholars and policymakers. Here are some perspectives from scholars on both sides
of the argument: Arguments for the Relevance of Soft Power:
Joseph Nye, the political scientist who coined the term "soft power," argues that
in today's interconnected world, where information travels quickly and power is
diffuse, soft power is becoming more important than hard power. He suggests that a
country's ability to attract and persuade others through culture, values, and
policies can be a more effective way to achieve its goals than relying solely on
military or economic coercion.
Nye also contests that soft power may also be liable to failure like hard power,
however the costs
of failure is much higher with hard power.
Some scholars argue that soft power can be especially effective in promoting
international cooperation and addressing global challenges such as climate change
and pandemics. By emphasizing shared values and common interests, soft power can
help to build consensus and mobilize collective action.
Arguments for the Relevance of Hard Power:
Realist scholars argue that in an anarchic international system, where there is no

world government to enforce rules and norms, hard power is a necessary tool for
maintaining security and order. They suggest that the threat of military force can
deter aggression and prevent conflict, while economic sanctions can be a powerful
tool for coercing other countries into compliance.
Some scholars also argue that soft power is often overrated and may not be as
effective as its proponents claim. They suggest that cultural influence and
attractiveness may not always translate into political influence, and that
countries may be more likely to pursue their own interests regardless of their
views of another country's culture or values.
⚫ Chinmaya Ghare Khan- Yoga, Bollywood and Butter chicken can create attraction
for India but cannot force others to do what India wants

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⚫ Niall Fergusson- Totally rejects soft power. Britain did not colonise the world
through sof
power.
Overall, there is no clear consensus on whether soft power or hard power is more
relevant. Even Joseph Nye concedes that Soft Power is not always enough and
suggests a skillful combination of both hard and soft power; "Smart Power". Such
views were also supported by hillary Clinton while describing smart power as the
skillful use of diplomacy, culture and military power.
Smart Power
PSIR
Joseph Nye has indeed modified his views and introduced the concept of "smart
power." He suggests tha countries should adopt a strategic approach that combines
both hard and soft power. Smart power involves skillfully using a combination of
military strength and building partnerships alliances, institutions, and adherence
to the rule of law. According to Nye, the most effective foreig
policy strategies today require leveraging a mix of hard and soft power resources
Nye argues that relying solely on hard power or soft power in any given situation
will often prove insufficient.
He illustrates this with the example of combating terrorism, stating that a smart
power approach i necessary. In this context, he explains that relying solely on
soft power measures, such as attempting t change the hearts and minds of the
Taliban, would not be effective without a hard power component.
Chester A. Crocker defines smart power as the strategic utilization of diplomacy,

persuasion, capacit building, and the projection of power and influence in a cost-
effective manner that maintains political and social legitimacy. This concept
encompasses the engagement of both military force and various forms of diplomacy.
Smart power in the real world
According to Hillary Clinton, smart power involves the skillful use of diplomatic,
economic military, legal, cultural, and political power. It encompasses a
comprehensive approach that leverages different sources of power to achieve foreign
policy objectives.
During the Barack Obama administration, smart power was a key pillar of their
foreign policy encapsulated by the 3-D's: Defense, Diplomacy, and Development. This
approach recognized the importance of combining military strength, diplomatic
efforts, and development initiatives to effectively address global challenges.
In India, under the Modi administration, there is also a focus on smart power, with
an emphasis on democracy, demography, and demand. This suggests that India seeks to
leverage its democratic values, demographic advantage, and economic potential as
sources of influence in international affairs.
Fast Power
According to John Chipman, the concept of fast power is relevant in the 21st
century, where speed has become the determining factor of power. It is based on the
principle of survival of the fastest, rather tha survival of the fittest.
Chipman argues that a nation's ability to influence global developments is

determined by the speed of its diplomacy in a complex and rapidly changing world.
While hard power and soft power are essential for sustainable power projection,
smart and fast power can help nations navigate and adapt to dynamic strategic
environments.

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OLARITY OF POWER THESIS
he polarity of power thesis was first introduced by Kenneth Waltz, a prominent

international relations , in his book "Theory of International Politics" published
in 1979. Essentially the thesis implied in Global politics, Power tends to be
distributed in various ways; unipolar, bipolar or multipolar. Each the situations
have a huge bearing on the overall stability and security of the world. his thesis,
Waltz analyses all 3 positions of power:
1. Unipolarity: In this situation, only a single country holds disproportionate

sway over global politics. Its military, economy and political clout outweighs all
others even in combination. Scholars argue that this position is unstable as the
unipolar power will tend to overstretch itself and its resources, further such a
dominance would create opportunities and justifications for other powers to rise
and challenge.
Example: US since 1991 has emerged a unipolar hegemon, because of which we can see
it has overstretched itself in Afghanistan and Iraq and is now increasingly being
challenged by China.
2. Multipolarity: Essentially a multipolar world involves the presence of many

nations with adequate power to compete with each other, such a world according to
Waltz is unstable and the probability of war is much higher in regional as well as
global scenarios.
3. Bipolarity: This according to Waltz is the most stable situation as "less

fingers on nuclear buttons". He gives the example of the cold war which was a
result of bipolarity and which helped in avoiding the 3rd world War. Bipolarity
implies less confusion and more alliances which inherently help ensure deterrence.
BALANCE OF POWER
The concept of "balance of power" refers to a situation in which different states

or actors in international relations possess relatively equal levels of power,
preventing any single entity from dominating others. It is a key principle in
international politics and is aimed at maintaining stability, deterring aggression,
and preventing the emergence of hegemony or an overly dominant power.
It is also a mechanism of managing power on the global stage, the other being
collective security. David Hume had termed the Balance of Power as "Common Sense"
and intrinsically according to Realists, it is the most resolute law in
International politics where nations operate based on a wide variety of interests.
Defining balance of power using scholar's name
• Innis Claude, the balance of power is difficult to define not because it lacks
meaning, but because it encompasses too many meanings. Its definition is broad and
can vary depending on the context. ⚫ Paul Schroeder considers the balance of power
as an unsatisfactory state of theory. It is an ambiguous concept with numerous ways
of defining it. Each definition carries a distinct meaning that can change over
time, and the concept is subject to contestation.
⚫ George Liska describes the balance of power as a misplaced desire to seek

precision in its definition. It simultaneously functions as a dominant myth and a
fundamental law, carrying both symbolic significance and practical application.
⚫ According to Sidney B. Fay, the balance of power is a "just equilibrium" in

power among nations that prevents any single nation from becoming strong enough to
impose its will on others. ⚫ George Schwarzenberger defines the balance of power
as an equilibrium or a certain level of stability in power relations that is
achieved through alliances or other means under favorable conditions.

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Assumptions that ensure Balance of Power
The presence of 5-6 major players with each having similar powers and security
scenarios. There is an absence of any Universal actor to ensure the role of "Global
Policeman" (Ex-Unite Nations)
Each State is concerned with its own state sovereignty
No nation is allowed to gain dominance over other, and if a nation tries, other
nations challenge i Alliances are fluid and no nations do not engage in
ideological, ethical and value-base
considerations.
Presence of an external balancer. (Example: Great Britain during the Napoleonic

era.)
Evolution
1. Ancient Greece and Classical Period: The concept of the balance of power can be
traced back to ancient Greece, particularly during the Peloponnesian War (431-404
BCE) between Athens a Sparta. The formation of alliances and leagues, such as the
Delian League and the Peloponnesia League, aimed to counterbalance the growing
power of Athens.
2. European Renaissance and Early Modern Era: The balance of power became more
promine during the Renaissance and the subsequent centuries. European powers,
including Spain, France England, and later Austria and Prussia, sought to prevent
any one state from dominating th continent. The Treaties of Westphalia in 1648,
which ended the Thirty Years' War, established the principle of state sovereignty
and set the
stage for the balance of power system in Europe.
3. Napoleonic Wars and Concert of Europe: The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and his
attempts conquer Europe disrupted the existing balance of power. However, his
ultimate defeat led to the establishment of the Concert of Europe, a diplomatic
system in the early 19th century. The Concer aimed to maintain the balance of power
and stability through regular conferences among maje powers. The concert ensured
peace in the European continent for almost a hundred years till the 1st world war.
Quote: According to APJ Taylor- This period is regarded as "Golden Age of Balance
of Power"
4. World Wars and the Cold War: The balance of power was severely challenged during
the tw World Wars. After World War II, the bipolar world emerged with the United
States and the Sovie Union as the superpowers. The Cold War era was characterized
by intense competition and balance of power between the two superpowers and their
respective alliances (NATO and Warsaw Pact).
5. Post-Cold War Era: The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War
shifted the dynamics of the balance of power. The United States emerged as the sole
superpower, leading concerns about uni polarity and the need to manage the global
balance of power in a multipola world.
6. Contemporary International Relations: In recent years, the balance of power has

become mor complex due to the rise of new powers, such as China and regional actors
like India and Brazil This has led to discussions about the potential shift towards
a multipolar order, where multipl powers play influential roles in global affairs.
Norman.D. Palmer and Howard.C. Perkins describes major features of Balance of Power
(BOP): Balance of Power is about maintaining equilibrium in power relations among
nations. It is a temporary and unstable state that requires continuous efforts to
achieve. Active engagement is necessary to establish and maintain the balance of
power. Balance of Power tends to favor the preservation of the existing status quo.

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. The true test of the balance of power is often revealed in times of war.
It is not a mechanism solely for promoting peace.

• Major Powers play a significant role in shaping the balance of power.
The presence of multiple states is essential for the concept of balance of power.
⚫ National interest serves as the underlying basis for pursuing and safeguarding
the balance of power.
Methods of Balancing
Internal Balancing: Internal balancing refers to a state's efforts to strengthen

its own power and capabilities to counter potential threats or rivals. It involves
developing and enhancing a state's military, economic, and technological
capacities. Internal balancing measures may include increasing defence spending,
modernizing the military, investing in research and development, and fostering
economic growth and competitiveness.
External Balancing: External balancing involves a state's efforts to create

alliances, coalitions, or partnerships with other states to counterbalance a more
powerful or potentially aggressive actor. By aligning with other states, a weaker
or threatened state seeks to combine its power with that of others to create a
collective force that can deter or defend against a common adversary.
Criticism of Balance of Power
1. Liberals: Liberalism: Liberalist perspectives criticize the balance of power for

its emphasis on military capabilities and the potential for conflict. Liberal
theorists argue that focusing on cooperative strategies, such as diplomacy,
negotiations, and institutions, can lead to more effective and enduring peace. They
emphasize the importance of democratic governance, economic interdependence, and
international organizations in maintaining stability and resolving conflicts
peacefully.
Quotes: Woodrow Wilson had said that balance of power cannot guarantee peace on a
durable basis.
2. Feminists: Feminist critiques point out that the balance of power is often
rooted in a masculinist understanding of power as dominance and control. The focus
on military strength and the notion of power as a zero-sum game reinforces
traditional masculine attributes associated with aggression and competition.
Feminists argue that alternative forms of power, such as relational power and
cooperation, are neglected in the traditional balance of power approach.
3. Social Constructivist: They criticise the notion of Balance of Power as it is

solely based on Material structures and does not consider the ideational or role
played by beliefs and culture. 4. Randall Schweller: He has termed Balance of Power
as a notoriously ambiguous notion which is endlessly debated and variously defined.
5. Hedley Bull: Bull, a leading scholar of international relations, raised concerns

about the limitations and risks associated with the balance of power. He argued
that relying solely on balancing strategies can lead to a state of constant rivalry
and instability. Bull emphasized the importance of rules, norms, and institutions
in mitigating conflicts and fostering cooperation among states.
6. Richard Ashley: Ashley, a postmodernist scholar, critiqued the balance of power

as a concept that reinforces power structures and perpetuates dominant narratives.
He argued that the balance of power discourse tends to obscure the underlying power
relations and the social construction of power, thereby limiting our understanding
of alternative possibilities for security and cooperation.
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The challenge to the Balance of Power After World War II
Since the Balance of Power operates best in a regional context with the presence of
multiple players, the major challenge to it emerged with the bipolar nature of the
world since the end of world war II.
During this time, nations were either Non Aligned or bandwagon towards either of
the superpowers (USA, USSR), thus their sovereignties became nominal meaning that
they would not be in any position to balance either of the superpowers and thus
must only be limited towards being aligned or non aligned.
Further even the presence of Nuclear Weapons challenged the notion of Balance of
power as Nuclear weapons required a new strategic balance. Because when nuclear
weapons exist war and conflict cannot be an option and thus negating the notion of
balance of power. This was termed the "Balance of Terror" by Charles A. Wolfers.
Balance of Terror
The concept of the "balance of terror" coined by Charles A. Wolfers during the Cold
War era encapsulates the dynamics of stability and deterrence created by the
possession of nuclear weapons. In this context, the balance of terror refers to the
equilibrium achieved through mutual possession of nuclear capabilities and the fear
of catastrophic consequences that would ensue from their use.
At the core of the balance of terror is the principle of deterrence. Both

superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union possessed enough nuclear
weapons to inflict devastating damage on each other. This assured that any act of
aggression or nuclear attack would result in a retaliatory strike, leading to
mutually assured destruction. The fear of such catastrophic consequences served as
a powerful deterrent against initiating a conflict or deploying nuclear weapons.
The balance of terror created a stable environment by discouraging aggressive

actions. The perceived risk of retaliation and the potential for immense
destruction acted as a restraint on both sides. This delicate equilibrium required
constant monitoring and adjustments of military capabilities to prevent any
significant advantage that could upset the balance.
Arms control played a crucial role in managing the balance of terror. Agreements
and negotiations aimed to regulate and limit the development and deployment of
nuclear weapons. By establishing rules and transparency, these agreements aimed to
enhance stability, prevent an arms race, and reduce the chances of unintended
escalation.
Balance of Threat
The Balance of Threat theory, developed by political scientist Stephen Walt, offers
an alternative perspective on the balance of power by focusing on the perception of
threat rather than just the distribution of power. According to this theory, states
form alliances and balance against other states not solely based on their relative
power capabilities, but primarily in response to perceived threats. Walt argues
that states assess threats based on four main factors:
Power capabilities: States consider the military, economic, and technological

capabilities of other states. However, Walt emphasizes that it is not the absolute
power of a state that matters but rather its relative power compared to other
states.
⚫ Offensive intentions: States evaluate the intentions of other states. A state is

seen as a threat if it has aggressive or expansionist intentions that could
potentially undermine security of other states. ⚫ Geographic proximity: States
tend to perceive neighbouring states as more threatening due to their geographical
proximity. Proximity increases the likelihood of direct conflicts, making
neighbouring states more significant threats.
⚫ Offensive capabilities: States evaluate the offensive military capabilities of

other states. A state

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with a large military force, advanced weaponry, or aggressive military doctrines is

perceived as more threatening.
Walt argues that states balance against threats, not only against more powerful
states, and that they may ally with weaker states if they perceive a common threat.
For instance, a small state may align with other small states against a larger
state if they perceive that larger state as a significant threat.
The Balance of Threat theory challenges the traditional realist notion that states
solely seek to maximize
their power and security. Instead, it emphasizes that states are motivated by their
perception of threats and the desire to protect their own security. Therefore,
understanding the balance of power requires taking into account how states perceive
and respond to different threats, rather than focusing solely on their power
capabilities.
Similarities between Balance of Power and Balance of Terror:
Both concepts involve nations seeking to maximize their power.
⚫ Both interpret peace in terms of maintaining a balance, which is consciously

pursued.
⚫ Both recognize that the vital interests of nations are at risk when the balance
is upset.
Both entail accepting policies that can be dangerous and risky.

Both acknowledge the significance of military power in preserving the balance.
Dissimilarities between Balance of Power and Balance of Terror:
Balance of Power accepts the use of war as a means, whereas Balance of Terror
relies on the threat of war or the threat of nuclear weapons.
• Balance of Power sees the arms race as a natural occurrence, while Balance of
Terror seeks to limit or maintain a low level of armament.
• Alliances play a role in Balance of Power but have minimal impact on the Balance
of Terror, as no alliance can create a power imbalance against a nuclear-armed
state.
• Balance of Terror is closely linked to the concept of deterrence, while Balance

of Power serves as a tool for power management and can also act as a deterrent
against war and aggression.
Relevance of BoP today
There has been a significant shift in international relations. In the past,

European states held sway. ⚫ The BoP principle has become obsolete as a result of
the rise of numerous powers in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
• Second, the decline of the major BoP participants-the European powers-was also
influenced by the end of imperialism and colonialism.
. Third, the balancer is no longer present in the global scene. Earlier, Britain
completed this task Fourth, there is a terrible predicament as a result of the
proliferation of nuclear weapons. Their use can lead to a catastrophic war that can
cause irreversible change. Total conflict is no longer desired
by the nations. Regrettably, the Balance of Power leaves open the possibility of
war.
• Fifth, the establishment of the United Nations and other global and regional
entities has been crucial in easing tensions and promoting peace and harmony. BoP
dates from a time when there were no international organisations.
BoP is still relevant today, though. It has moved from the global stage to the
regional one. Martin Wright and Friedrich, two of the BoP's detractors, acknowledge
that the BoP is still a crucial component of international relations.

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Scholars's view on relevance of BoP
Jack Levy argues that BoP is not relevant because the ideal conditions for its
operation, such as multipolarity or even bipolarity, are no longer present. In a
unipolar world, BoP loses its significance.
Christopher Layne believes that BoP will remain relevant because unipolarity cannot
be sustained indefinitely, and hegemons eventually face challenges from other
powers. James Wirtz acknowledges that the concept of BoP is flexible and often
vague, but it continues to remain relevant in some capacity.
Those who support balance of Power
Martin Wright asserts that the balance of power is nearly a fundamental law of
politics in the highest possible sense.
According to Palmer and Perkins, the balance of power is considered a basic

principle of international relations.
Arguments in Favour of Balance of Power:
Ensures Multiplicity of States
Guarantees the Freedom of Small States
A Source of Stability in International Relations.
Balance of Power Discourages War
It suits the real nature of International Relations
A Source of Peace in International Relations
PSIR
Those who are against Balance of power
Richard Cobden criticizes the balance of power as an unreal, inadequate, and

uncertain system. He argues that it perpetuates a cycle of war and fuels power-
hungry behavior among nations.
Jawaharlal Nehru describes the balance of power as a nervous state of peace,

implying that it is a fragile and unstable arrangement.
Woodrow Wilson proposes that "collective security" is a preferable alternative to

the balance of power. He suggests that cooperation among nations, rather than a
focus on power dynamics, can lead to more sustainable peace. Arguments Against
Balance of Power
Balance of Power cannot ensure Peace States are not Static Units
Preponderance of One State in the world can also secure Peace
BoP has a narrow outlook
A Mechanical view of Peace Uncertainty of Balance of Power Balance of Power is

Unreal Inadequacy of Balance of Power
Balance of Power has now lost its Relevance
Limitations to the Balance of Power in Present Context
1. Rise of Non-State Actors: There has been a rise of Terror groups and other
asymmetrical actors which have made the Balance of Power restricted. States today
are faced with threats that are often from such sources, in such a situation
balance of power is redundant. 2. Nuclear Deterrence: With the emergence of Nuclear
weapons, balancing has been replaced with
nuclear deterrence. Where acquiring nuclear weapons is seen s a security move

ensuring that action.
potential aggressors are deterred from taking any conventional Example: Pakistan's
Nuclear Weapon threats towards India as compensation for their tactical inferiority
in conventional weapons. North Korea uses its Nuclear threats to potentially offset
any US action.
3. Complex Interdependence: The interdependence between states necessitates

cooperation and coordination on a wide range of issues. Decision-making becomes
more complex as states must take into account the interests and preferences of
multiple actors. This can result in slower

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decision-making processes and the need for compromise and consensus-building,

further shaping the dynamics of the balance of power. ⚫ Example: US-China's
complicated trade and political relations.
Explain balance of power. What are various techniques for maintaining balance of
power? (2020) The concept of the balance of power in international relations refers
to the distribution and equilibrium of power among states or actors within the
international system. It is based on the idea that no single state should be
allowed to dominate others, as such dominance can lead to instability and
aggression. Instead,
states aim to maintain a balance of power to ensure stability, deter potential

aggressors, and promote security. Various techniques have been proposed to achieve
and maintain the balance of power: • Arms Race: All governments, especially very
powerful nations, place a lot of importance on arms as a way to secure or retain a
favourable position in the global balance of power. It can also be used to deter
potential enemies or aggressors. However, an arms race between rivals or enemies
might result in a very dangerous circumstance that might unintentionally start a
conflict. In this way, the arms race may pose a threat to international stability
and peace. As a result, disarmament and arms control are now seen as more effective
means of sustaining and enhancing global peace and security.
• Counterbalancing: Counterbalancing entails states aligning with weaker actors to

offset the power of a stronger actor. It involves creating a coalition that
collectively counters the power of the dominant state. Kenneth Waltz, a neorealist
scholar, argued that the balance of power is maintained through counterbalancing
efforts by states. The current China-Russia-Iran nexus is also an example of this.
Alliances: Alliances are formal agreements between states to cooperate and provide
mutual security against common threats. By forming alliances, states enhance their
collective power and deter potential aggressors. Scholars such as John Mearsheimer
support the importance of alliances in maintaining the balance of power. The recent
inclusion of Finland in NATO post the Russian invasion of Ukraine is an example of
this.
⚫ Diplomacy and Negotiation: Diplomatic efforts and negotiations play a vital role
in maintaining the balance of power. By engaging in dialogue and negotiation,
states can address disputes, manage conflicts, and prevent tensions from
escalating. Diplomacy allows states to manage power dynamics and find peaceful
resolutions. Joseph Nye emphasizes the significance of diplomacy and negotiation in
maintaining the balance of power.
⚫ International Institutions: International institutions, such as the United

Nations and regional organizations, play a role in managing power relations among
states. These institutions provide platforms for dialogue, cooperation, and the
peaceful resolution of conflicts. Robert Keohane argues that international
institutions can help maintain the balance of power by regulating power dynamics
and fostering cooperation.
⚫ Soft Power: Soft power refers to a state's ability to influence others through
attraction, persuasion, and the dissemination of values and ideas. A state that
possesses significant soft power can shape the international system without relying
solely on military might. Joseph Nye emphasizes the importance of soft power in
maintaining the balance of power.
These techniques demonstrate the diverse strategies employed to maintain the

balance of power. Power balancing, counterbalancing, alliances, diplomacy,
international institutions, and soft power all contribute to the goal of preventing
any one state from dominating the international system and ensuring stability and
security. The choice of techniques depends on the specific geopolitical context,
the interests of states, and the distribution of power within the international
system.

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Quotes
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"Balance of Power is a basic principle of international relations."-Palmer and

Perkins "Balance of Power is nearly a fundamental law of politics as is possible to
find," -Martin Wright
Standard Conclusion
Although the term may have lost its significance as it had earlier, in a world
where UN and multilateralism are seen to be failing. BoP still remains relevant.
POWER TRANSITION THEORY
Scholar: A. F Kenneth Organski
Organski's theory builds upon the realist perspective of international relations

and posits that the likelihood of war increases when there is a power transition
from one dominant state to another. ⚫ According to Organski's theory, major
conflicts, such as wars, are more likely to occur during periods of power
transition, particularly when a rising power threatens to challenge the dominant
power's position. The theory suggests that the dominant power is more likely to
initiate conflict to prevent or delay the rise of a potential rival, whereas the
rising power may seek to challenge the existing power structure to establish itself
as a new dominant power.
Power transition theory takes into account the changing distribution of power among
states and the potential for shifts in the international system. It argues that
power transitions create a period of instability and uncertainty, which can lead to
conflict as states attempt to secure their positions and protect their interests.
HEGEMONIC STABILITY THEORY Scholar: Robert Gilpin, Charles Kindleberger
Who is a Hegemon?
Hegemony in International politics is different from the concept of Hegemony given

by Antonio Gramsci. Although both relate to the use of coercive power, the concept
in International relations is related more to an attribute to a nation rather than
a mechanism through which power is exerted. A hegemon refers to a dominant state or
actor that possesses a significant amount of power, influence, and control over
others in the international system. A hegemon typically possesses economic,
military, and political capabilities that far surpass those of other states. It has
the ability to shape and dictate the rules, norms, and institutions of the
international system according to its
interests. Hegemonic power can be exercised through various means, including

economic coercion, military force, diplomatic leverage, and cultural influence.
Hegemon is also referred to as a Global Policeman who is tasked with restoring and
ensuring the world order stays intact.
Evolution of Hegemons
European Colonial Powers: From the 15th to the 20th centuries, European colonial
powers emerged as global hegemons. Countries such as Spain, Portugal, the
Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom established vast colonial empires,
dominating trade, resources, and political control over large parts of the world.
British Hegemony: By the 19th century, the British Empire had risen as a dominant
global power. It controlled territories across various continents and possessed
significant economic, military, and naval capabilities, allowing it to shape the
world order during that era.
American Hegemony: Following World War II, the United States emerged as a
superpower and assumed a hegemonic role in global affairs. The U.S. dominated the
international economic

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system, established military alliances, and played a crucial role in shaping the
post-war order. The Cold War era saw the United States and the Soviet Union as the
two main global hegemons, with the U.S. leading the Western bloc. Post the Soviet
fall, US emerged as the sole hegemon within their moment of Unipolarity.
Hegemonic Stability Theory
1. The theory has been propounded by Gilpin and also by Kindleberger, the theory is
combination of realist and liberal school of thoughts. The theory holds that global
stability resides in a stable liberal world order.
2. Since the World order is frequently challenged by States causing instability and
conflict, it is important to have a hegemon to keep such states in control.
3. A hegemon must be a nation with ample economic and military strength which
enables it to exert influence on the behavior and it must also have the willingness
to act as a global hegemon. Other nations will listen to an hegemon as the hegemon
also creates conducive conditions for them as well.
4. However, a hegemon often over exerts itself and other nations outcompete it
soon. Usually a hegmon retains itself for a 100 years after which another power
takes its place. Example: Britain was the Global Hegemon since the end of
Napoleanic wars till the World wars, since then US became a global hegemon. Now US
is also increasingly being challenged in its role by China.
SECURITY
Security in international relations refers to the measures and policies aimed at

protecting and ensuring the safety, stability, and well-being of states and
individuals in the global arena. It encompasses a wide range of issues, including
military security, political stability, economic security, environmental concerns,
and human
rights.
The concept of security in international relations has evolved over time,

reflecting changes in global dynamics and the nature of threats. Traditionally,
security was primarily associated with military defense and the balance of power
between states. However, contemporary understandings of security have expanded to
include non-traditional threats such as terrorism, cyber attacks, transnational
organized crime, pandemics, climate change, and resource scarcity.
Security Dilemma
The concept was given by John H. Herz in his 1950 article, "Idealist
Internationalism and the Security Dilemma." In the article, Herz argues that in a
system of sovereign states, each state must rely on its own military capabilities
for security, but the pursuit of security by one state can create a sense of
insecurity in other states, leading to a vicious cycle of arms buildup and mistrust
and this can create a situation in which one state's efforts to increase its
military strength are seen as threatening by other states.
For example, if one state increases its military capabilities in order to deter
potential threats, other states in the region may interpret this as a signal of
aggression and respond by increasing their own military capabilities, leading to an
escalation of the arms race and a heightened sense of insecurity. The security
dilemma can therefore create a self-reinforcing cycle of mistrust and insecurity,
making it difficult to achieve lasting peace and stability in the international
system.
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Views of Schools of Thought
Realists: Realist theories, such as classical realism and neorealism, emphasize the
central role of the security dilemma. Realists argue that the anarchic nature of
the international system, where there is no central authority, leads states to
prioritize their own security. They view states as
rational actors driven by self-interest and the pursuit of power. According to

realists, the security dilemma is an inherent feature of international relations,
and attempts to mitigate it are unlikely to succeed in the absence of a fundamental
change in the structure of the international system. Liberalism: Liberal
perspectives offer a more optimistic view of the security dilemma. Liberal
theorists argue that international institutions, cooperation, and diplomacy can
help mitigate the security dilemma by fostering trust and providing mechanisms for
resolving conflicts. They emphasize the role of international law, multilateral
organizations, and norms of peaceful dispute resolution. Liberals argue that
through increased transparency, confidence-building measures, and shared norms,
states can overcome the security dilemma and promote greater security. ⚫ Social
Constructivist: Constructivist theories focus on the role of ideas, norms, and
social interactions in shaping security dynamics. Constructivists argue that the
security dilemma is not an inherent condition but rather a socially constructed
perception. They emphasize the importance
of building trust, shared identities, and cooperative norms among states.

Constructivists believe that through collective efforts, states can reshape their
understanding of security and overcome the security dilemma by emphasizing
cooperation and mutual gain.
Reflectivists: Critical theories, such as feminism or postcolonialism, offer

alternative perspectives on the security dilemma. These theories critique
traditional security concepts and argue that the security dilemma is often rooted
in unequal power relations, gender hierarchies, or historical legacies of
colonialism. Critical theorists highlight the need to address these underlying
structures of power and advocate for a more inclusive and emancipatory approach to
security that goes beyond state-centric perspectives.
⚫ Copenhagen School: Scholars like Barry Buzan have given the concept of
"Securitisation" which states that the security issue is dependent upon the way and
which issues are talked about. For example in India terrorism is regarded as the
biggest security threat because of the way it is talked about in the media and by
politicians. He thus suggests to acquire a comprehensive and integrated approach to
security.
Insecurity Dilemma
[Discussed in previous chapter]

COLLECTIVE SECURITY
'Collective Security and Collective Defence are the institutional and State
mechanisms to sustain the domination of powers that be in International politics.'
Elaborate. (2013) Enumerate the challenges in the operation of the principles
related to collective securityin the UN Charter. (2020)
Discuss the conceptual dimensions of collective security.(2022)
Background
It is a security arrangement in the political, regional or global arena in which a

state accepts that security of one is the security of all. Therefore, the states in
a group collectively cooperate provide security to all in case of any threat or
breach of peace. Collective security acts as a deterrent
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against aggression because the collective power of all nations is used to repel
aggression or war against any state. It is based on the principle that aggression
against one is an aggression against all. For international peace and community,
aggression has to be countered with collective action by a group of states.
• Premise: It is premised upon the belief that power is antidote to power and when
the greed for power of one country threats the stability and sovereignty of others,
then all others must come together and ensure such does not happen.
Defining collective security
Palmer and Perkins describe collective security as a concept that involves

collective measures to address threats to peace. According to them, it implies
joint action taken by multiple actors to prevent or counter any attack that poses a
threat to the established international order. ⚫ George Schwarzenberger defines
collective security as a mechanism or machinery for joint
action. Its purpose is to prevent or counter any attack that poses a threat to the
established international order. Collective security involves coordinated efforts
by multiple actors to maintain peace and stability on a collective basis.
Organski in his book World Politics lists the Five fundamental premises about
collective security: Member nation-states will be able to agree on who is the
aggressor in an armed confrontation. All nation-state members have a common
commitment to stop the aggression. All of the member nation-states have the same
degree of freedom and capacity for aggression.
⚫ The member states' combined strength will be sufficient to repel the aggression.
• In the context of collective security, the aggressor nation must alter course or
risk losing.
Morgenthau gives three prerequisites for the success of collective security:
The collective military strength has to be in excess to that of the aggressor in

order to defeat him. The member-states must share the same beliefs of the security
of world order. Conflicting interests among member-states should be subordinated to
common good, which is common defence of all member-states.
Relation between Balance of Power and Collective Security
The relationship between the Balance of Power and collective security is

intertwined. The Balance of Power can be seen as a means to achieve collective
security. When power is distributed among multiple actors in a balanced manner, it
can reduce the likelihood of a single state becoming dominant and acting
aggressively towards others. This balance can contribute to a more stable and
secure international system, making it easier to establish and maintain collective
security arrangements.
Conversely, collective security can also influence the Balance of Power. When
states join together in collective security arrangements, they can increase their
collective power and deter potential aggressors. This collective power can act as a
counterbalance to any state or group of states that may seek to upset the Balance
of Power. By committing to collective security, states signal their willingness to
defend each other and maintain a stable power equilibrium.
Main Features of Collective Security:
It is a device of Power Management
It accepts Universality of Aggressin
All Nations are committed to pool their power for ending aggression Global
Preponderance of Power needed to counter violence

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Admits the presence of an International Organisation Collective Security System is

a Deterrent against War Aggression/war is the enemy and not the State which commits
it
Ideal Conditions for the Success of Collective Security:
Agreement on the definition of aggression: Clear understanding of what constitutes

aggression and the need to respond collectively.
More powerful and inclusive United Nations: A stronger UN with active participation
from all nations.
Strong role of UN Security Council: Commitment from permanent members to collective

security. Permanent international peacekeeping force: Having standing force for
prompt response to conflicts.
Established procedure for ending collective security actions: Clear guidelines for
concluding actions once the threat is resolved.
⚫ Popularization of peaceful conflict resolution: Promoting peaceful methods to

prevent escalation. Sustainable socio-economic development: Addressing inequalities
for a more stable international environment.
Strengthening crisis-management and peacekeeping: Enhancing peaceful mechanisms and

operations.
Difference between collective security and Balance of power
Concept: BoP is a realist concept, rooted in power politics, while CS is a liberal

concept, emphasizing cooperation and collective action.
System Type: BoP is a competitive system where states aim to maintain a balance of
power, while CS is a cooperative system where states work together to address
common threats and maintain peace.
Actors: In BoP, major states are the primary actors, while in CS, all states are
considered actors and participants.
• . Alliances: BoP relies on specific power alliances, often temporary and based on
strategic interests, whereas CS emphasizes general cooperation among all
participating states. Enemy Perception: In BoP, the enemy can be either internal or
external, while in CS, the focus
is on addressing threats and conflicts within the international community. System

Scope: BoP is typically a group system, involving specific regions or alliances,
while CS aims to be a global system involving all states.
Neutrality: BoP allows for neutrality, where states can choose not to align with
any power bloc, while CS generally discourages neutrality as it relies on
collective action.
. Basis: BoP operates on the basis of mutual fear and balancing power, whereas CS
is founded on mutual cooperation and collective security.
⚫ Global Organization: BoP can function without a global organization, relying on

state interactions, while CS often requires the existence of an international
organization to coordinate collective action and maintain peace.
Collective Security under League of Nations
The League of Nations was the first institution of collective security formed at
the end of the 1st world war, however it could not achieve any of the objectives it
was created for and failed to prevent the 2nd world war 20 years later.

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Causes of Failure to ensure collective Security
The concept was new and experimental at best, the European nations, accepted it at
the insistence of the US, but had no faith in how to effectively channel it.
As a result UK and France appeared to be dominating the grouping while others were
dissatisfied with the arrangement. Notable examples include Italy and Japan both of
which felt betrayed after helping the allies achieve victory in the 1st world war.
US was also excluded from the group causing the absence of an external balaner to
the grouping. Another reason for its failure had been the ideological orientation
of the grouping had always been against the rise of the Communist and the Soviets,
due to this, the Legaue ignored and appeased the fascists leaders in Germany and
Italy, events which later led to the 2nd world war. • The League also ignored the
issues of China and its invasion by Japan in 1936, and Italy's invasion
of Ethiopia.
Further the collective security clause under the Legue was also flawed, as it
stated that action could only be taken in unanimity which meant that all members
must agree to it without any single disagreement which was impossible.
Collective Security under UN
The Charter of United Nations states that collective security system can be used
for the preservation of international peace and security. Chapter VII of the UN
Charter talks about collective security system and its title reads: Action with
Respect to Threats to the Peace, and Acts of Aggression. Chapter VII contains 13
Articles, Articles 39-51, which provide for a collective system to secure
international peace and security. UN Security Council has been assigned the job of
initiating collective security action against the act of aggression. The 13
articles provide for the following.
Articles in UN Charter relating to Collective Security
Article 39: Responsibility of Security Council to determine whether an action is an

act of aggression or not and to decide on the steps to secure international peace.
Article 40: States that the first step towards prevention of war/aggression can be
provisional measures like ceasefire.
Article 41: Refers to enforcement actions other than collective military actions.
It can recommend sanctions against the aggressor.
Article 42: Security Council can take military action to preserve international
peace and security
• Article 43: Members of Security Council are required to contribute resources,

effort and forces for
raising collective security force that may have to take action under Article 42.
Articles 44-47: Procedures for raising, maintaining and using UN Peace Keeping
Force for collective security action.
The UN's peacekeeping efforts in the aftermath of World War II have been generally
successful. For instance, the UN played a crucial role in the resolution of
conflicts such as the Korean War, the Suez Crisis, and the Balkan conflicts of the
1990s. These interventions helped stabilize situations, facilitate negotiations,
and prevent further escalation of violence.
However since the Korean war, the security council has had issues especially during
the Cold war where USSR and US would generally never vote on the same issue in the
same manner. In this way the UNSC was always a divided house and any initiative of
collective security became a hassle especially when either side was always against
it.
This constant deadlock led to the creation of the "Acheson Plan" or Uniting for
Peace resolution which stated that in the event of a deadlock in the UNSC, the
United Nations General Assembly

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was qualified to authorise a security operation. Initially this worked as most

nations in the UNGA were pro-US, however later it started failing for the US as
nations increasingly became Non Aligned or Pro-Soviet.
UN Peacekeeping
PSIR
Although not within the text of the Charter, The first UN peacekeeping mission was
established in May 1948, when the UN Security Council authorized the deployment of
a small number of UN military observers to the Middle East to form the United
Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) to monitor the Armistice Agreement
between Israel and its Arab neighbours.
can be said that though UN's collective security has not been effective in many
areas, its Peacekeeping missions have largely helped keep it relevant. Peacekeeping
involves the deployment of troops (From Member nations) coordinated by the UN in
areas of conflict to ensure peace is prevailed. However there some differences
between Collective Security and UN's Peacekeeping:
It are
Collective Security is a military action agaisnst the aggressor while Peacekeeping

is a policing action to maintain peace and ceasefire between conflicting groups.
Peacekeeping is deployed when both conflicting parties agree and consent to the
presence of peacekeepers while collective security does not require any consent.
Challenges to Collective Security since the end of Cold war
Civil Wars: The rise of civil wars within countries has had no response from UN's
collective security. The charter nor the peacekeeping is empowered enough to ensure
stability and action in the event of civil war or intra state conflicts. Example:
Rwandan Genocide of 1994.
⚫ Rise of Assymetrical Warfare: The role played by Terror groups and non state
agents have made it difficult to take collective action, as these groups are
diffused within multiple nations who are themselves in perilous security
situations.
Evaluation
Though Collective Security was developed for the honourable purpose of maintaining
global peace and security, its idealistic nature makes it unworkable. It is based
on the supposition that all nations fully comprehend the importance of protecting
one another. Additionally, sometimes it is difficult to pinpoint who was the
aggressor. The aggressor might defend themselves. War can be used to maintain
peace, according to collective security. Furthermore, there is a good chance that a
war will not be neutral and will be influenced by vested interests or ideologies.
The UN's lack of a permanent international force to carry out the Security
Council's decision on collective security is the other significant issue. The
procedure takes a long time, and there is a significant lag between the date of
aggression and the day that an international peacekeeping force is assembled and
arrives to the disturbed area. Finally, the idea of collective security is risky
because a local conflict could turn into a world conflict. Despite the
aforementioned criticisms, collective security continues to be a crisis management
tool to maintain international peace and avert war.
COLLECTIVE DEFENCE
Collective defence is an arrangement, usually formalized by a treaty and an

organization, among participant states that commit support in defense of a member
state if it is attacked by another state outside
the organization.
⚫ A collective defence arrangement is made by a group of nations who have a common

perception of threat to their security from a common enemy.

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Usually, a collective defence system is organised as an alliance involving a

regional defence system. It covers only the members of the collective defence
system. ⚫ NATO is the best-known collective defence organization.
Difference between collective security and collective defence
Concept Aggressor Political Differences Collective Security From within or outside

Nations may need to sacrifice their political differences and Personal Choices
choices Nature of Cooperation Basis of Action Cooperative system personal
Facilitated through international organization or framework Collective Defense
External aggressor Nations may need to set aside political differences personal
choices Cooperative system Organized through regional defense alliances or
agreements
DETERRENCE
Deterrence, in simple terms, refers to the strategy of preventing an adversary from
taking certain actions by creating a credible threat of punishment or negative
consequences. It is a concept widely used in international relations to discourage
potential aggressors or adversaries from engaging in actions that may harm one's
interests.
• The idea behind deterrence is that if a country can convince its potential
adversaries that the costs or risks of taking a particular action outweigh the
potential benefits, they will be deterred from carrying out that action.
• Deterrence relies on the belief that the fear of punishment or negative

consequences can dissuade an adversary from pursuing a course of action that is
against one's interests. In the post World war era, deterrence is nearly always
seen in form of having nuclear weapons or
maintaing the ability to make weapons of mass destruction (WMD)
Relevance
Since the end of the World War II, Balance of Power has been replaced by
Deterrance. This is primarily due to the introduction of Nuclear Weapons in the
security paradigms of the superpowers. Nuclear Weapons and its threat create a
perception that conflict will not be justified in any scenario as these weapons
cause destruction beyond territorial boundaries. Further the risk
of retaliation by the same weapons makes any conflict counter productive and not
worth the risk. It can also be seen as psychological concept where effective
deterrence only depends upon the right perception of the enemy. If the enemy nation
fails to be convinced of the deterrent, deterrence will fail.
• Example: During the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, The U.S. governmentmade it
clear that the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba was unacceptable and
constituted a threat to U.S. national security. Despite the explicit threat of
retaliation, the Soviet Union proceeded with the deployment of nuclear missiles in
Cuba. This move challenged the credibility of U.S. deterrence, as it appeared that
the Soviet Union was willing to take the risk of provoking a potential nuclear war.
Scholars
Bernard Brodie: His book "The Absolute Weapon: Atomic Power and World Order" (1946)
is considered a pioneering work in the field. Brodie argued that nuclear weapons
had fundamentally changed the nature of warfare and international relations,
emphasizing the concept of deterrence

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through mutual assured destruction (MAD). He believed that the possession of

nuclear weapons by both superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union,
created a delicate balance that deterred them from engaging in all-out war.
Brodie's insights into the strategic implications of nuclear weapons played a
significant role in shaping Cold War deterrence strategies. Thomas Schelling:
Schelling's work explored the concept of the "stability-instability paradox,"
which suggests that nuclear weapons may deter large-scale conflict while
potentially increasing
the likelihood of smaller-scale, limited conflicts.
Kenneth Waltz: Waltz has favoured nuclear proliferation as he feels that nations
having nuclear weapons effectively deter any opponent from taking an aggressive
stance. In this way, conflicts amongst nations can be reduced as each nation is
effectively deterred from doing so.
Types of Deterrence
Direct deterrence: Where the purpose of deterrence is directly related to deter the
threats from a known nation or group of nations. Example: During the Cold War it
was between US and USSR • Extended Deterrence: Where deterrence is extended to
other nations and help them create their own deterrence as well. Example: US
nuclear umbrella towards Japan
What makes Deterrence Work?
Credible Threats: Deterrence relies on the credibility of the threats being

communicated. The deterrent party must possess sufficient capabilities and
demonstrate a willingness to follow through on its threats. Adversaries must
believe that the consequences of their actions will be severe and that the
deterrent party has the means to carry out those consequences.
⚫ Perceived Capability: Adversaries must perceive that the deterrent party has the
necessary military, economic, or political power to inflict significant harm. The
stronger the perceived capability of the deterrent, the more likely adversaries are
to be deterred.
⚫ Clear Communication: Effective communication is crucial to deterrence. The

deterrent party must clearly articulate its red lines, intentions, and potential
consequences in a manner that is easily understood by adversaries. Ambiguity or
miscommunication can undermine deterrence by creating uncertainty or
misperceptions.
⚫ Credible Commitment: The deterrent party must demonstrate a credible commitment

to its stated positions and threats. Consistent behavior and past actions that
align with stated intentions increase the credibility of deterrence. Demonstrating
resolve and consistency over time enhances the perception that threats will be
carried out.
Limitations/Criticism of Deterrence Policy
Liberal Perspective: Former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger regards

Deterrrence as an unreliable option as it only works when the opposing party is a
rational player. It will not work on non state actors or nations that are under
authoritarian dictators. Further Joseph Nye believes that complex interdependence
has reduced the scope for conflict and thus deterrence.
⚫ Social Constructivits: According to Nina Tannelwald, nuclear weapons do not

enjoy the position
of dettering as the world opinion has been against nuclear weapons, thus any nation
acquiring them will be seen more of a pariah (North Korea) than seen as a nation
offering deterrence. Scott Sagan: While not outrightly rejecting deterrence, Scott
Sagan, an American political scientist, has raised concerns about the risks
associated with nuclear deterrence. He highlights the potential for accidental or
unauthorized use of nuclear weapons and calls for measures to reduce these risks,
such as improved command and control systems and arms control agreements.

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⚫ Romesh Thakur: He says that nuclear weapons do not provide adequate deterrence
as the risk for accidental war is quite high. This is due to the reliance on
psychology, a nation may be inclined to believe that it will be attacked and may
launch a pre-emptive strike.
What is the relevance of deterrence in the post cold war scenario
1. Deterrence has lost relevance:
Deterrence was primarily used in the context of the USA-USSR relationship during
the Cold War.
. The rationale for maintaining a massive stockpile of nuclear weapons is

questionable in the post-Cold War era, especially with the growth of complex
interdependence and limited possibilities of war.
• Deterrence theory assumes rational actors, but the main security threats now come
from asymmetrical actors like terrorist groups, for which deterrence may not be
effective. 2. Deterrence remains relevant:
Many countries continue to invest heavily in defense budgets, indicating the

continued importance of deterrence.
. The post-Cold War order is argued to be more anarchical, increasing the need for
deterrence
measures.
⚫ The fact that multiple countries possess or aspire to possess nuclear weapons
suggests the continued relevance of deterrence.
3. Mixed perspectives:
⚫ The USA has released various documents outlining its commitment to deterrence
and has allocated significant funds for the development of sophisticated delivery
systems, indicating its continued reliance on conventional and nuclear weapons.
• • Russia has also expressed its plans to increase deterrence in its national
security strategy. Other countries like India, China, France, and Pakistan have
different approaches to deterrence, with varying nuclear doctrines and policies.
TRANSNATIONAL ACTORS
Is 'terrorism' an essentially 'contested' concept? What are the different

manifestations of
'terrorism' as a concept, and as practice? (250 words) "Some feel Multinational

Corporations (MNCs) are a vital new road to economic growth, whereas others feel
they perpetuate under development." Discuss. (2018) • Discuss the efficacy of
global conventions to combat international terrorism.(2022)
Transnational actors, also known as non-state actors or international non-

governmental actors, are entities that operate across national borders and have
significant influence on global affairs. These actors play a role in various
fields, including politics, economics, security, and social issues. These actors
can either be of positive nature like MNC's and NGO's or negative nature like
Terror groups or organised crime groups.
Role of Transnational Actors
Various schools view the influence and role played by transnational actors. While
some schools feel transnational actors play a vital role, some feel they have
negligible influence.

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Realists: Realism thought is a state centric school of thought and thus they only
accord importance to the State and its decision making. For them Non State actors
or transnational actors play very negligible role in impacting the decisions and
policies.
•Liberals: Liberals welcome the role played by NGO's and MNC's in supplementing the
work done by States. For example they support NGO's involved in social work and
account them as intrinsic in ensuring welfare of the people. They are also aware of
the debilitating impact played i by terror and criminal groups and thus urge for
more liberal instituionalism to resolve and tackle these issues collectively.
• Marxists: Marxists are extremely critical of MNC's and NGO's according to them,
these organisations are a reflection of the dominant classes. They believe that MNC
operate on capitalistic notions of profit over anything else and thus reflect the
aspirations of the production cost. Further Gramscian school also believes that
transnational actors also play the role of generating consent fot the dominant
class.
Feminists: Feminists welcome the role played by pressure and advocacy grups that
highlight the plight of the marginalised groups but they are critical of the MNC's
which have historically employed exploitative practices in developing nations to
maximise their profits often women and children have been the worst sufferers of
this.
"Some feel Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are a vital new road to economic
growth, Where as others feel they perpetuate under development." Discuss. (2018)
Multinational Companies are companies that have business operations in at least one
country other than its home country. They operate at a large global scale and are
often at a position to influence the decision making in the countries they operate.
Thus this poses economic advantages for the countries but also their operations
have often also been criticised.
Arguments for MNCs as a road to economic growth:
Job Creation and Economic Opportunities: MNCs can contribute to economic growth by
creating jobs, especially in countries with high unemployment rates. They often
bring new technologies, skills, and knowledge, which can enhance productivity and
provide economic opportunities for local populations.
Transfer of Technology and Knowledge: MNCs typically possess advanced technologies

and expertise that they can transfer to host countries. This transfer can help
upgrade local industries, improve productivity, and stimulate innovation,
ultimately contributing to economic development.
⚫ Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): MNCs often bring significant foreign direct
investment into host countries, which can contribute to infrastructure development,
improve production capabilities, and enhance the overall business environment. This
infusion of capital can be crucial for developing countries that face limited
domestic investment resources.
• Access to Global Markets: MNCs have established global networks and distribution
channels, allowing local businesses to access international markets. Through
collaborations and supply chain integration, local enterprises may benefit from
increased exports, access to new markets, and opportunities for growth.
Arguments that MNCs perpetuate underdevelopment:
Exploitation of Resources: Critics argue that MNCs often exploit natural resources
and labor in developing countries, without sufficient benefit flowing back to local
communities. This can lead to environmental degradation, resource depletion, and
economic dependency on specific industries, hindering long-term sustainable
development. ⚫ Neo-Colonialism: MNCs typically possess more resources, capital,
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local governments and communities. This power imbalance can lead to unfavorable
terms, such as tax avoidance, labor rights violations, and the erosion of local
industries, exacerbating inequality and underdevelopment.
⚫ Limited Technology Transfer: While technology transfer is often mentioned as a

benefit, critics argue that MNCs may selectively transfer only certain
technologies, keeping more advanced knowledge and high-value activities within
their headquarters or subsidiaries in developed countries. This can hinder the
development of local industries and perpetuate technological dependence.
• Market Dominance and Dependency: MNCs' market power and ability to outcompete
local businesses can create dependency and limit domestic economic diversification.
This had also been one of the agendas of the Non Aligned Movement in the 1970's
which sought to highlight the exploitation and introduce regulation.
To have a comprehensive understanding, it is important to recognize that the impact

of MNCs on economic growth and development is nuanced and varies across different
countries and industries. Government policies, regulations, and the ability to
effectively harness MNC investments and activities can influence the outcomes.
Striking a balance between attracting foreign investment, protecting local
interests, and ensuring sustainable development is a key challenge for policymakers
in managing the relationship between MNCs and economic growth.
General impact of Non state actors on IP
⚫ Non-state Actors and the Nation-States System: The presence of non-state actors
has brought significant changes to the nation-states system and the role of nation-
states in international relations. These actors have contributed to increasing
international interdependence and relations, leading to a shift from high politics
to low politics at the international level.
⚫ Non-state Actors as the products of the new International System: Non-state

actors are products of various developments in the international system, including
the nuclear age, space age, communication revolution, transportation revolution,
welfarism, internationalism, and globalization. International and intergovernmental
organizations have been established in response to the demands and wishes of
nation-states.
⚫ A New Complexity in International Relations: The presence of non-state actors

has introduced complexity and challenges to international relations. While some
non-state actors work towards international peace, security, and development,
others can act as agents of neo-colonialism and dependency for underdeveloped
countries. These actors have also contributed to the growth of internationalism and
the emergence of peaceful, developmental, and ecological movements.
Why the role of transnational actors have become more important
The nature of the world order has indeed evolved beyond a state-centric framework.
The current international politics is better understood through models like the
cobweb model and complex interdependence, which acknowledge the role of
transnational actors and interactions. Joseph Nye provides a multi-dimensional view
of the world order:
⚫ Economically: The world is multipolar in terms of economic power, with multiple

countries and
regions having significant economic influence and interdependence. Socially: Power

is diffused among civil society institutions and even non-state actors, including
uncivil society elements. The power of these organizations cannot be controlled by
the state alone. Their influence has grown due to the spread of democratic
consciousness and the Information, Communication, and Technology (IC&T) revolution.

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Terrorism, however, is only a meaningful term if it can reliably be distinguished

from other forms of political violence. Terrorism differs from conventional warfare
in that, as a 'weapon of the weak', it is most often embraced by those who have no
realistic possibility of prevailing against their opponents in a conventional armed
contest.
Lacking the organizational strength or destructive capacity to engage in open

conflict, terrorists rely on strategies of provocation and polarization. Indeed,
terrorism can even be thought of as the negation of combat, as its targets are
attacked in such a way as to make self-defence difficult or perhaps impossible.
Terrorism, nevertheless, shares more in common with guerrilla warfare. Both are
examples of asymmetrical warfare, in which tactics and strategies are adopted
specifically to compensate for an enemy's greater technological, economic and
(conventional) military strength.
Evolution
Prior to the 1990s, terrorism was frequently disregarded by textbooks on

international politics and was generally regarded as a secondary security problem.
The events of September 11, 2001, however, fundamentally altered this and spurred a
thorough reevaluation of terrorism's character and impact.
According to some, what has been variously referred to as "new," "global," or

"catastrophic" terrorism had emerged as the main security threat in the early
twenty-first century, reflecting the fact that non-state actors (in this case,
terrorist groups) had significantly more advantages over states under conditions of
globalisation.
In addition, the start of the "war on terror" implied that the resurgence of
terrorism had exposed fresh fault lines that would shape world politics for the
foreseeable future. However, terrorism is both a highly contested phenomenon and a
deeply controversial concept.
Types
Insurrectionary terrorism: these is aimed at the revolutionary overthrow of a

state, through violent means and are often ideologically charged. Example: Left
Wing Extremist in India Issue based terrorism: These are aimed at the promotion of
a single cause, they are also aimed
at taking revenge on the state for actions taken by it.Example: Arakan Rohingya
Army
Nationalist terrorism: This aims to overthrow colonial rule or occupation, often

with the goal of gaining independence for an ethnic, religious or national group.
Example: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in Sri Lanka
⚫ Global terrorism: This is aimed at inflicting damage and humiliation on a global

power or at transforming global civilizational relations. Example: Al Qaeda, ISIS
As a Contested Concept
The central feature of terrorism is that it is a form of political violence that

aims to achieve its objectives through creating a climate of fear and apprehension.
1. Subjectivity: Terrorism often involves acts of violence or threats intended to

instill fear and intimidate a population or a government. However, what constitutes
terrorism can vary based on one's perspective and political, social, or cultural
context. • Example: Terrorist groups operating in India are often not viewed as
terror groups by Pakistan
or China due to geo-political rivalry or the Taliban views the West as terrorists
whereas the West sees the Taliban as a terror group.

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2. Political Use and Manipulation: The term "terrorism" can be politically

instrumentalized, with different actors employing it selectively to advance their
interests or delegitimize their opponents. Governments, in particular, may label
certain groups or individuals as terrorists for populist purposes.
Example: China often regards Tibetan independence activist as terrorists. 3.

Resistance Groups: The distinction between terrorism and legitimate forms of
resistance or freedom struggles is often debated. Some argue that acts labeled as
terrorism by one side are seen as legitimate resistance or liberation struggles by
others.
Example: The PLO was classified as a terror group by Israel, but for many other
countries, it was seen as a resistance group fighting for a free Palestine.
4. Legal and International Disagreements: The lack of a universally accepted legal

definition of terrorism further complicates the concept. Countries have divergent
legal frameworks and definitions of terrorism, which can hinder international
cooperation, legal proceedings, and efforts to combat terrorism on a global scale.
• Example: US and West often regard the Iranian Government as a government that
supports and harbours terrorists, whereas Russia and China do not view them as so.
Similarly Noam Chomsky views USA as a terror state for the acts of violence
perpetrated on other nations.
New Terrorism
The concept of "new terrorism" emerged in the late 20th century to describe certain
characteristics and trends observed in contemporary terrorist activities. While
there is no universally accepted definition of new terrorism, it generally refers
to a shift or evolution in the nature, motivations, strategies, and tactics of
terrorist groups compared to traditional or historical forms of terrorism.
Although new terrorism supposedly has a number of features, its most important, and
perhaps defining feature is that religious motivations for terrorism have replaced
secular motivations. Previously terrorism was a product of political ambitions as
in the case of PLO, however since the 1990's it has taken a religious or
ideological turn.
New terrorism is often transnational in nature, with global networks and

connections. Terrorist groups may operate across multiple countries, forming
alliances, seeking ideological inspiration, and mobilizing resources and support on
an international scale. Similarly at the same time, the rise in lone wolf attacks
show that indoctrination can take place even without proper training as was being
done before (Example: Al Qaeda camps in Afghanistan)
New terrorism leverages advances in technology and media to propagate its message,
recruit members, and amplify its reach. The internet, social media platforms, and
encrypted communication channels have facilitated recruitment, radicalization, and
dissemination of propaganda. This technological dimension enhances the global reach
and influence of new terrorist groups.
Further contemporary terrorism has also evolved beyond religious indoctrination

with the emergence of domestic terrorism as seen in US with a rise in shootings.
Since Terrorism has not been defined suitably, its definition of inflicting terror
and causing loss of innocent lives includes this.
Nevertheless, the notion of new terrorism has also been subject to criticism, many
arguing that distinction between new terrorism and traditional terrorism is largely
artificial or, at least, much exaggerated. For example, religiously inspired
terrorism is certainly not an entirely new phenomenon. Apart from more ancient
examples, elements within the Muslim Brotherhood, which was formed in 1928, have
often been linked to assassinations and other attacks, while nationalist groups,
such as the Moro National Liberation
Movement (MLF), Egyptian Islamic Jihad and Hezbollah, have fused religious and
political objectives.

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UNIT 7: CHANGING INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ORDER
Identify the challenges to American hegemony in post-Soviet world. (150 words)

(2013) ⚫ Discuss the collapse of the Soviet Union and its impact on international
politics. (2015) Discuss the positive and negative impacts of Soviet Union's
disintegration on developing nations. (2016)
Identify the major changes in the International Political economy in post-Cold War
period. (200 words) (2013)
What does the pace of nuclear proliferation in post-Cold War suggest? (150 words)
(2013) Discuss the evolution of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons in the post-
Cold War Period. (2016)
Examine in brief the rise and fall of the Cold War. (2016)
"The development of advanced missile Gulf War technology and nuclear threat by
North Korea has challenged the American hegemony in South-East Asia. Evaluate the
above statement in the context of recent developments in the region. (2017)
Discuss the consequences of Trump's "America First" and Xi's "Chinese Dream" on
World Politics. (2018)
Critically analyze the implications of Sino American strategic rivalry for the
South and SouthEast Asian region. (2020)
Cold War
The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension and ideological conflict between
the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, which lasted
roughly from the end of World War II in 1945
to the early 1990s. Although the United States and the Soviet Union never directly
engaged in open warfare, the two superpowers were locked in a state of political,
economic, and military rivalry. The notion of a 'cold war' suggests a condition of
'neither war nor peace'. However, to describe US- Soviet relations during this
period as a 'war' is to suggest that levels of antagonism between the two powers
were so deep and impas- sioned that they would have led to direct military
confrontation had circumstances allowed. In practice, this only applied to the
first, most hostile, phase of the so-called Cold War, as tensions began to ease
after the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The idea of an enduring 'cold war' may
therefore have been shaped by ideological assumptions about the irreconcilability
of capitalism and communism.
Why was it called Cold?
The Cold War was supposedly 'cold' in the sense that superpower antagonism did not
lead to a 'fighting war'. This, nevertheless, remained true only in terms of the
absence of direct military confrontation between the USA and the Soviet Union. In
respect of covert operations, so-called proxy wars and conflicts that were clearly
linked to East-West conflict (Korean, Vietnam, the Arab-Israeli wars and so on) the
Cold War was 'hot'.
Events leading to the Cold War
World War II: The alliance between the United States, the Soviet Union, and other
countries during World War II was primarily driven by the goal of defeating Nazi
Germany. However, ideological differences and mutual suspicions between the United
States and the Soviet Union emerged during the war.

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Yalta Conference (1945): The Yalta Conference, held in February 1945, brought
together the leaders of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom
to discuss the post-war reorganization of Europe. Disagreements arose regarding the
political future of Eastern European countries and the extent of Soviet influence
in the region, which laid the foundation for future tensions.
⚫ Potsdam Conference (1945): The Potsdam Conference, held in July-August 1945,

further highlighted the growing rift between the United States and the Soviet
Union. Differences emerged over the issue of reparations, the division of Germany,
and the status of Eastern European countries.
• The Iron Curtain Speech (1946): In March 1946, former British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill delivered a speech in Fulton, Missouri, in which he used the term
"iron curtain" to describe the division of Europe into Soviet-controlled Eastern
Europe and the democratic Western Europe. The speech symbolized the ideological and
geopolitical divide between the East and the West.
⚫ Truman Doctrine (1947): In response to Soviet expansionism and the threat of

communism, U.S. President Harry S. Truman announced the Truman Doctrine in 1947.
The doctrine outlined the United States' commitment to providing economic and
military aid to countries threatened by communist forces, effectively marking the
beginning of the policy of containment.
• Marshall Plan (1948): The Marshall Plan, officially known as the European
Recovery Program, was an economic aid package proposed by U.S. Secretary of State
George Marshall in 1947. The plan aimed to provide financial assistance to war-torn
European countries, including those in Eastern Europe, with the intention of
fostering economic stability and preventing the spread of communism.
• Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948-1949): In response to the introduction of a new

Western currency in West Germany and fears of a united West Germany, the Soviet
Union blockaded West Berlin in 1948, cutting off supplies to the city. The United
States and its allies organized a massive airlift operation to provide essential
supplies to West Berlin, which lasted for over a year. This event highlighted the
determination of the United States to defend Western interests.
Historical Basis
The origin of the Cold War may be traced back to the 1917 Russian Revolution,
whichgave birth to a new system. The system came to be known as socialist system,
opposedto exploitative capitalist system. Whole of the capitalist world got terror
stricken andrallied to crush the new state of the USSR, failing to destroy it they
encouraged theemergence of the Nazi power in Germany, so that it might be used
against the USSR.The USSR made serious efforts to get the Western powers involved
in checking therapid rise of Nazi Germany.
But the Western powers did not respond to the USSR's call. Meanwhile the Second
World War broke out in 1939. Germany attacked the USSR violating the non-aggression
pact between them. The USSR joined the Allied powers and made great contribution to
defeat the Axis powers. Despite its sincere efforts to crush the Axis powers, the
West always looked at the USSR with deep suspicion. The West is alleged to have
desired the end of the USSR in the process of fighting againstthe Nazi led Axis
powers. That is why perhaps the Allies did not respond to the USSR's repeated
appeal for opening second front in the Eastern Europe against Germany. After the
war the Allies did not hide their fear and hatred towards the USSR which now
emerged as one of the superpowers in the world.

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Nature of Cold War
Bipolarity: According to Realists like Kenneth Waltz the cold war brought by the
bipolarity of the world was beneficial in many ways. Firstly it prevented the IIIrd
world war due to the presence of effective nuclear deterrence between the US and
USSR.
Ideologically Based: The Cold war was based primarily on the basis of the
Capitalist West Vs Communist east. In other worlds it can be said a war between two
ways of life or two political systems which were inherently threatened by each
other. The Cold War resulted in the division of the world into distinct spheres of
influence. Western Europe, along with the United States and its allies, formed the
Western bloc, while Eastern Europe, under Soviet influence, comprised the Eastern
bloc. This division was reinforced by military alliances such as NATO (North
Atlantic Treaty Organization) and the Warsaw Pact.
Nuclear Arms Race: The Cold War witnessed an intense nuclear arms race between the
United States and the Soviet Union. Both countries developed and stockpiled vast
numbers of nuclear weapons, creating a state of mutually assured destruction (MAD).
The threat of nuclear war hung over the entire period, heightening tensions and
shaping military strategies.
Proxy Wars: Instead of direct military confrontation between the superpowers, much
of the conflict during the Cold War was fought through proxy wars. The United
States and the Soviet Union supported opposing sides in conflicts in various
regions, such as the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Soviet-Afghan War. These
proxy wars allowed the superpowers to compete indirectly and avoid direct
confrontation.
Causes of the Cold War
The causes of the Cold War were perceived differently by the Western countries,
primarily led by the United States, and the communist countries, led by the Soviet
Union.
According to the West (primarily the United States and its allies):
Expansionist Soviet Policies: The West believed that the Soviet Union, under
communist ideology, sought to spread communism and expand its influence worldwide.
They viewed Soviet actions, such as supporting communist movements and installing
pro-Soviet governments in Eastern Europe, as evidence of Soviet expansionism.
Fear of Communist Domination: By 1948 the Soviets had installed left-wing

governments in the countries of eastern Europe that had been liberated by the Red
Army. The Americans and the British feared the permanent Soviet domination of
eastern Europe and the threat of Soviet- influenced communist parties coming to
power in the democracies of western Europe. They saw the Soviet Union as a
totalitarian regime that aimed to undermine and subvert Western democratic values
and institutions.
⚫ Ideological Differences: The ideological conflict between capitalism and

communism was a fundamental cause of the Cold War according to the West. The
capitalist countries believed in free markets, individual freedoms, and private
property, while the communist countries sought to establish a classless society
with collective ownership of resources and centralized control.
According to the Communists (primarily the Soviet Union):
⚫ Lack of Trust towards: The USSR had always called out the west due to the lack
of information sharing by the US during the World war. They give the example of the
Manhattan Project which was kept a secret from the Soviets who were considered an
ally in the war. This created a mutual distrust against the West by the Soviets.
Security Concerns: The Soviet Union, having suffered significant losses during
World War II, felt a need for security and sought to establish buffer zones to
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They viewed the encroachment of Western influence and the establishment of military
alliances like NATO as a threat to their security.
• Defense of the World Revolution: The communists believed in the global spread of
communism and considered themselves as vanguards of a worldwide revolution. They
aimed to support communist movements in other countries and assist in their
struggle against capitalism and imperialism.
Iron Curtain
The term "Iron Curtain" refers to the ideological, political, and physical division
that existed between Eastern and Western Europe during the Cold War. Coined by
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in a speech in 1946, the Iron Curtain
represented the metaphorical barrier that separated the communist states of Eastern
Europe, which were under the influence of the Soviet Union, from the democratic,
capitalist countries of Western Europe.
The Iron Curtain represented not only a political and ideological division but also
a physical one, as it was enforced by various means such as border controls, barbed
wire fences, and fortified walls. It symbolized the stark contrast in political
systems, economic structures, and personal freedoms between the Eastern Bloc and
the Western democracies.
The Iron Curtain effectively isolated the countries behind it from the influences
of the Western world and limited the flow of information, people, and ideas. It was
a prominent feature of the Cold War and remained in place until the late 1980s,
when the fall of the Berlin Wall and subsequent events led to the dismantling of
barriers and the reunification of Europe.
Evolution of the Cold War
Phase I: The first phase of the Cold War can be generally identified as the period
from the end of World War II in 1945 until the early 1950s. During this time,
tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union escalated as they
established their respective spheres of influence and competed for global
dominance. Key events in this phase include the division of Europe into Eastern and
Western blocs, the Berlin Blockade and Airlift, the establishment of NATO and the
Warsaw Pact, and the outbreak of the Korean War. These developments laid the
foundation for the subsequent phases of the Cold War.
Phase II: Stalin, the man who led Soviet Russia from the Second World War into the
Cold War, died in 1953. He was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, and with that began
the second phase of the Cold War. Although the tensions eased to some extent, The
second phase of the Cold War, from the mid-1950s to the late 1960s, witnessed
several significant events. The Berlin wall was constructed to bifurcate the
Liberal West German and the Communist East. The United States and the Soviet Union
engaged in a nuclear arms race, developing more advanced weapons while attempting
arms control agreements. The space race intensified as both superpowers achieved
significant milestones in space exploration.Events like the Cuban Missile Crisis
were also during this period. Proxy wars, notably the Vietnam War, became prominent
battlegrounds for the superpower rivalry. Efforts were made to prevent the spread
of nuclear weapons through the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Despite ongoing
tensions, cultural exchanges and cooperation between the superpowers increased,
fostering some degree of détente during this phase of the Cold War.
Phase III: As the 1960s ended, a major shift in Cold War patterns could be
observed. This is often described by the French word 'detente', which means
releasing stress or tension, and is used to denote a thaw in tensions between
hostile nations. Detente, or a period of reduced tensions between the US and USSR,
was crucial to this effort. During the 1965 elections in West Germany,

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Willy Brandt (the head of the Social Democratic Party) also called for building
bridges with Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. This period also saw US
rapprochement towards China and the first US presidential visit to China in 1972.
Phase IV (Last Phase): The last phase of the Cold War from 1979 to 1989 was marked
by several significant events. The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
strained relations with the West, while the rise of the Solidarity movement in
Poland challenged communist rule. The election of U.S. President Ronald Reagan in
1980 intensified the arms race and led to increased tensions. It is said that the
Afghan war exhausted the Soviet resolve. Gorbachev's policies of glasnost
(openness) and perestroika (restructuring) brought about significant political and
social changes in the Soviet Union, ultimately leading to the fall of the Berlin
Wall in 1989 and the end of the Cold War.
How were the relations improved during the 'detente'?
Arms Control Agreements: The superpowers engaged in negotiations to limit the arms
race and reduce the risk of nuclear war. Important agreements during this period
included the
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty.
Nuclear Agreements: In 1964, the Partial Test Ban treaty came into force which
banned the testing of nuclear weapons. Followed by this was the Non- proliferation
Trety that restricting any new country trying to develop nuclear weapons. The Anti
Balistic Missile treaty was also negotiated.
⚫ Cultural Exchanges: The United States and the Soviet Union increased cultural
exchanges, scientific cooperation, and sports competitions. These initiatives aimed
to foster better understanding and create channels of communication between the two
countries. • Summit Meetings: Leaders from both sides engaged in high-level summit
meetings to discuss
areas of mutual concern and find ways to reduce tensions. Notable summits included
the meetings between U.S. President Richard Nixon and Soviet General Secretary
Leonid Brezhnev. Trade and Economic Relations: Economic cooperation between the
superpowers expanded during détente. There was increased trade, technological
exchanges, and commercial agreements between the United States and the Soviet
Union.
⚫ Resolution of Regional Conflicts: Détente also saw efforts to resolve regional

conflicts, such
as the negotiation of peace agreements in Middle East, including Camp David Accords
in 1978. ⚫ Helsinki Accords: The Helsinki Accords, signed in 1975, had a profound
impact on the Cold War. They provided a platform for dialogue and cooperation
between the Eastern Bloc and the Western countries. The accords addressed various
aspects, including human rights, security, and territorial integrity. They helped
to promote transparency and encouraged exchanges, leading to increased cultural,
scientific, and economic cooperation. The focus on human rights put pressure on the
Soviet Union and its allies to improve their record, fostering a climate of
openness and accountability. While not solving all issues, the Helsinki Accords
contributed to a more constructive atmosphere, paving the way for further
diplomatic engagement and reducing tensions during the later stages of the Cold
War.
Response of Scholars
Traditionalists: Traditionalist scholars argue that the Cold War was primarily
driven by the Soviet Union's expansionist ambitions and aggressive actions. They
emphasize the role of ideology and the Soviet Union's desire to spread communism as
the main cause of the conflict. According to this view, the United States and its
Western allies responded defensively to Soviet aggression, leading to the formation
of military alliances and a global ideological standoff.

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Revisionists: Revisionist scholars challenge the traditionalist perspective and

argue that the United States played a more active role in instigating the Cold War.
They highlight US policies of containment and the pursuit of global dominance as
significant factors in fueling the conflict. Revisionists also emphasize the
importance of misperceptions, miscalculations, and the role of individual leaders
in escalating tensions between the superpowers.
• Francis Fukuyama: Fukuyama, an American political scientist, famously argued that
the end of the Cold War represented the triumph of liberal democracy and marked the
"end of history." He suggested that with the defeat of communism, liberal democracy
had emerged as the dominant and final form of government, leading to an era of
global stability and progress.
• Noam Chomsky: He offered a critical perspective on the Cold War, particularly

from a leftist and anti-imperialist standpoint. He criticized the United States for
its interventionist policies and highlighted the role of US imperialism in fueling
conflicts and supporting authoritarian regimes
during the Cold War.
COLLAPSE OF THE SOVIET UNION
Events leading to the Collapse of the USSR
⚫ Economic Reform: Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev implemented policies of

perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) in the mid-1980s, aiming to
revitalize the economy and increase political openness. However, these reforms
unleashed social and political forces that contributed to the unravelling of the
Soviet system. The decentralization of economic decision-
making led to conflicts between republics over resources and further undermined
central control. • Withdrawal from Afghanistan: The Soviet Union's defeat in the
Afghan War played a significant role in the eventual collapse of the USSR. The war,
which lasted from 1979 to 1989, drained Soviet resources and eroded morale among
the Soviet military and the population. The guerrilla tactics employed by Afghan
mujahideen fighters, supported by international actors including the United States,
weakened the Soviet military presence and strained the Soviet economy. The heavy
casualties and the inability to achieve a decisive victory in Afghanistan exposed
the limitations of Soviet power and contributed to growing disillusionment within
the Soviet Union.
Fall of Berlin Wall: The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 marked a pivotal event
leading to the end of the USSR. The wall's collapse symbolized the crumbling of the
Iron Curtain and the reunification of East and West Germany. It showcased the power
of people's desire for freedom and democracy. The event inspired similar movements
across Eastern Europe, leading to the dismantling of communist regimes and the
dissolution of the Soviet Union.
• Nationalist Movements: Nationalist movements demanding greater autonomy and

independence gained momentum in various Soviet republics, particularly in the
Baltic states, Ukraine, and the Caucasus. These movements challenged the central
authority of the Soviet Union and sought to establish their own independent states.
⚫ Political Instability: The political landscape became increasingly fragmented

and unstable, with power struggles and conflicts emerging within the Communist
Party and among various political factions. Gorbachev's attempts at political
reform ultimately weakened the authority of the Communist Party and the central
government.
⚫ August Coup of 1991: Hardline members of the Communist Party attempted a coup
against Gorbachev's government in August 1991, aiming to reverse his reforms. The
coup failed, but it highlighted the deep divisions within the Soviet leadership and
further weakened the central authority.

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Reasons for the Collapse of USSR 1. Political Factor
Gorbachev's Policies: When Mikhail Gorbachev was named the leader of the Soviet
Union his primary domestic goals were to lift the Soviet economy and to streamline
the government bureaucracy. He thus instituted the policies of glasnost
("openness") and perestroika ("restructuring"). Targetted towards fostering
dialogue, while the latter introduced quasi free market policies to government-run
industries. However, glasnost proved to be a vital problem. The state lost control
of both the media and the public sphere, and democratic reform movements gained
steam throughout the Soviet bloc. Perestroika exhibited the worst of the capitalist
and communist systems: price controls were lifted in some markets, but existing
bureaucratic structures were left in place, meaning that Communist officials were
able to push back against those policies that did not benefit them personally.
End of Communism in Europe: By the end of 1989 Hungary had dismantled its border
fence with Austria, Solidarity had swept into power in Poland, the Baltic states
were taking concrete steps toward independence, and the Berlin Wall had been
toppled. 2. Economic Factors
Fiscal Issues: Mismanagement of fiscal policy made the country vulnerable to

external factors, and a sharp drop in the price of oil sent the Soviet economy into
a tailspin. Throughout the 1970s and '80s, the Soviet Union ranked as one of the
world's top producers of energy resources such as oil and natural gas, and exports
of those commodities played a vital role in shoring up the world's largest command
economy.
Stagnation: Economic stagnation had hobbled country for years, and perestroika
reforms only served to exacerbate problem. Wage hikes were supported by printing
money, fueling an inflationary spiral.
3. Social Factors
⚫ Dissatisfaction with the Communist System: Over time, a significant portion of

the Soviet population became disillusioned with the communist system. The
centralized planning, lack of political freedoms, economic stagnation, and scarcity
of consumer goods created frustration and discontent among the people.
Nationalism and Ethnic Tensions: The Soviet Union was a diverse multinational state
with various ethnic groups. The rise of nationalist movements and the desire for
greater autonomy and independence among these groups challenged the unity of the
Soviet Union. Ethnic tensions and conflicts escalated, putting strain on the
cohesion of the country. 4. Military Factors
• Arms Race and Economic Burden: The arms race between US and USSR during the Cold
War put a significant economic strain on the Soviet Union. The USSR devoted a
substantial portion of its resources to maintaining a vast military-industrial
complex and nuclear arsenal, which diverted funds away from the economy,
infrastructure, and social welfare programs.
Further Reagan's "Star Wars" proved to be too expensive for Soviets to compete
against.
Afghan War: The Soviet Union's military intervention in Afghanistan from 1979 to
1989 was a costly and protracted conflict. The war drained Soviet resources,
strained its military, and eroded morale among the Soviet population. The inability
to achieve a decisive victory in Afghanistan contributed to growing disillusionment
within the USSR.
Nuclear Deterrence: The presence of nuclear weapons in the hands of both the United
States and the Soviet Union created a precarious balance of power known as mutually
assured destruction (MAD). This balance deterred direct military confrontation
between the superpowers, as use of nuclear weapons could result in catastrophic
consequences for both sides.

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Impact of the Fall of USSR
PSIR
1. Europe:
⚫ Reunification of Germany: One of the most visible consequences of the USSR's

fall was the reunification of East and West Germany. The Berlin Wall, which had
symbolized the division between the two sides, was dismantled, and Germany became a
unified nation once again. Dissolution of Yugoslavia: The fall of the USSR and the
subsequent dissolution of Yugoslavia were both part of the broader geopolitical
shifts that occurred in Eastern Europe in the late 20th
century. The collapse of the USSR weakened the centralized control over its
satellite states and
created a power vacuum, leading to increased tensions and conflicts in the region.
Democratization and Political Change: The collapse of the USSR led to a wave of
democratization in Eastern European countries that were previously under Soviet
influence. Communist regimes were replaced by democratic governments, and these
countries embarked on a path of political reform and integration into the European
Union.
Expansion of the European Union: The disintegration of the USSR created an

opportunity for the European Union (EU) to expand its membership. Many former
Soviet satellite states, including Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, and others,
joined the EU, fostering greater political and economic integration in Europe.
2. United States:
• Unipolar World Order: With the fall of the USSR, the United States emerged as the
sole remaining superpower. It became the dominant global power, both economically
and militarily. The absence of a major adversary allowed the United States to exert
its influence more freely and shape international affairs according to its
interests.
Defense Spending and Military Strategy: The decline of the Soviet Union reduced the
perceived need for high levels of defense spending in the United States. The
military budget was significantly scaled back, and the focus shifted towards a more
expeditionary and technologically advanced military, adapting to new global
security challenges.
⚫ Economic Opportunities: The end of the Cold War opened up new economic
opportunities for the United States. With the collapse of the USSR and its
satellite states, formerly closed economies became accessible markets for American
businesses. Economic globalization accelerated, and US companies expanded their
operations into Eastern Europe and Russia.
⚫ Shifting Foreign Policy Priorities: Without the primary focus of countering the
Soviet Union, US foreign policy priorities underwent a transformation. The United
States shifted its attention to new challenges and regions, such as combating
terrorism, promoting democracy, and addressing humanitarian crises.
3. India
• Economic Impact: The collapse of the USSR had adverse economic consequences for
India. India had been receiving economic and military aid from the USSR, and the
abrupt end of this support created a challenging economic situation. India faced a
severe balance of payment crisis and had to undertake economic reforms to stabilize
its economy and attract foreign investment, these factors were the major reasons
for India to liberalise its economy in 1991.
Political Impact: The end of the USSR led to a shift in India's foreign policy
priorities. During the Cold War, India had aligned itself with the USSR and had a
close strategic partnership. With the USSR's collapse, India had to reorient its
foreign policy and establish new alliances and partnerships with other countries.
We see this in form of closer ties with China and US. Nuclear Policy: The fall of
the USSR influenced India's nuclear policy. The disintegration of the USSR created
uncertainties about the future of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation
efforts. India, which had already conducted nuclear tests in 1974, faced new
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considerations in its nuclear program and thus had to conduct the Pokhran II in a
bid to secure its own Nuclear abilities.
⚫Diversification of International Relations: With the USSR's fall, India expanded

its diplomatic engagements with other countries, particularly the United States and
European nations. It sought to diversify its partnerships and build strategic
relationships beyond the traditional Soviet bloc. India also focused on
strengthening ties with neighboring countries and enhancing regional cooperation.
Strategic And Ideological Bipolarity
As Explained in the previous chapters, the notion of biplority emerges from the
Realist theory of "Polarity of Power" that essentially conveys that power has a
tendency to be divided amongst groups and in the case of Bipolarity, power is
concentrated within 2 poles or 2 nations.
It typically refers to the period of the Cold War when the United States and the
Soviet Union emerged as the primary global powers and engaged in ideological,
political, and military rivalry. However the concept is much older, in regional
contexts for example in Sparta and Athens in the Ancient period, while Europe saw
Bipolarity during Napolean's rule between France and Britain.
Views on Bipolarity
Realists and Kenneth Waltz: This according to Waltz is the most stable situation as
"less fingers on nuclear buttons". He gives the example of the cold war which was a
result of bipolarity and which helped in avoiding the 3rd world War. Bipolarity
implies less confusion and more alliances which inherently help ensure deterrence.
Social Constructivist: Social Constructivist thinkers focus on how ideas, norms,

and social interactions shape international relations. They may view bipolarity as
a socially constructed concept that influences the behavior and perceptions of
states. Constructivists examine how shared beliefs and identity between the two
dominant powers shape their interactions and the dynamics of the international
system.
Post Modernists: Postmodernists approach the concept of bipolarity in international

relations with skepticism and critique. They challenge the underlying assumptions
and structures that support the notion of bipolarity, often questioning the
objective reality of power dynamics and the binary categorization of states as
dominant or subordinate.
Liberals: Liberals feel that the notion of bipolarity existed largely during the
cold war due to the absence of trade and communication. They feel with rise in
interdependence, water tight notions of bipolarity cannot exists.
Factors leading to Emergence of Bipolarity
Power Vacuum: The Second World War left a power vacuum in the international system
as many European powers, such as the United Kingdom and France, were weakened by
the war. The two strongest countries remaining were the United States and the
Soviet Union, which emerged as the dominant superpowers.
Ideological Conflict: The ideological conflict between capitalism and communism

intensified after the war. The United States, representing the capitalist Western
bloc, and the Soviet Union, representing the communist Eastern bloc, became the
primary ideological rivals. Their differing political and economic systems
heightened tensions and contributed to the bipolar power structure. • Nuclear Arms
Race: The development of nuclear weapons during the war and their subsequent
proliferation set the stage for a bipolar world. Both the United States and the
Soviet Union became nuclear powers, leading to a strategic balance of terror known
as mutually assured destruction

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(MAD). The nuclear arms race reinforced the bipolarity by creating a deterrence-
based stability between the two superpowers.
⚫ Strategic Alliances: The formation of military alliances further solidified the

bipolar structure. The United States established the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) in 1949, which included Western European countries, as a
collective defense against the Soviet threat. In response, the Soviet Union formed
the Warsaw Pact in 1955 with its Eastern European allies.
Evaluation of a Bipolar World
1. Arguments in Favour of Bipolarity
⚫ Stability and Predictability: Bipolarity can provide a relatively stable and

predictable international system. With two major powers or blocs, there is a clear
balance of power and a defined hierarchy, which can reduce the likelihood of major
conflicts and create a sense of order.
⚫ Balance of Power: Bipolarity can contribute to a balance of power between the

two dominant actors. This balance can discourage aggression and maintain a state of
equilibrium, as both powers have a vested interest in avoiding direct confrontation
due to the potential costs and risks involved.
⚫ Simplicity in Decision-Making: In a bipolar system, decision-making for states

becomes relatively straightforward. They primarily need to consider the actions and
intentions of the other major power, which can lead to more efficient strategic
calculations and quicker responses.
⚫ Clear Alliances: Bipolarity tends to create clear-cut alliances, as states align

with one of the two major powers. This clarity can simplify diplomatic relations
and reduce ambiguity in decision-making processes.
2. Arguments against Bipolarity
• Potential for Conflict Escalation: The bipolar structure can increase the risk of
conflict escalation. When there are only two major powers, any confrontation or
competition between them can quickly escalate into a global conflict, with other
states being forced to choose sides, leading to a potentially destructive and
destabilizing scenario.
Limited Options for Non-Aligned States: In a bipolar system, non-aligned or smaller

states may find themselves limited in their options and influence. These states
might be compelled to align themselves with one of the major powers, potentially
compromising their sovereignty and independence.
Lack of Flexibility: Bipolarity can lead to a rigid and inflexible system. The
clear division between the major powers can create a static environment, making it
difficult for emerging or
rising powers to assert themselves and reshape the international order. Neglect of
Non-State Actors: Bipolarity tends to focus primarily on the major powers, often
neglecting the role and influence of non-state actors, such as multinational
corporations, nongovernmental organizations, and regional organizations. These
actors can play significant roles in shaping international affairs and may be
overlooked in a bipolar framework.
Can the present world be regarded as Bipolar between US and China?
1. Arguments in Favour
⚫ Economic Powerhouses: The United States and China are the two largest economies
in the world, accounting for a significant portion of global GDP. Both countries
possess immense economic influence and engage in extensive trade and investment
with other nations. Their economic strength allows them to exert substantial
leverage on international economic systems and policies.

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⚫ Military Capabilities: The United States and China possess formidable military
capabilities and have modernized their armed forces significantly. They have
advanced military technologies, including nuclear weapons, aircraft carriers, and
advanced cyber capabilities This military prowess gives them the ability to project
power and influence in different regions of the world.
⚫ Global Diplomatic Influence: The United States and China have extensive
diplomatic networks and engage in diplomatic efforts worldwide. They use their
diplomatic influence to shape international norms, promote their interests, and
engage in strategic partnerships with other countries. Their diplomatic engagements
allow them to play significant roles in global governance and decision-making.
⚫ Technological Competition: The United States and China are engaged in intense
competition in various technological domains, such as artificial intelligence, 5G
networks, and space exploration. Both countries invest heavily in research and
development, aiming to achieve technological supremacy. This competition has
significant implications for global innovation and the future direction of
technology.
2. Arguments against
⚫ Multilateralism and Multiple Power Centers: The international system today is

characterized by the presence of multiple power centers beyond just the United
States and China. Other countries, such as Russia, the European Union, India, and
regional powers in various parts of the world, hold significant economic, military,
and diplomatic influence. These actors shape the global dynamics, contributing to a
more multipolar world rather than a bipolar one.
• Complexity of Interactions: The interactions between the United States and China
are not solely characterized by a binary opposition or zero-sum dynamics. While
there are areas of competition and strategic rivalry, there are also instances of
cooperation and interdependence between the two countries. Global challenges like
climate change, terrorism, and public health require collaborative efforts and
engagement with a broader range of actors beyond just the US and China.
Interconnectedness and Globalization: In today's world, economic and social

interconnections have increased significantly. Globalization has facilitated the
flow of goods, services, information, and people across borders. This
interconnectedness means that power and influence are distributed among various
actors and are not confined to a bipolar structure US Economic Strength: The United
States maintains a significant influence on the world economy due to its status as
the largest economy, its strong currency (the US dollar), and its role as a global
financial hub. The US dollar is widely used as a reserve currency, and US financial
institutions play a dominant role in international markets.
ARMS RACE
An arms race refers to a competitive process in which nations or entities engage in

the rapid and continuous build up of military capabilities, particularly in terms
of weapons and military technologies. It involves a cycle of one-upmanship, where
each party seeks to outdo the other in terms of military power, with the goal of
gaining a strategic advantage or maintaining a balance of power. The arms race
between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War was one of the
most notable and consequential arms races in history. It was characterized by a
rapid and extensive build up of
nuclear and conventional weapons between the two superpowers.

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Aspects of Arms Race during Cold War
Nuclear Weapons: The development and stockpiling of nuclear weapons were central to
the arms race. Both the US and the USSR engaged in a competitive pursuit of more
powerful and sophisticated nuclear weapons, including intercontinental ballistic
missiles (ICBMs), submarine- launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and strategic
bombers. The arms race led to an unprecedented accumulation of nuclear warheads and
the concept of mutually assured destruction (MAD), where both sides had the
capability to inflict catastrophic damage on each other.
• Conventional Weapons: Alongside nuclear weapons, the US and the USSR engaged in a
buildup of conventional military forces. Both countries developed advanced military
technologies and deployed large conventional armies, armored divisions, and naval
fleets. The arms race extended to areas such as missile defense systems, strategic
bombers, and military technology research and development.
Space Race: The arms race also extended into the domain of space exploration. The
US and the USSR competed fiercely to achieve milestones in space, such as satellite
launches, manned space missions, and lunar landings. The space race was seen as a
symbolic representation of technological and ideological superiority.
• Arms Control Agreements: Amid growing concerns about the risks of an uncontrolled
arms race, the US and the USSR engaged in various arms control negotiations and
agreements. These efforts included treaties such as the Limited Test Ban Treaty
(1963), the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and II), the Anti-Ballistic
Missile (ABM) Treaty, and the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. These
agreements aimed to limit the number of nuclear weapons, establish confidence-
building measures, and reduce the risk of a catastrophic conflict.
Impact of Arms Race during the Cold war
Nuclear Deterrence and MAD: The arms race led to the development and stockpiling of
a vast number of nuclear weapons by both superpowers. This resulted in a state of
mutually assured destruction (MAD), where the possession of massive nuclear
arsenals by both sides acted as a deterrent against direct conflict. The fear of
catastrophic consequences helped maintain a tense stability during the Cold War.
• Increased Global Tensions: The arms race created a heightened atmosphere of

tension and hostility between the US and the USSR, resulting in a deepening of the
Cold War rivalry. The constant competition to develop more advanced and powerful
weapons intensified the perception of a global struggle between opposing
ideologies, leading to proxy conflicts and regional instability in various parts of
the world.
• Arms Control Efforts: The escalating arms race prompted both superpowers to
engage in arms control negotiations and agreements. Efforts like the Strategic Arms
Limitation Talks (SALT) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty aimed to manage
the arms race, limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons, and establish
confidence-building measures. These agreements helped to stabilize the nuclear
balance and reduce the risks of a catastrophic conflict.
Economic Burden: The arms race placed a substantial economic burden on both the US
and the USSR. Massive investments in military infrastructure and weapons
development strained national budgets, diverting resources away from social
programs and economic development. The sustained competition in military spending
had long-term consequences for the economic stability and growth of both
superpowers.
Proxy Wars and Regional Instability: The intense rivalry of the arms race played
out through proxy wars in various regions, including conflicts in Vietnam,
Afghanistan, Korea, and Angola. The US and the USSR provided military support to
opposing sides, exacerbating regional tensions

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and perpetuating conflicts. The arms race indirectly contributed to regional

instability and humanitarian crises.
Consequences of Arms Race (In General)
Economic Impact: Arms races require significant financial resources, diverting

funds from other critical sectors such as education, healthcare, infrastructure,
and social welfare. The allocation of resources towards military buildup can strain
national economies, exacerbate budget deficits, and hinder overall economic
development.
Escalation of Tensions: Arms races can lead to a heightened sense of rivalry,

competition, and distrust between nations. The continuous buildup of military
capabilities can create a security dilemma, where each party perceives the actions
of the other as threatening, leading to a cycle of further escalation and mistrust.
Destabilization and Insecurity: Arms races can contribute to regional and global
instability, as they raise the risk of conflict and increase the likelihood of
miscalculation. The presence of large military forces and sophisticated weaponry
can create a volatile environment, heightening the chances of armed clashes or
accidental escalations.
Diversion of Resources: The resources allocated to arms races could otherwise be

utilized for productive and beneficial purposes, such as poverty alleviation,
infrastructure development, or tackling urgent global challenges like climate
change. The diversion of resources towards military buildup may hinder social
progress and impede efforts to address pressing societal needs.
Proliferation and Security Dilemma: Arms races can trigger an arms proliferation
cascade, as other nations seek to acquire similar capabilities to ensure their
security or maintain a balance of power. This proliferation can lead to an
increased risk of weapons falling into the wrong hands, heightening the potential
for conflicts, terrorism, or proxy wars.
Arms Control Challenges: Arms races complicate efforts for arms control and
disarmament. The rapid and continuous buildup of weapons makes it difficult to
achieve meaningful agreements or reductions in military capabilities. The distrust
and rivalry created by the arms race can impede diplomatic negotiations and
cooperative initiatives aimed at curbing arms proliferation and promoting
stability.
Humanitarian Consequences: In the event of armed conflict, the presence of advanced

weaponry developed during an arms race can lead to devastating humanitarian
consequences, including civilian casualties, displacement, and long-term
environmental damage. The destructive power of modern weapons exacerbates the
potential harm caused during conflicts.
Various global treaties to reduce arms race and nuclearisation
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), 1968: his treaty aims to
prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, promote disarmament, and facilitate the
peaceful use of nuclear energy.
Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems (ABM Treaty), 1992: This
treaty limited the deployment of anti-ballistic missile systems to prevent a
strategic imbalance and maintain stability between the United States and the Soviet
Union during the Cold War. It was terminated in 2002.
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (START), 1991: START treaties were agreements
between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia to reduce and limit their
strategic nuclear weapons. They aimed to enhance stability and reduce the risk of
nuclear conflict.

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Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), 1996- Not yet in force: The CTBT
seeks to ban all nuclear explosions, whether for military or civilian purposes, to
prevent the development of new nuclear weapons and advance disarmament efforts. It
has not entered into force yet.
⚫ Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW), 2017: The TPNW is a recent
treaty
that prohibits the development, testing, production, possession, use, and threat of
use of nuclear weapons. It seeks to promote disarmament and create a path towards a
nuclear weapon-free world. These treaties have been established at different times
with the aim of addressing various aspects of disarmament, non-proliferation, and
arms control.
UNIPOLARITY AND AMERICAN HEGEMONY
Unipolarity refers to a situation where the power dynamics in the world are defined
by the presence of a single superpower with no single challenger or even multiple
states in combination. Unipolarity essentially is seen in the context of the end of
the USSR in 1991 when the the bipolar world order transformed into a unipolar one
with USA as the sole superpower.
The collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent end of the Cold War led to the
emergence of the United States as the sole superpower, thereby establishing a
unipolar world order. During this period, American hegemony was evident in various
aspects of global politics, economics, and culture. The United States possessed
unrivaled military capabilities, with a vast arsenal of advanced weaponry and a
global network of military bases. This military power allowed the United States to
project its influence across different regions, deter potential adversaries, and
intervene in conflicts worldwide.
Furthermore, American economic dominance was a key aspect of its hegemonic status
during the unipolar era. The United States emerged as the world's largest economy,
with significant control over global financial systems and institutions. The U.S.
dollar became the primary reserve currency, granting the United States substantial
leverage in international trade and finance. American multinational corporations
also exerted significant influence in various sectors worldwide, contributing to
the economic hegemony of the United States.
Quotes
"Unipolarity is a structure in which one state's capabilities are too great to be

counterbalanced." - William Wohlforth
"American hegemony is not a static, monolithic force, but a complex and evolving
process that involves the interplay of economic, military, ideological, and
institutional factors." - G. John
Ikenberry
• "American hegemony is based on a combination of military power, economic

influence, and a set of liberal democratic values and norms that it promotes
globally." - Joseph S. Nye Jr. "US hegemony is characterized by its ability to
shape the international agenda, set the rules of the game, and exercise
disproportionate influence over global institutions and decision-making processes."
Robert O. Keohane
Evolution of US Hegemony
1. World War I: Before the 1st World war, USA followed the Monroe doctrine which
essentially stated an isolationist foreign policy and thus US kept away from most
global and regional conflicts fduring this time, however its participation in the
1st world war proved to be decisive and even helped the allies defeat Germany.
After the 1st world war, US achieved a dominant position in global affairs as was
seen with its impetus to forming the Legaue of Nations. 2. World War II: USA was
again not initially part of the war, however after the japanese attack on
Pearl harbour it also entered the war. The USA played again a decisive role in the
the allied victory

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over Hitler. In the aftermath of the war, Europe was devasted and USA emerged as
the only credible nation to be in the position to offer aid for post war
recontruction. The bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima also proved that USA possesed
weapons and military strength that far outweighed any other nation in the world.
Post War:
o USA helped Europe reconstruct itself after the war through loans and assistance.
It also helped establish the institutions of Bretton woods (IMF, World Bank) o
Through this, it achieved a more dominant role in global affairs.
3. Cold War: During the cold war, USA's hegemony was constantly challenged by the
USSR and for a small period, USSR enjoyed far greater legitimacy through the Post
Colonialists States which saw more support in the Soviets. Even the Non Aligned
nations were regarded as "Team B" of the USSR. Its failure in Vietnam and Cuba was
also seen as a question on its true hegemony. However by the 1980's the USSR
weakened and once again USA started becoming a hegemon.
4. Post Cold War: The most defining moment for US hegemony was in the aftermath of
the fall of the Soviet Union marking America's unipolar moment. During the 1990's
US was undisputedly a unipolar hegemon.
5. Since 9/11: The attacks of 9/11 on USA questioned the extend of US hegemony with
scholars terming that US had overstregthed itself and 9/11 was a response for the
interventionist policies it pursued in the Middle East and Afghnaistan since the
last 2 decades. Further the 2008 economic crisis which started in the USA also
questioned the extend and effectiveness of US led neoliberal world order.
6. Contemporary Times: The contemporary times are marked with the rise of China, US
withdrawal from Afghanistan and the war in Ukraine. It is increasingly been seen
that these events today have challenged US hegemony and to an extent proved that
the US does not enjoy the hegemony it once did.
• Examples: US could not prevent the war in Ukraine, neither it has been able to
deter Russian policies in Georgia, Crimea.
US has also been unable to deal with China in the South China sea and is
increasingly being challenged in the Pacific.
There are also signs of NATO having internal discord as the US insistence on its
mechanism and operations have been the major source of conflict between Europe and
Russia. The US economy is also seing slowdown while those of India, China are still
growing, it is predicted that by the next few decades the Chinese economy will
overtake the US economy.
China and the decline of US Hegemony
China is widely seen as a significant threat to US hegemony due to its economic

rise, technological advancements, and expanding global influence.
Firstly, China's economic power poses a challenge to US hegemony. It has

experienced unprecedented growth, becoming the world's second-largest economy.
China's manufacturing prowess, export-oriented industries, and large consumer
market have allowed it to compete with US industries and challenge American
economic dominance. Its Belt and Road Initiative, an ambitious infrastructure
development project spanning multiple continents, aims to enhance connectivity and
expand China's influence globally. By investing in strategic infrastructure
projects, China is creating economic dependencies and potential spheres of
influence that could undermine US economic and political leverage. Secondly,
China's technological competitiveness is a cause for concern. The country has
prioritized technological innovation and is investing heavily in areas such as
artificial intelligence, quantum
computing, and 5G technology. China's advancements in these fields have the

potential to disrupt global

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technological leadership currently held by the United States. The development of

advanced technologies has significant implications for national security, economic
competitiveness, and influence in the digital realm. China's pursuit of indigenous
innovation and its efforts to become a global technological leader pose a direct
challenge to US technological supremacy.
Furthermore, China's expanding global influence and assertive foreign policy

contribute to the perception of a threat to US hegemony. China has been increasing
its military capabilities and modernizing its armed forces, challenging US military
dominance in the Asia-Pacific region. The country's assertiveness in territorial
disputes, such as those in the South China Sea, and its growing presence in
strategic regions through investments and partnerships raise concerns about China's
intentions and its impact on US-led alliances and security arrangements. China's
growing influence in international institutions and its efforts to shape global
governance norms, such as through the establishment of alternative development
banks, also challenge the primacy of Western-led institutions and pose a potential
threat to US influence. It is important to note that the perceived threat of China
to US hegemony is not absolute, and opinions on the extent and, nature of the
threat vary. Some argue that China faces its own challenges, such as domestic
economic imbalances, demographic shifts, and geopolitical constraints.
Nevertheless, the combination of China's economic strength, technological
advancements, and expanding global influence positions it as a significant
challenger to US hegemony in the twenty-first century. The evolving
dynamics between China and the United States will shape the future of international
relations and the balance of power on the global stage.
China's Statistics
⚫ 900% increase in defence expenditure since 1990
OBOR has helped expand its economic outreach to nearly 70 countries. Average growth
rate of 8-10% last 30 years.
Scholarly Evaluation
Realist Perspective: Realist scholars, such as John Mearsheimer, argue that China's
rise as a potential hegemonic power is a natural consequence of power dynamics in
international relations. They believe that China's growing economic and military
capabilities will inevitably challenge US hegemony, leading to increased
competition and the potential for conflict.
• Power Transition Theory: Scholars like Graham Allison draw on power transition
theory, suggesting that when a rising power like China challenges the dominant
power (the United States), it can lead to a period of instability and potential
conflict. They highlight historical cases, such as the Thucydides Trap, where a
rising power and an established power clashed due to the fear of losing power and
status.
• Robert Kagan: Kagan, a neoconservative scholar, expresses concerns about China's

rise and its potential impact on US hegemony. He argues that China's autocratic
regime, economic practices, and military expansion raise questions about its
intentions and the compatibility of its rise with the existing liberal
international order. Kagan advocates for a strong US response to ensure the
preservation of democratic values and the balance of power.
• Fareed Zakaria: Zakaria suggests we are living in a post-American world order, as

according to him the emergence of the BRICS signals the decline of the west.
• Eric Edelman: Edelman, an American diplomat has stated that the US hegemony is on
a decline mainly due to the economic downturn and the failed war on terror as well
as its loss of legitimacy after its poor interventionism in the Middle East.

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Anti-Declinists
PSIR
Michael Beckley: Beckley, a political scientist, challenges the notion of US
decline by examining key indicators of power, such as military capabilities and
economic resilience. He argues that the United States remains the most powerful
country in the world and that its relative decline has been exaggerated. Beckley
suggests that the United States maintains a significant lead over other major
powers in key dimensions of power.
Joseph Nye: He argues that while China's rise is significant, it does not
necessarily mean a direct challenge to US hegemony. Nye emphasizes the importance
of distinguishing between different forms of power, including military, economic,
and soft power, and how they are wielded in global affairs. He suggests that the
United States should focus on maintaining its competitive edge by leveraging its
soft power resources.
Michael Austin: In his book "End of the Asian Century" he says that China or Asian
nations will not prove to be challenge to US hegemony as these nations come with
their own conflictual " domestic situations which run counterproductive to
establishing themselves above US globally. He gives the example of ageing
population of China, high debt and opaque governance.
NON ALIGNED MOVEMENT
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is an international organization comprising a group

of states that consider themselves not formally aligned with or against any major
power bloc. The movement was formed during the Cold War era, when the world was
largely divided into two camps led by the United States and the Soviet Union.
The Non-Aligned Movement emerged in 1961 during the Belgrade Conference, which was
attended by leaders from 25 newly independent countries from Africa, Asia, and
Latin America. These countries sought to promote their common interests and
maintain their independence and sovereignty in the midst of the intense
geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.
The NAM aimed to provide a platform for developing nations to voice their concerns,
assert their autonomy, and pursue their own paths of economic and political
development. The movement emphasized principles such as national self-
determination, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, peaceful
coexistence, and disarmament.
The Movement advocates a middle course for states in the developing world between
the Western and Eastern Blocs during the Cold War. The phrase itself was first used
to represent the doctrine by Indian diplomat V. K. Krishna Menon in 1953, at the
United Nations
Meaning of Non-Alignment
1. Non-alignment means the refusal of states to take sides with one or the other of
the two principal opposed groups of powers such as existed at the time of the cold
war. Nonalignment can be defined as not entering into military alliances with any
country, either of the Western bloc led by the U.S. or the communist bloc led by
the U.S.S.R. It is anassertion of independence in foreign policy. 2. Some Western
scholars have persistently confused non-alignment "with isolationism, non
commitment, neutrality, neutralism and non-involvement. Non-alignment is not
neutrality. Non- alignment is a political concept, whereas, neutrality is a legal
concept. Unlike neutrality, non- alignment is not a law written into the
Constitution of the state. Neutrality is a permanent feature of state policy, while
non-alignment is not. Further, unlike neutrality, non-alignment is not negative,
but is a positive concept. It stands for An active role in world affairs
Friendship and cooperation with all countries.

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3. It consists of taking an independent position based on the merits of each issue,

and, on the requirements of national interest.
Why was Non Aligned Movement needed?
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) emerged during the Cold War as a response to the
intense geopolitical rivalry between the two superpowers, the United States and the
Soviet Union. The NAM was formed by countries that sought to distance themselves
from this ideological divide and to pursue their own paths of economic and
political development without being aligned with either of the two
superpowers.
Promoting national sovereignty and self-determination: The Non-Aligned Movement

emphasized the principle of national sovereignty and self-determination, which were
important for many newly independent countries that were emerging from colonial
rule. The NAM sought to promote the interests of these countries and protect their
sovereignty from external interference.
Avoiding Cold War entanglements: During the Cold War, the world was largely divided
into
two blocs led by the United States and the Soviet Union. Many countries felt
pressure to align with one of these blocs, which often led to economic, political,
and military entanglements. The NonAligned Movement offered an alternative
approach, allowing countries to pursue their own interests without being beholden
to either superpower.
• Advocating for developing countries: The Non-Aligned Movement provided a platform

for developing countries to voice their concerns and advocate for their interests
on the global stage. Many developing countries faced significant economic, social,
and political challenges, and the NAM sought to address these issues and promote
greater global equity.
• Promoting peace and stability: The Non-Aligned Movement emphasized the importance
of peaceful coexistence and conflict resolution. During the Cold War, the NAM
played an important role in mediating conflicts and promoting dialogue between
nations, helping to reduce tensions and promote global stability.
Fostering South-South cooperation: The Non-Aligned Movement sought to promote

greater cooperation and solidarity among developing countries, particularly those
in the Global South. The NAM encouraged these countries to work together to address
shared challenges, such as poverty, inequality, and underdevelopment.
Aims
Ending Colonialism: A major goal of the Non-aligned Movement was to end
colonialism. The conferences of the NAM continuously supported the national
liberation movements and the organisations that led those movements were given the
status of full members in these conferences. This support greatly facilitated the
Decolonization process in Asia and Africa.
• Condemning racial discrimination and injustice: The NAM aimed to combat racial
discrimination and injustice, particularly in South Africa and Namibia during the
apartheid era. The movement lent full support to the anti-apartheid movement in
these countries and celebrated their achievement of independence and majority rule.
• Preservation of peace and disarmament: The NAM advocated for peace, peaceful
coexistence, and human brotherhood. It opposed wars of any kind and worked towards
lowering Cold War tensions. The movement emphasized the importance of disarmament
and called for an end to the arms race, as it believed that scarce resources should
be allocated to socio-economic development
instead.
• Promoting economic development and social justice: The NAM strives to promote
economic development, eradicate poverty, reduce inequality, and enhance social
justice among member

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states. It advocates for fair trade practices, increased access to resources and
technology, and the pursuit of sustainable development.
⚫ Fostering solidarity and cooperation among member states: The NAM encourages
solidarity, unity, and cooperation among its member states. It aims to build strong
partnerships and promote mutual support among countries of the Global South,
fostering a collective voice on international issues.
Various phases of the NAM
1. Till 1970 (most successful phase):
NAM focused on fighting against racialism, imperialism, and colonialism. India

played a significant role in opposing expansionism and promoting stability in newly
liberated zones.
NAM opposed military alliances and worked towards maintaining independence and
sovereignty.
2. 1971-1990:
The period saw the effectiveness of detente between superpowers and the emergence
of the threat of neo-colonialism.
NAM focused on the New International Economic Order (NIEO) and called for
regulating the work of multinational corporations (MNCs), responsible environmental
practices, distributive justice based on historical responsibility, and socialist
ideas of equal valuation of goods. NIEO agenda was not successful, and nuclear
disarmament efforts faced challenges. 3. Post-Cold War:
The end of the Cold War led to a crisis of relevance for NAM.
Egypt questioned the existence of NAM, and there were calls in India for declaring
its mission accomplished.
NAM reoriented its agenda by emphasizing that although the Cold War had ended, the
problems of developing countries persisted.
The Havana Declaration of 2006 aimed to strengthen the United Nations, reinforce
multilateralism, address globalization challenges, and respect cultural diversity.
⚫ NAM also advocated for the objective and non-selective implementation of human
rights.
Achievements
Advocacy for economic equality: The NAM called for the establishment of a New
International Economic Order (NIEO) to address economic inequality and
exploitation. It highlighted the economic disparities between developed and
developing countries, particularly in terms of raw material production and trade
imbalances. The NAM aimed to restructure the international
economic and monetary systems based on equality, non-discrimination, and

cooperation.
Recognition of economic sovereignty: The NAM succeeded in promoting the principle

of economic sovereignty over natural resources, emphasizing the rights of
developing countries to control and benefit from their own resources. This
achievement helped protect against exploitation and ensured that resources were
used for the development of the respective nations.
• Influence on trade policies: The NAM legitimized the pursuit of interventionist

trade policies by developing countries, allowing them to protect their domestic
industries and promote economic development. The movement drew attention to the
role of multinational corporations in the transfer of technology and successfully
advocated for addressing the issues arising from their activities. ⚫ Negotiation
and compensatory finance: NAM's efforts made third world economic demands
negotiable, forcing developed countries to come to negotiating table. The movement

successfully

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pursued the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to establish a system of compensatory

finance, providing assistance to developing countries in overcoming balance of
payments difficulties. • Cultural achievement: The establishment of the Pool of
News Agencies is considered an achievement in the cultural field. It enabled
politically and economically weaker nations to gather and communicate information
without relying solely on the Western communication system, allowing for a more
independent flow of information.
• Empowerment for independent economic development: The NAM's most significant

achievement lies in teaching the developing world how to pursue independent
economic development within the world capitalist economic order. Despite their
dependence on developed states for capital and technology, the NAM empowered
developing countries to assert their economic independence and pursue their own
paths of development.
Relevance of NAM
Some scholars argue that the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was a product of the Cold
War and bipolarism, and with the end of the Cold War and disintegration of the
Soviet Union, the NAM has lost its relevance. Others believe that the NAM's work
program, including gaining independence for colonies, dismantling apartheid, and
reducing nuclear arms, has been accomplished, and question the importance of non-
alignment in a world where alliances are disintegrating. However, it is important
to note that the relevance of the NAM goes beyond the context of the Cold War or
bipolarity. The policy originated based on the central basis of decolonization, and
the aversion to Cold War bipolarity only influenced the future course of the
movement.
The world's configuration is no longer clearly defined, with different opinions on

whether it is uni polar (led by the US) or multi polar (involving the EU, Japan,
Russia, and China). Some refer to it as "uni-cum-multi polar."
• The US and the G-7 powers have the ability to work together and manage the rest
of the world, creating a new Northern concert of Powers.
In this global scenario, non-alignment faces challenges as there is less room for
manoeuvring and an intermediary role. However, there is still a need for non-
alignment as developing countries in South need to assert their independence and
collaborate to avoid being overwhelmed by the North. ⚫ The developing countries
face uncertainties, complexity, and increased vulnerability in a multi
polar world, with limited opportunities to exploit differences among major economic
powers.
Developing countries are pressured to comply with the demands of the developed
world regarding market opening, intellectual property rights, and environmental
issues, even though protectionism is rising in developed countries.
Restrictions on technology transfer to developing countries are increasing,

depriving them of technological progress and impeding their industrial development.
The world remains divided into nuclear "haves" and "have-nots," with pressure on
developing countries to refrain from acquiring nuclear weapons while the nuclear
powers retain their arsenals. Multilateralism under the United Nations is being
undermined, with economic issues transferred to institutions like the International
Monetary Fund, World Bank, and General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, controlled
by developed countries.
Discriminatory regimes for preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass

destruction limit the technological and industrial development of developing
countries.
The disintegration of nation-states poses a threat to Third World countries, and

some alliances encourage fissiparous tendencies in politically and economically
unstable countries. • Unilateral and bilateral coercive measures in trade, such as
cross-retaliation and the application of US trade acts, continue despite
international agreements.

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The newly formed world trading system, exemplified by the GAIT Treaty, may not
serve the interests of developing countries, as new issues unrelated to trade, such
as labour standards and environmental concerns, are introduced.
Reinventing NAM
In order to stay relevant in the changing global political order, the Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM) needs to undergo a process of reinvention. Here are some key points
that could be considered for the reinvention of NAM:
⚫ Shifting Global Economic Order: NAM should acknowledge the shift in global
economic power from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indo-Pacific region. It should
actively engage with rising powers like China and India to leverage their strength
and amplify the voices of the developing world.
• Post-Colonial View: NAM should prioritize the safeguarding of autonomy for post-
colonial societies. It should work towards protecting the interests and
independence of countries that have emerged from colonial rule.
Addressing Global Threats: NAM needs to incorporate global challenges such as

terrorism, pandemics, climate change, and other transnational issues into its
agenda. These issues require coordinated efforts and should be addressed
collectively by NAM member nations. Pursuing a World Vision: NAM should promote the
idea of a global village and emphasize the
interdependence among all nations, including bridging the gap between the North and
the South.
This vision should aim for greater cooperation, understanding, and shared
responsibility. Co-opting Regional Organizations: NAM should view regional
organizations not as a threat, but as partners that can be co-opted into the NAM
framework. These organizations should coordinate and reconcile their often
conflicting aims to achieve common goals within the NAM framework.
Safeguarding Member Nations: NAM should work towards protecting its member nations
from the negative impacts of neo-liberal globalization. It should adopt a critical
approach, considering the potential drawbacks and ensuring that member nations are
not adversely affected by unfair economic practices.
Fight Against Protectionism and Nuclear Disarmament: NAM should take a stand
against rising protectionism, anti-immigration sentiments, and advocate for nuclear
disarmament. These issues are crucial for promoting peace, stability, and inclusive
global development. New Charter: Some scholars, like Vijay Prashad, suggest that
NAM should develop a new charter, similar to the New International Economic Order
(NIEO), which would provide a fresh framework for addressing contemporary
challenges and advancing the interests of member nations.
[Non Aligned movement and India etc are covered in Part B] [Nuclear Threat Topic
Covered in Part B along with India and Nuclear Weapons]

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UNIT 8: EVOLUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM
FROM BRETTON WOODS TO WTO; SOCIALIST ECONOMIES AND THE CMEA (COUNCIL FOR MUTUAL
ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE); THIRD WORLD DEMAND FOR NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER;
GLOBALISATION OF THE WORLD ECONOMY
• Sketch the journey of global political economy from Washington consensus to the
present (150 words) (2013)
Explain the concept of the North-South divide and suggest how structural
inequalities between the high wage, high investment industrial North and low wage,
low investment predominantly rural South can be reduced. (2016)
"The IMF, World Bank, G-7, GATT and other structures are designed to serve the
interests of TNCs, Banks and investment firms in a "New Imperial age"."
Substantiate with examples of governance of the new world order. (2016)
How are the rising powers challenging the USA and Western dominance in the IMF and
the World Bank? (2019)
Critically evaluate the role of the United States of America in the World Trade
Organization (WTO) dispute settlement mechanism and its implications for the future
of the WTO. (2020) Explain the significance and the importance of the demand raised
by the developing countries for a New International Economic Order (NIEO). Are they
likely to achieve their objectives of NIEO in the foreseeable future? (2020)
Identify and evaluate the reasons for deadlock in the WTO negotiations on fisheries
between the developing and developed countries. (2022)
Introduction
Economic issues have always been at the centre of ideological and political debate.
The core battle round was the contest between two economic models capitalism and
socialism.
Economic system before the Bretten Woods system

Before the establishment of the Bretton Woods system, the prevailing economic
system was characterized by mercantilism. Mercantilism was an economic theory and
practice that focused on accumulating wealth through trade, particularly through
the export of goods and the accumulation of precious metals.
Mercantilism emphasized protectionist policies, where countries imposed trade

barriers such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies to protect domestic industries and
maintain a favorable balance of trade. The primary objective was to generate a
trade surplus and accumulate wealth for the nation. However, this approach had
several drawbacks. While it aimed to maximize a country's economic gains, it did
not necessarily lead to overall profitability. It often created trade imbalances
and hindered international cooperation.
• Mercantilism's emphasis on protectionism and self-interest among nations often

resulted in conflicts and tensions. Trade wars could arise when countries
implemented retaliatory measures against each other's protectionist policies. In
some cases, these trade disputes escalated into actual military conflicts, as
nations sought to secure resources and markets.
Prominent economists like Adam Smith were critical of mercantilism and advocated
for free trade and market-oriented policies. The Bretton Woods system, established
in 1944, aimed to promote

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economic stability, open markets, and cooperation among nations, marking a

significant shift away from the mercantilist approach.
Bretton Woods System
The Bretton Woods system refers to a monetary system established after World War II
at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in Bretton Woods, New
Hampshire USA, in 1944. The conference aimed to design a framework for
international economic cooperation and financial stability.
Under the Bretton Woods system, the participating countries agreed to peg their
currencies to the United States dollar, which was in turn pegged to gold at a fixed
exchange rate. This system provided stability and predictability in international
currency exchange rates, facilitating trade and economic growth.
The two main institutions created at Bretton Woods were the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD),
now part of the World Bank Group. The IMF was established to provide financial
assistance and promote global monetary cooperation, while the IBRD focused on
financing post-war reconstruction and development projects.
Post-War Need for Bretton Woods Institutions
Post-war Reconstruction: The conference took place in 1944, during the final years
of World War II when the global economy was in disarray. The participating
countries recognized the need for a coordinated international effort to rebuild
war-torn nations, promote economic stability, and foster global prosperity.
Preventing Economic Instability: The Great Depression of the 1930s highlighted the
negative consequences of unregulated and unstable international financial systems.
The Bretton Woods system aimed to create a stable and predictable framework for
international trade and finance, reducing the likelihood of currency crises,
competitive devaluations, and other disruptive economic events.
⚫ Facilitating International Trade: The system aimed to promote international

trade by establishing fixed exchange rates between currencies. This stability in
exchange rates provided confidence to businesses and facilitated the smooth flow of
goods and services across borders. Fostering Cooperation and Development: The
Bretton Woods institutions, such as the IMF and the IBRD, were created to foster
international economic cooperation and provide financial assistance for countries
facing balance of payments difficulties or seeking to finance development projects.
These institutions aimed to promote global economic growth and reduce poverty
through coordinated efforts.
• Managing Exchange Rate Stability: By pegging currencies to the U.S. dollar, which
was in tum linked to gold, the system provided a relatively stable exchange rate
regime. This stability helped countries manage their trade and monetary policies,
promoting economic growth and reducing uncertainty in international transactions.
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
The primary goals of the IMF was defined as promoting global monetary cooperation,
facilitating the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, promoting
exchange rate stability, and providing financial assistance to member countries
facing balance of payments difficulties. In the 1980s and 1990s, the IMF played a
significant role in addressing debt crises in developing countries. It provided
financial assistance to countries in exchange for the implementation of

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structural adjustment programs, which involved economic reforms aimed at

stabilizing the economy, promoting growth, and addressing underlying structural
issues.
Since the late 1990s, the IMF's role has evolved to encompass a broader range of
issues. It expanded its focus to include financial sector stability, poverty
reduction, and social safety nets. The IMF also increased its emphasis on capacity
development and technical assistance to help member countries strengthen their
economic institutions and policy frameworks.
Structure
Membership: The IMF consists of 190 member countries, each of which has a quota
that determines its financial contribution and voting power within the
organization. The member countries are represented by their respective governments
or central banks.
Board of Governors: The Board of Governors is the highest decision-making body of

the IMF and comprises one governor and one alternate governor from each member
country. They meet once a year to discuss major policy issues and approve decisions
concerning the IMF's operations. ⚫ Executive Board: The Executive Board is
responsible for day-to-day operations and policymaking. It consists of 24 Executive
Directors who represent the member countries or groups of countries. The five
largest economies (the United States, Japan, Germany, France, and the United
Kingdom) have their own appointed directors, while the other member countries are
grouped into constituencies and elect or appoint their directors.
Managing Director: The Managing Director is the chief executive officer of the IMF
and is appointed by the Executive Board. The Managing Director leads the IMF staff
and is responsible for implementing policies and managing the organization's
resources.
Voting Structure
The voting power at the IMF is distributed among member countries based on their
quotas, following a weighted voting system. A member country's voting power is
calculated as a combination of two
Components:
Basic Votes: Each member country is initially allocated 250 basic votes, regardless
of its quota size. These basic votes provide each member with a minimum level of
influence in decision- making.
• Quota-Related Votes: In addition to basic votes, each member country is allocated

quota-related votes. The number of quota-related votes is directly proportional to
a member's quota. The larger the quota, the more quota-related votes a member
country possesses. Quota-related votes account for the majority of the voting power
in the IMF.
Major decisions within the IMF require a qualified majority, known as an 85%
majority. This means that any decision must receive support from members
representing at least 85% of the total voting power. In practice, the largest
economies hold significant voting power within the IMF due to their large quotas.
The United States, as the largest shareholder, has the most significant voting
share, followed by other major economies like Japan, Germany, France, and the
United Kingdom. Together, these five countries hold special status as they each
have their own appointed Executive Director on the IMF's Executive
IMF Conditionalities
IMF conditionalities refer to the policy conditions and reforms that the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) requires countries to implement in exchange for
financial assistance or loans. When a country faces a balance of payments problems
or financial crises and seeks IMF support, the IMF typically sets conditions that
the country must meet to address its economic vulnerabilities and restore
stability.
Board.

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• Macroeconomic Policies: The IMF often requires countries to adopt specific

macroeconom policies as part of their loan programs. These policies typically
include measures to stabilize the economy, such as fiscal consolidation, monetary
tightening, and exchange rate adjustments. • Structural Reforms: The IMF often
emphasizes the need for structural reforms to addre underlying economic weaknesses
and promote sustainable growth. These reforms may involv
measures like improving governance and transparency, liberalizing trade and

investment and etc
⚫ Social Safety Nets and Poverty Reduction: Recognizing the potential social costs
of economic adjustments, the IMF increasingly includes social safety net measures
as part of its conditionalities ⚫ Policy Monitoring and Reporting: The IMF closely
monitors the implementation of the agreed upon policies and reforms during the
program period. Regular reviews and assessments ar conducted to evaluate progress
and determine if the country is meeting the conditions set by the IMF. Non-
compliance with the agreed-upon conditions may result in the suspension o
cancellation of further disbursements.
Need for reforms
1. Voting Power and Representation: One key area of reform is to revise the IMF's
voting structure to better reflect the economic realities and relative importance
of member countries. This would involve increasing the voice and representation of
emerging and developing economies, which have seen significant growth and influence
in the global economy. The aim is to make the decision- making process more
inclusive and representative.
Currently, nations cannot contribute to IMF as much as they want to, this is seen
primarily due to the fact that more contributions would compel IMF to give more
voting powers. 2. Quota Formula and Updating: There is a call to review and update
the quota formula used to determine member countries' voting shares. The formula
should better reflect the changing economic dynamics, including factors such as
GDP, trade openness, and financial flows. This
would help ensure a fair and equitable distribution of voting power among member
countries.
• Example: The United States has the largest individual voting share among all IMF
member countries at around 16%. This gives the United States significant influence
over IMF decisions, as any major decision requires a qualified majority, typically
set at 85% of the total voting power.
3. Governance and Leadership: Reforms related to the governance structure and

leadership of the IMF have also been suggested. This includes increasing the
representation of developing and emerging economies in the Executive Board and the
selection process for the Managing Director to enhance diversity and inclusivity in
decision-making.
Fact: There has not been a non-European and non-US Managing Director of the
International Monetary Fund (IMF). All previous Managing Directors have either been
from Europe or the United States.
4. Conditionality and Policy Flexibility: Some recommend revisiting the IMF's

conditionality framework to allow for more flexibility and customization. The aim
is to ensure that policy recommendations and conditions are better tailored to each
country's specific circumstances taking into account their social, economic, and
political context.
Example: During the Greek debt crisis, the IMF, along with other international
lenders, imposed strict austerity measures as a condition for financial assistance.
These policies worsened the economic recession in Greece, led to a decline in
living standards, increased unemployment and poverty rates, and undermined social
welfare programs.
How are rising powers challenging USA and Western dominance in IMF and World Bank?
(2019) The rising powers, including countries like China, India, and Brazil, are
actively challenging the

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longstanding dominance of the United States and Western countries in the

International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. One of the main areas of
contention is the issue of voting power and representation. These rising powers
argue that the current governance structure disproportionately favours Western
countries and does not reflect the changing global economic landscape. They
advocate for reforms that would rebalance voting shares and provide them with a
greater voice in decision-making processes within these institutions.
According to economist Barry Eichengreen, the increasing influence of the rising

powers can be seen in the establishment of alternative financial institutions. For
instance, the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and the New Development
Bank (NDB) offer alternative sources of financing and development assistance to
emerging economies, providing them with greater autonomy and choice outside the
traditional Western-dominated institutions.
In terms of currency internationalization, the rising powers are challenging the

supremacy of the U.S. dollar and the euro. Economist Eswar Prasad points out that
China, in particular, is striving to internationalize the Chinese yuan, seeking to
reduce its dependence on the U.S. dollar and establish the yuan as a global reserve
currency. This would undermine the dominance of Western currencies and increase the
influence of the rising powers in the global financial system.
Additionally, the rising powers are increasingly engaging in bilateral and regional
initiatives, providing financial assistance and investment to other countries.
Economist Arvind Subramanian emphasizes China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) as a
prime example. The BRI aims to boost infrastructure development and connectivity
across regions, challenging Western-led development projects and promoting an
alternative vision of economic cooperation.
From the perspective of economists, there are differing opinions on the rising
powers' challenge to Western dominance in these institutions. Some argue that the
reforms proposed by the rising powers are justified and necessary to ensure greater
inclusivity and representation in global economic governance. They view the shift
in power as a positive development that can lead to more balanced decision-making
and better alignment with the interests of developing countries.
However, others express concerns about the rising powers' growing influence. They
highlight potential risks associated with alternative financial institutions, such
as transparency, governance, and debt sustainability. There are also concerns that
the rising powers may prioritize their own interests over broader global goals or
use their influence to promote their own policy agendas.
In conclusion, the rising powers are challenging the dominance of the United States
and Western countries in the IMF and the World Bank through various means. These
challenges include demands for voting power and representation, the establishment
of alternative financial institutions, efforts to internationalize their
currencies, engagement in regional initiatives, and calls for reforms and
alternative policy approaches. Economists have different views on the implications
of these challenges, reflecting a broader debate on the future of global economic
governance and the balance of power in the international financial system.
WORLD BANK
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides financial

and technical assistance to developing countries for development projects and
programs. Its primary goal is to reduce poverty and support sustainable economic
growth in member countries.
The World Bank was established in 1944 during the Bretton Woods Conference in New
Hampshire, United States. Its original purpose was to finance the reconstruction
and development of war-torn Europe after World War II. Initially, it was known as
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⚫ Board of Governors: The highest decision-making body of the World Bank is the
Board of Governors, consisting of representatives from each of the 189 member
countries. The Board of Governors meets annually to discuss and decide on key
policies, strategies, and overall directions of the World Bank.
⚫ Board of Executive Directors: The Board of Executive Directors is responsible

for the day-today operations of the World Bank. It is composed of 25 Executive
Directors representing different groups of member countries or constituencies. The
Executive Directors, appointed by their respective constituencies, oversee the
Bank's activities, including approving loans, grants, and policies.
• President: The President of the World Bank is the chief executive officer and is
appointed by the Board of Executive Directors. The President provides leadership
and guidance to the World Bank Group, represents the institution at high-level
events, and plays a crucial role in shaping the Bank's overall direction and
strategy.
Its five institutions share a commitment to reducing poverty, increasing shared

prosperity, and promoting sustainable development.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD): The IBRD is the
primary lending institution of the World Bank Group. It provides loans, credits,
and grants to middle- income and creditworthy low-income countries to support
development projects and programs. The IBRD focuses on financing projects in
sectors such as infrastructure, agriculture, education, health, and governance.
International Development Association (IDA): The IDA is the concessional arm of the
World Bank Group. It provides grants and low-interest loans to the world's poorest
countries. The IDA focuses on supporting countries facing significant development
challenges, with a particular emphasis on poverty reduction, basic service
delivery, and social safety nets.
International Finance Corporation (IFC): The IFC is the private sector arm of the
World Bank Group. It provides investment, advisory services, and access to capital
markets to promote private sector development in developing countries. The IFC
works with private sector companies to finance projects that create jobs, spur
economic growth, and contribute to sustainable development. Multilateral Investment
Guarantee Agency (MIGA): The MIGA offers political risk insurance and credit
enhancement to investors and lenders in developing countries. It helps attract
foreign direct investment by mitigating risks associated with political
instability, breach of contract,
expropriation, and other non-commercial risks.
Independent Evaluation Group (IEG): The IEG is an independent unit within the World
Bank Group that assesses the Bank's activities and provides evaluation reports to
enhance transparency, accountability, and learning within the institution.
Need for Reforms
Adaptation to changing global realities: The global economic landscape has evolved
significantly since the establishment of the World Bank. The rise of new economic
powers, changing demographics, and emerging development challenges require the
institution to adapt its strategies, policies, and governance structures to
effectively address these new realities.
• Ensuring voice and representation: There is a need to enhance the voice and
representation of developing countries within the World Bank. Historically, the
decision-making power in the institution has been dominated by advanced economies.
Reforms are needed to give a greater voice to developing countries, enabling them
to participate more actively in shaping the policies and priorities of the
institution.
⚫ Addressing inequalities and promoting inclusivity: Reforms are necessary to

ensure that the benefits of development assistance and financing reach the most
vulnerable and marginalized PAPER 2-PSIR Optional | Subscribe from:
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populations. This involves focusing on poverty reduction, social inclusion, gender

equality, and environmental sustainability, as well as tailoring programs to
address specific needs and challenges faced by different regions and countries.
Enhancing transparency and accountability: Reforms are aimed at improving the

transparency and accountability of the World Bank's operations. This includes
strengthening mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation, enhancing disclosure of
information, promoting independent evaluation of projects and programs, and
ensuring that affected communities have avenues for raising concerns and providing
feedback.
Promoting sustainable development: There is a growing recognition of the need to

integrate sustainability considerations into development initiatives. Reforms
within the World Bank focus on promoting sustainable development practices,
including climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental protection, and
the promotion of renewable energy and green technologies.
⚫ Strengthening partnerships and coordination: The World Bank is increasingly

working in collaboration with other development partners, including regional
development banks, civil society organizations, and private sector entities.
Reforms aim to enhance the coordination, harmonization, and effectiveness of
partnerships to leverage resources and expertise for greater impact.
Scholarly Evaluation
Shashi Tharoor: In his book "New World Disorder" says the dominance of a handful of
Western countries in global financial institutions is anomalous in a world where
the Economic dynamism has shifted irresistibly from West to East.
• Andrew Heywood: The disproportionate influence that the USA exerts over the World
Bank and the IMF, demonstrates the extent to which economic globalisation was
structured in line with US priorities, laid out to the Washington consensus.
⚫ Joseph Stiglitz: Joseph Stiglitz, a Nobel laureate in economics, has been

critical of the policies and practices of the IMF and the World Bank. He argues
that the institutions' focus on neoliberal economic policies, such as market
liberalization and privatization, has often led to negative social and economic
consequences, particularly in developing countries. Stiglitz advocates for a more
inclusive and participatory approach to development that takes into account local
contexts and promotes social justice.
⚫ Ha-Joon Chang: Ha-Joon Chang, an economist and author, has criticized the IMF
and the World Bank for imposing "one-size-fits-all" policies on developing
countries without considering their specific economic and social conditions. He
argues that these institutions prioritize the interests of advanced economies over
the needs of developing countries, leading to a lack of policy flexibility and
harmful impacts on local industries and workers.
Washington Consensus
The Washington Consensus refers to a set of economic policy prescriptions that were
promoted by prominent economists and international financial institutions in the
1980s and 1990s. These policy recommendations were primarily aimed at developing
countries, particularly those facing economic crises or seeking financial
assistance from institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank. Here are the key
elements of the Washington Consensus:
Macroeconomic stability: The Washington Consensus emphasized the importance of

achieving and maintaining macroeconomic stability, including low inflation, fiscal
discipline, and stable exchange rates. This often involved implementing austerity
measures, such as reducing government spending and

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controlling budget deficits.
Market-oriented reforms: The Washington Consensus advocated for market-oriented

policies, such as trade liberalization, deregulation, and privatization. It called
for reducing barriers to international trade and encouraging foreign direct
investment to promote economic growth and integration into the global economy. The
Consensus also stressed the importance of removing state interventions and allowing
market forces to determine resource allocation.
Fiscal discipline: The Washington Consensus highlighted the need for fiscal
discipline and reducing budget deficits. This often involved cutting public
spending, including subsidies and social welfare programs, and increasing tax
revenues to restore fiscal balance.
Privatization: The Washington Consensus advocated for the privatization of state-

owned enterprises and the opening up of industries to private investment. The idea
was to increase efficiency, competition, and productivity by transferring economic
activities from the public to the private sector.
Financial sector liberalization: The Washington Consensus called for liberalizing

and deregulating financial markets to attract foreign investment, promote capital
flows, and increase access to credit. This involved measures such as removing
restrictions on interest rates, allowing foreign banks to operate, and promoting
financial market development.
Criticism of the Washington Consensus has emerged over time. Some argue that the
one-size-fits-all approach of the Consensus disregarded the diverse needs and
contexts of different countries, leading to negative social and economic outcomes
in some cases. Critics argue that the emphasis on liberalization and deregulation
contributed to financial instability, income inequality, and the erosion of social
safety nets. Additionally, it has been argued that the Consensus prioritized
economic efficiency over social development and ignored issues of poverty,
inequality, and environmental sustainability.
WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)
The World Trade Organization was formed in 1995 as a replacement for GATT,
established in 1947. However, GATT only emerged as the basis of the postwar
international trading order as a result of the failure to establish the
International Trade Organization (ITO). The ITO had been proposed in 1945 by the UN
Economic and Social Council and would have constituted a fully- fledged
international organization, comparable to the IMF and the World Bank, with powers
more in line with those of the later WTO.
Nevertheless, the Uruguay Round, which ended in 1993 with the proposal to establish
the WTO, made the general limitations of GATT more and more obvious. In many
aspects, the creation of the WTO was a reaction to the shifting demands of the
global trade system in the 1980s, which were associated with the broader success of
neoliberalism and the quickening of globalisation.
GATT
• GATT was essentially a pact among its members to apply the global principles of
non- discrimination and reciprocity to trade-related issues. The necessity that
each nation grant the most-favorable-nation status to all trading partners ensured
this. Therefore, no trading partner could receive preferential treatment over
another.
Despite this, there were a few ways in which the GATT trade regime was constrained.
GATT initially just existed as a set of standards and guidelines, and it wasn't
until the GATT Council was established in 1960 that it began to resemble an
institutional structure.
Its focus, moreover, was restricted to the reduction of tariff barriers against
imported manufactured goods. Not only did this mean that agriculture and the
growing service sector of the economy were largely off the agenda as far as GATT
was concerned, but it also meant that GATT had a limited capacity to check the
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The broader responsibilities of the WTO were achieved through incorporation not
merely of a renegotiated GATT (sometimes called GATT 1994, as opposed to the
original GATT 1947), and its framework of agreements concerning manufactured goods,
but also agreements on the trade in services (GATS) and on the protection of
intellectual property (TRIPS).
Background and Evolution
GATT operated as a forum for negotiating trade agreements and resolving trade
disputes. It focused primarily on the reduction of tariffs on industrial goods, but
its scope expanded over the years to include discussions on agriculture, services,
and intellectual property rights.
Over time, several rounds of negotiations were conducted under the auspices of
GATT, resulting in the progressive liberalization of global trade. Notable rounds
include the Kennedy Round in the 1960s, the Tokyo Round in the 1970s, and the
Uruguay Round in the 1980s and 1990s.
The Uruguay Round, launched in 1986, was the most significant and ambitious round
of negotiations conducted under GATT. It addressed a wide range of trade-related
issues, including agriculture, services, intellectual property, and trade in goods.
The Uruguay Round also led to the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) as
the successor to GATT.
The decision to establish the WTO was made during the final stages of the Uruguay
Round negotiations. The intent was to create a more comprehensive and
institutionalized framework for governing international trade. The WTO was
officially established on January 1, 1995, and absorbed GATT as its underlying
agreement, making it the main international organization responsible for regulating
global trade.
The WTO expanded upon the scope and functions of GATT, incorporating new areas such
as trade in services, intellectual property rights, and dispute settlement
procedures. It also provided a stronger legal framework for the enforcement of
trade rules and the resolution of trade disputes among its member countries.
Structure and Composition
Ministerial Conference: The highest decision-making body of the WTO is the

Ministerial Conference, which is composed of representatives from all WTO member
countries. It meets at least once every two years to discuss and make decisions on
various trade-related issues. The Ministerial Conference provides strategic
guidance and sets the overall direction for the organization.
• General Council: The General Council acts as the main governing body of the WTO
between Ministerial Conferences. It is composed of representatives from all member
countries and meets regularly to oversee the functioning of the organization. The
General Council is responsible for making decisions on operational matters,
coordinating the work of specialized committees and councils, and supervising the
dispute settlement process.
• Specialized Committees and Councils: The WTO has various specialized committees
and councils that focus on specific areas of trade and policy. These include the
Council for Trade in Goods, the Council for Trade in Services, and the Council for
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). These bodies monitor
and facilitate the implementation of trade agreements, provide a platform for
negotiation and discussion, and address specific issues related to their respective
areas.
⚫ Dispute Settlement Body: The Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) is responsible for
resolving trade disputes among WTO member countries. It operates based on the
Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU), which provides a clear and structured
process for resolving disputes. The DSB consists of all WTO member countries and
establishes panels and the Appellate Body to examine and adjudicate trade disputes.

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Secretariat: The WTO Secretariat provides administrative and technical support to

the organization. It is headed by the Director-General, who is appointed by the
Ministerial Conference. The Secretariat conducts research, provides legal and
technical advice, assists in the negotiation process, and helps facilitate the work
of various WTO bodies.
Important Milestones
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Establishment of the WTO (1995): The WTO was officially established on January 1,
1995, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as the main
international organization responsible for regulating global trade.
Uruguay Round and the Agreement Establishing the WTO (1994): The Uruguay Round of
trade negotiations, which began in 1986, concluded with the signing of the
Marrakesh Agreement in April 1994. This agreement established the WTO and expanded
the scope of trade rules to cover new areas such as agriculture, services, and
intellectual property.
• Expansion of Membership: The WTO has seen a significant expansion of its

membership since its establishment. When the WTO was formed, it had 123 member
countries. Today, it has 164 member countries, making it one of the largest
international organizations.
⚫ Doha Development Agenda (2001): The Doha Development Agenda (DDA) was launched
in 2001 with the aim of addressing the issues of developing countries and promoting
their integration into the global trading system. The DDA negotiations have faced
challenges and delays, but they continue to be an important part of the WTO's
agenda.
⚫ Dispute Settlement Mechanism: The WTO's dispute settlement mechanism is an

essential component of its functioning. The establishment of the Appellate Body,
which serves as the highest appellate instance in resolving trade disputes, has
been a significant milestone in ensuring the effective enforcement of trade rules.
• Trade Facilitation Agreement (2013): The Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) was
concluded at the WTO's Ninth Ministerial Conference held in Bali, Indonesia, in
2013. The TFA aims to simplify and streamline customs procedures and border
controls, making trade more efficient and predictable.
Nairobi Package (2015): The Tenth Ministerial Conference of the WTO, held in
Nairobi, Kenya, in 2015, resulted in the adoption of the Nairobi Package. This
package included agreements on agricultural export subsidies, duty-free and quota-
free market access for least-developed countries, and other issues.
⚫ Ministerial Conferences: The WTO holds Ministerial Conferences every two years
to make key decisions and provide strategic guidance. These conferences serve as
important milestones for setting the direction of the organization and addressing
pressing trade issues.
Peace Clause
The Peace Clause, officially known as the "Understanding on the Interpretation of

Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994," is an agreement
within the World Trade Organization (WTO) that provides temporary protection to
developing countries against legal challenges regarding certain agricultural
subsidies. It was established as part of the Uruguay Round negotiations and is
intended to provide a temporary respite from litigation while negotiations on
agricultural subsidies take
place.
Under the WTO's Agreement on Agriculture (AOA), there are limits on the types and
levels of domestic agricultural subsidies that countries can provide, as they can
distort trade and undermine fair competition. However, recognizing the
developmental needs of developing countries and their reliance on agricultural
subsidies for food security and rural development, the Peace Clause was introduced.

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The Peace Clause essentially prohibits WTO members from initiating dispute
settlement proceedings against developing countries for breaching their subsidy
commitments under the AoA. It provides a temporary "peaceful" period during which
developing countries can continue their existing agricultural subsidy programs
without fear of facing trade disputes or retaliatory measures.
The purpose of the Peace Clause is to create a conducive environment for

negotiations on agricultural subsidies, allowing developing countries to maintain
their support programs while discussions on long- term solutions take place.
Agreement on Agriculture
It is a trade agreement negotiated under the World Trade Organization (WTO) that
aims to liberalize and regulate international agricultural trade. It establishes
rules and disciplines for agricultural subsidies, market access, and domestic
support measures. The AoA addresses the concerns of both developed and developing
countries regarding the impact of agricultural trade on their economies.
Market Access: The AOA's market access provisions focus on reducing trade barriers,
such as tariffs and import quotas, to facilitate greater access to agricultural
markets. WTO members commit to tariff reduction and the conversion of non-tariff
barriers into tariffs through a process known as tariffication. This helps create a
more open and predictable trading environment for agricultural products.
• Domestic Support: The AoA aims to regulate domestic support measures provided to
the agricultural sector by WTO member countries. These measures can distort
production and trade, affecting global market dynamics. The AoA categorizes
domestic support into different boxes: o Green Box: The Green Box contains support
measures that have minimal trade-distorting effects and are deemed acceptable under
WTO rules. Examples include government spending
on agricultural research and development, infrastructure development, and

environmental protection. Green Box measures are not subject to reduction
commitments.
Amber Box: The Amber Box includes domestic support measures that are considered
trade- distorting. These measures are subject to reduction commitments, as they
have the potential to negatively impact agricultural trade. Examples of Amber Box
measures include price supports, subsidies tied to production levels, and input
subsidies. Reduction commitments aim to progressively reduce the trade-distorting
effects of these measures.
Blue Box: The Blue Box includes domestic support measures that are considered less
trade- distorting than those in the Amber Box. These measures are subject to
certain conditions and are allowed to a greater extent. The Blue Box allows direct
payments to farmers based on production-limiting programs, such as production
quotas or specific acreage set-asides. ⚫ Export Subsidies: The AoA seeks to reduce
and ultimately eliminate export subsidies, as they can distort international trade
by artificially lowering the prices of exported agricultural products. WTO members
commit to reducing the use of export subsidies over time and work towards their
complete elimination.
Issues with the Doha Round (Developed V. Developing Nations)
• Divergent Priorities: The Doha Round involves negotiations among a diverse group
of WTO member countries with differing priorities and interests. Bridging the gaps
between developed and developing countries on key issues such as agricultural
subsidies, market access, and services trade has proven challenging. Countries have
been unable to find common ground and reach consensus on various contentious
issues.
Agricultural Subsidies: Agricultural subsidies, particularly those provided by

developed countries, have been a major sticking point in the negotiations.
Developing countries have called

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for substantial reductions in developed countries' agricultural subsidies, which

they argue diston global markets and disadvantage their own farmers. However,
developed countries have been reluctant to make significant concessions on this
issue.
Market Access: Negotiations on market access for agricultural and non-agricultural

goods have also faced difficulties. Developing countries have sought improved
market access for their products in developed countries, but developed countries
have been resistant to significantly reducing trade barriers, citing concerns about
protecting domestic industries and sectors.
Special and Differential Treatment: Developing countries have emphasized the need
for special
and differential treatment, which allows them flexibility and exemptions from
certain obligations to accommodate their development needs. Developed countries
have been cautious about granting extensive special treatment, as it may lead to
asymmetrical obligations and perceived unfair advantages for certain countries.
Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS): The TRIPS Agreement, which

deals with intellectual property rights, has been a point of contention. Developing
countries have raised concerns about the potential negative impact of strong
intellectual property protection on their access to affordable medicines,
technology transfer, and capacity building. Developed countries, which are often
home to major innovators and have strong intellectual property industries,
Others
emphasize the importance of protecting intellectual property rights.
Trade and Environment: There are differing perspectives between developed and
developing countries on the relationship between trade and environmental concerns.
Developed countries often seek stricter environmental standards and regulations in
trade agreements, while developing countries may argue that such measures can be
barriers to their exports or impose disproportionate burdens on their economies.
TRIPS AND TRIMS
TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights):
The TRIPS Agreement is an international agreement that sets minimum standards for
intellectual property (IP) protection and enforcement. It aims to ensure that
intellectual property rights are protected and enforced in a manner that
contributes to innovation, technological transfer, and the dissemination of
knowledge while striking a balance between the interests of rights holders and
the public.
TRIPS covers a wide range of intellectual property rights, including patents,

copyrights, trademarks, industrial designs, and trade secrets. It establishes
standards for the protection and enforcement of these rights, such as granting
exclusive rights to creators and inventors for a limited period, providing
procedures for the acquisition and maintenance of these rights, and setting out
remedies and enforcement mechanisms in case of infringement.
The agreement requires WTO member countries to provide adequate and effective
protection of intellectual property rights within their territories. However, it
also recognizes the need for members to incorporate flexibilities and exceptions to
accommodate public health concerns, access to medicines, and other public policy
objectives.
TRIMS (Trade-Related Investment Measures):
The TRIMS Agreement addresses certain investment measures that may affect trade in
goods and services. It aims to ensure that trade-distorting investment measures are
eliminated or brought into conformity with WTO rules.
TRIMS primarily targets investment measures that are trade-distorting or

discriminatory. It

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prohibits WTO members from imposing certain types of measures that are considered
trade- distorting, such as local content requirements, trade balancing
requirements, and export performance requirements. These measures often favour
domestic industries or restrict imports in ways that distort international trade.
The agreement requires WTO members to eliminate or modify existing TRIMS that are
inconsistent with its provisions. It also prohibits the introduction of new TRIMS
that are inconsistent with WTO rules. However, it does allow for certain
transitional periods during which members may maintain specific measures that are
considered trade-distorting but were in place at the time the agreement came into
effect.
Current Issues at the WTO
1. Appellate Body Crisis: The WTO's Appellate Body, which acts as the highest court
for resolving trade disputes, has been facing a crisis. The United States blocked
the appointment of new Appellate Body members, leading to a shortage of judges and
rendering the body unable to function properly. This has raised concerns about the
effective resolution of trade disputes and the functioning of the WTO's dispute
settlement mechanism.
The US Trade Representative criticized the WTO for losing its focus on negotiations
and becoming a litigation-centred organization.
2. Multilateral Negotiations Stagnation: The Doha Development Round of

negotiations, which began in 2001 with the aim of addressing trade barriers and
promoting development, has stalled. Despite efforts to revive the negotiations,
member countries have struggled to find common ground on various issues, including
agricultural subsidies, market access, and services trade. This has led to a lack
of progress in multilateral trade liberalization.
3. Rising Protectionism: The WTO faces the challenge of rising protectionism and
trade tensions among its member countries. Bilateral trade disputes, imposition of
unilateral trade measures, and an increase in trade-restrictive measures pose risks
to the multilateral trading system. The WTO's role in fostering open and rules-
based trade is being tested in this environment.
4. Digital Trade and E-commerce: The rapid growth of digital trade and e-commerce
has presented new challenges for the WTO. Issues such as data localization, digital
services, intellectual property rights, and cross-border data flows require new
rules and agreements to address the evolving nature of global trade in the digital
era.
5. Trade and Sustainable Development: The WTO faces the task of balancing trade
liberalization with sustainable development objectives. Ensuring that trade
policies and agreements consider environmental, social, and economic sustainability
concerns remains a challenge. Discussions on issues such as climate change,
environmental standards, and labour rights are ongoing within the WTO.
WTO and the Developing World
Market Access: The WTO has promoted market access for developing countries by
reducing tariffs and eliminating trade barriers. This has provided developing
countries with opportunities to expand their exports and participate in global
trade.
• Special and Differential Treatment: The WTO recognizes the need to address the
specific challenges faced by developing countries. It provides special and
differential treatment, allowing developing countries more time to implement
certain agreements and flexibility in their trade
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• Dispute Settlement: The WTO's dispute settlement system has provided developing
countrie with a mechanism to resolve trade disputes with other countries. This has
helped level the playing field and protect the interests of developing countries
against unfair trade practices. Technical Assistance and Capacity Building: The WTO
provides technical assistance and
capacity-building programs to help developing countries build their trade-related

infrastructure enhance their participation in global trade, and understand and
implement WTO agreements. Challenges for Agriculture: Developing countries,
especially those dependent on agriculture have faced challenges in WTO
negotiations, particularly in relation to subsidies provided by developed
countries. The issue of agricultural subsidies has often been a point of
contention, as subsidies in developed countries can distort global agricultural
markets and hinder the competitiveness of developing country farmers.
• Access to Medicines: The WTO's Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property

Rights (TRIPS) Agreement has raised concerns regarding access to affordable
medicines for developing countries. The TRIPS Agreement establishes minimum
standards for intellectual property protection, including pharmaceutical patents,
which can restrict the production and affordability of essential medicines in
• Development Agenda: The Doha Development Agenda, launched in 2001, aimed to

address the development concerns of developing countries and ensure that the global
trading system becomes more inclusive and supportive of their needs. However,
progress on the Doha Round has been slow, leading to frustration among many
The Impasses in the WTO as a sign of de globalisation
Impasses in the WTO and the rise of de-globalization have raised concerns about the
future of global trade and the role of the WTO as a flag bearer institution for
globalization. Several factors contribute to these challenges:
⚫Institutional Issues: The Appellate Body, which is responsible for settling

disputes, has effectively been paralyzed since December 2019 due to the USA's
refusal to appoint new members. This impasse has undermined the effectiveness of
the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism.
• Trade Wars and Protectionism: The trade war between the United States and China,
along with other protectionist measures such as visa restrictions, indicates a
shift towards de- globalization. These actions undermine the principles of free
trade and hinder global economic integration.
• Disdain for Multilateralism and Incompatible Systems: The USA's skepticism

towards multilateralism and China's state-led economic model, which deviates from
the liberal nature of the global trading system, have weakened the foundations of
the WTO. These conflicting approaches challenge the process of globalization.
If the impasses in the WTO persist, it risks becoming incapable of effectively

mediating international trade disputes and building multilateral trust. This can
further drive economies to seek individual leverage and solutions, leading to a
path of de-globalization.
To address these challenges and revitalize the WTO, several steps can be taken:
Promoting Trade Liberalization: The WTO should initiate new trade liberalization
initiatives, including negotiations mandated by previous agreements. This will help
countries align with international norms and alleviate apprehensions.
Expanding the WTO Agenda: Including new issues like investment, competition policy,
and trade-related environment and labor issues can broaden the scope of the WTO.

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Accommodating countries' concerns about these issues will encourage their

participation and reinforce the role of the WTO.
Ensuring Complementarity: Regional trade agreements should be complementary to

multilateral trade reforms and align with WTO rules. Ensuring coherence and
avoiding contradictory measures will strengthen the global trade framework.
Augmenting Institutional Reforms: Crucial institutional reforms, such as restoring

the dispute settlement mechanism and addressing deadlocks in appointments, are
necessary to restore the WTO's functionality and mitigate de-globalization
tendencies.
By undertaking these measures, the WTO can regain its effectiveness, promote global
trade, and counter the challenges posed by de-globalization. It is crucial for
countries to work together to strengthen the institution and uphold the principles
of open and inclusive global trade.
Conclusion on WTO
WTO needs to build trust among its members that the and needs greater engagement by
all countries, to stitch fair rules in the larger interest of all nations and
thwart unfair trade practices of a few. In future, WTO members will have to strike
a balance between moving forward with negotiations on 21st-century issues and
keeping sight of the unresolved 'old trade issues' such as agriculture and
development.
COUNCIL FOR MUTUAL ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE
The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), also known as Comecon, was an
economic organization that existed from 1949 to 1991. It was established by the
Soviet Union and included several Eastern European socialist countries as its
members. The primary objective of the CMEA was to promote economic cooperation and
coordination among its member countries.
Key Points
Establishment and Membership: The CMEA was formed on January 25, 1949, with the
signing of the Agreement on Economic and Scientific-Technical Cooperation among the
member countries. The founding members included the Soviet Union, Albania,
Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. East Germany joined later
in 1950.
⚫ Economic Integration: The CMEA aimed to achieve economic integration among its
member countries through various mechanisms. It established a system of centralized
planning, coordination of production, and trade among member states. The
organization sought to achieve balanced economic development and specialization
based on comparative advantages. • Division of Labor: The CMEA encouraged the
division of labor among its member countries, with each country specializing in
specific industries and products. This specialization was intended
to foster economic cooperation and reduce duplication of production efforts.
• Trade and Payments: The CMEA facilitated trade among its member countries through
bilateral agreements, setting quotas and prices for goods and services. It used a
non-convertible currency, known as the transferable ruble, for trade settlements
within the organization. This system aimed to promote trade and remove barriers to
economic cooperation among member states. ⚫ Scientific and Technical Cooperation:
The CMEA emphasized scientific and technical
cooperation among member countries. It promoted the exchange of technological

expertise, joint research projects, and the sharing of scientific knowledge and
innovations
• Aid and Assistance: The CMEA provided economic aid and assistance to member
countries, particularly to support industrial development and infrastructure
projects. The Soviet Union played a significant role in providing financial and
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The CMEA faced challenges in its functioning and effectiveness over time. With the
political changes in Eastern Europe and the collapse of the Soviet Union in the
late 1980s and early 1990s, the organization lost its relevance. The CMEA formally
dissolved in 1991, marking the end of its existence. The Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance played a significant role in shaping economic cooperation among
socialist countries during the Cold War period. However, its effectiveness was
often questioned, and the organization faced difficulties in adapting to changing
economic and political circumstances.
THIRD WORLD DEMAND FOR NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER (NIEO) The Bretton Woods
system in its original form effectively came to an end in 1971 when the USA
abandoned the system of fixed exchange rates. Even though their role and future
policy focus were initially unclear, the institutions created as part of the
Bretton Woods agreement survived the switch from fixed to floating exchange rates.
In this framework, regular meetings between the presidents and finance ministers of
the major industrialised nations to address monetary issues and other subjects
pertaining to the global economy began to take place.
This eventually resulted in the Group of Seven, or G-7, being established in 1975.
The GATT's gains in lowering trade barriers was significantly eroded and, in some
cases, reversed during the 1970s economic slump, with industrialised nations
particularly pushing up so-called non-tariff obstacles. Due to the dissatisfaction
this caused among developing nations and the recession, support for the "New
International Economic Order" (NIEO) has grown.
The premise for NIEO
The demand for a New International Economic Order (NIEO) is crucial for
establishing a fair partnership between wealthy and poor nations. It is widely
recognized as the most significant issue in present-day international relations.
After the Second World War, the decolonization movement led to the emergence of
numerous independent states in Asia and Africa. These states were driven by a
strong desire for development and active participation in global affairs. Despite
their efforts to secure their rightful rights and roles in international relations,
their people's extreme poverty, limited resources, and underdevelopment posed
challenges. As a result, they had to rely on developed and affluent countries,
particularly for their economic needs, which led to their subjugation within the
international system dominated by powerful states.
Although the rich nations introduced various measures such as foreign aid,
Multinational Corporations, IMF, SDR, etc., ostensibly aimed at assisting poorer
countries, in reality, they served as instruments for maintaining neo-colonial
control over their former colonies. The new states became dependent on the wealthy
nations even for meeting their basic requirements, and this dependency was
exploited to influence their economies and policies. The international economic
system has been and continues to be exploited by the rich states for their own
benefit, resulting in a significant gap between the rich and the poor.
Need for NIEO
Equity: NIEO aims to establish a more equitable partnership between rich and poor
nations. It seeks to rectify the historical imbalances caused by colonization and
exploitation, ensuring fair treatment and opportunities for all countries.
Poverty Reduction: NIEO focuses on alleviating poverty in developing nations. By

providing access to resources, technology, and economic opportunities, it aims to
uplift the living standards of disadvantaged populations and bridge the
socioeconomic gap.

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Self-Determination: NIEO promotes the sovereignty and self-determination of

nations. It emphasizes the right of countries to determine their economic policies
and pursue development strategies that suit their specific needs and aspirations.
Sustainable Development: NIEO emphasizes sustainable development practices that

consider environmental, social, and economic aspects. It aims to ensure that
economic growth is pursued in a manner that preserves the environment, promotes
social well-being, and safeguards future generations.
Global Economic Stability: NIEO seeks to establish a more stable and balanced
global economic system. By addressing issues such as trade imbalances, debt
burdens, and unfair market access, it aims to create a more predictable and
harmonious international economic environment.
Empowerment of Developing Nations: NIEO aims to empower developing nations to

participate actively and meaningfully in global economic decision-making. It
advocates for reforms in international institutions to give developing countries a
greater voice and representation.
Progress towards NIEO
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD): UNCTAD was established
in 1964 with the goal of promoting the development of developing countries and
addressing the structural imbalances in the global economy. It has played a
significant role in advocating for the interests of developing nations and
supporting policies aimed at reducing inequality and promoting sustainable
development.
⚫ Group of 77 (G77): Formed in 1964, the G77 is a coalition of developing

countries that has advocated for the rights and interests of the Global South in
international economic negotiations. The group has pushed for reforms in the
international economic system to create a more equitable and balanced order.
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): The NAM, consisting of over 120 developing countries,
has been instrumental in advocating for the NIEO. Through their collective voice,
NAM member states have called for fairer trade practices, debt relief, technology
transfer, and increased development assistance to address the economic disparities
between developed and developing nations.
United Nations General Assembly Resolutions: The UN General Assembly has adopted
several resolutions supporting the NIEO and calling for reforms in the global
economic system. These resolutions emphasize the need for a more just and equitable
international economic order and provide a platform for developing countries to
voice their concerns.
South-South Cooperation: Developing countries have increasingly engaged in South-

South cooperation, which involves collaboration and exchange of resources,
knowledge, and technical expertise among developing nations. This form of
cooperation aims to strengthen the capacity of developing countries and reduce
their dependence on developed nations.
⚫ Regional Integration and Trade Agreements: Many developing countries have

pursued regional integration initiatives and trade agreements to enhance their
bargaining power in global trade negotiations. These agreements aim to promote
intra-regional trade, foster economic cooperation, and increase the participation
of developing countries in global value chains.
Evaluation
Dependency Theory Scholars: Scholars influenced by dependency theory, such as Andre

Gunder Frank and Fernando Cardoso, have supported the NIEO. They argue that the
global economic system perpetuates the dependency of developing countries on
developed nations. They advocate for a restructuring of international trade,
finance, and investment to promote the self-reliant development of developing
countries.

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Modernization Theory Scholars: Some scholars influenced by modernization theory

have been critical of the NIEO. They argue that the focus on redistributive
measures and protectionism may hinder economic growth and development in developing
countries. They emphasize the importance of free markets, liberalization, and
technological progress as drivers of economic development.
Marxist Scholars: Marxist scholars have had diverse views on the NIEO. While some
support it as a means to address global inequality and exploitation, others argue
that it does not go far enough in challenging the fundamental structures of
capitalism. They highlight the need for more radical transformations to achieve a
truly equitable and just global economic order.
•Institutional and Neoliberal Scholars: Scholars influenced by institutional

economics and neoliberalism tend to be critical of the NIEO. They argue that
protectionist measures and state intervention advocated by the NIEO may hinder
market efficiency and economic growth. They emphasize the role of free trade,
liberalization, and market-oriented policies in promoting development.
India and the global economy
According to Amb. Jayant Dasgupta, India's economic profile may be increasing with
growth, investment, and structural reforms.
Arvind Virmani states that India is fifth largest economy of the world indicating
that its influence on the world economy is indeed growing.
Geopolitically, India is actively engaged internationally, but it has limited focus

on geo economic matters. Its primary attention is on issues related to the World
Bank, IMF, WTO, and foreign investment.
India has the potential to contribute substantially to various global economic

issues, such reshaping global financial regulations, designing frameworks for trade
in services and the digital economy, and establishing transparent cross-border
standards.
as [Globalisation of the world economy covered under Unit-4]

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UNIT 9: UNITED NATIONS
ENVISAGED ROLE AND ACTUAL RECORD; SPECIALIZED UN AGENCIES-AIMS AND FUNCTIONING; THE
NEED FOR UN REFORMS.
Do you agree that the U.N. has failed to contain transnational terrorism? Elaborate
your answer with examples. (2014)
Argue a case for U.N. reform in the changing global milieu. (2014)
How far are the world governance mechanisms, dominated by the IMF and World Bank,
legitimate and relevant? What measures do you suggest to improve their
effectiveness in global governance? (2015)
Has the reform of the economic and social arrangements of the United Nations been
effective? (2015)
Do you endorse that the United Nations needs major changes in its structures and
functioning? Suggest the changes for efficiency improvements. (2016) Do you agree
with the view that despite the limitations in the functioning of the UN, it has
distinguished and unique achievements to its credit? (2017)
• Discuss the relevance of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on the security of

women in conflict zones. (2018)
In what way does the predominance of the USA in the UN funding affect the decision-
making? (2019)
Do you think sustainable development goals will be attainable by 2030? (2019)

Evaluate the role of the International Court of Justice in inter-State disputes.
(2019) Discuss the significance and the urgency of the UN Security Council reforms.
Explain the
relevance of the reform proposals made by the UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres

for developing countries. (2020)
• What measures have been undertaken by United Nations for its reforms? (150 words)
(2021)
According to Professor Jeffrey Sachs, the UN is the most important political

innovation of the 20th century and the best bargain on this planet.
The United Nations has often been described as the world's most important
international organization, with a membership of 193 countries and a broad mandate
to promote peace, human rights, and sustainable development.
The United Nations was established in 1945 with the goal of promoting international
cooperation and maintaining peace and security around the world. Since its
inception, the UN has played a central role in global governance, with a range of
specialized agencies and programs addressing issues such as poverty, human rights,
and environmental sustainability.
Background
The United Nations (UN) was established after World War II with the aim of
promoting international cooperation, maintaining peace and security, and protecting
human rights. The world had just experienced the devastation and loss of life of
two world wars, and there was widespread recognition that a new approach to
international relations was needed in order to prevent such conflicts from
happening again.
• The idea of creating an international organization to promote peace and

cooperation had been discussed for decades prior to the establishment of the UN.
However, it was the horrors of World

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War II that finally galvanized the international community into action. In 1941,
representatives from 26 countries signed the Atlantic Charter, which set out a
vision for a post-war world based on four key principles: self-determination,
economic cooperation, collective security, and the promotion of human rights.
Following the end of the war, representatives from 50 countries met in San
Francisco in April 1945 to draft the UN Charter, which established the new
organization. The UN was founded on the principle that all member states should
work together to prevent conflict, promote cooperation, and uphold the rule of law.
Today, the UN remains a key player in global affairs, working to address a wide
range of issues, from peace and security to climate change and sustainable
development.
United Nations as a form of Liberal Institutionalism
The United Nations (UN) can be seen as a manifestation of liberal institutionalism

in international relations. Liberal institutionalism emphasizes the importance of
international institutions and norms in promoting cooperation and peaceful conflict
resolution among states. The UN was created with similar goals in mind and is
designed to provide a forum for member states to address global problems and
promote international cooperation.
The UN Charter lays out a number of key principles and norms that reflect the
tenets of liberal institutionalism. For example, the Charter emphasizes the
importance of respect for human rights and the rule of law, and it establishes
mechanisms for the peaceful resolution of disputes between states. The UN also
encompasses a range of specialized agencies and bodies that are designed to address
specific issues such as health, education, and economic development. These bodies
reflect the belief in the importance of functional cooperation and the pooling of
resources to address common challenges, which is a key aspect of liberal
institutionalism.
The idea of the UN has been based on the
The idea of rationalism emphasizes the preference for negotiation and diplomacy
over war as a means of resolving conflicts. The United Nations was established to
provide a platform for dialogue and peaceful resolution of disputes among nations.
The concept of optimistic progress envisions the creation of a harmonious and

prosperous world through international cooperation. The United Nations aims to
promote global development, human rights, and social progress to improve the well-
being of all people.
Kant's pamphlet 'Perpetual Peace' proposed the formation of a Pacific Union,

advocating for the establishment of international institutions to prevent war and
promote lasting peace. This idea influenced the vision of the United Nations as a
collective security and peacekeeping organization. Woodrow Wilson's 14-point speech
in 1914 laid out a vision for a new world order based on principles such as self-
determination, disarmament, and collective security. This speech served as a
catalyst for discussions and negotiations that eventually led to the formation of
the League of Nations, a precursor to the United Nations.
Structure and Organs
The General Assembly: The General Assembly is the main deliberative body of the UN
and is composed of all 193 member states, with each member state having one vote.
The General Assembly meets once a year in a regular session and may also hold
special sessions as needed. The Security Council: It has primary responsibility for
maintaining international peace and security. It is composed of 15 member states,
with 5 permanent members (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and United States)
and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms.

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The International Court of Justice: The International Court of Justice is the

principal judicial body of the UN and settles legal disputes between states and
gives advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized UN organs
and specialized agencies.
• Economic and Social Council: It is responsible for promoting international

economic and social cooperation and development. It is composed of 54 member states
elected for three-year terms. ⚫ The Secretariat: It is responsible for carrying
out the day-to-day work of UN and is headed by the Secretary-General, appointed by
the General Assembly on recommendation of Security Council.
⚫ Specialized Agencies: UN has several specialized agencies, like World Health

Organization (WHO), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), and International Labor Organization (ILO), among others.
They work on specific issues, such as health, education, and labor, and are
independent of UN but work in close cooperation with it.
How the United Nations Works?

Security Council: This is in charge of maintaining global peace and security and
oversees the UN's functions as an observer, mediator, peacekeeper, and eventually
an enforcer of peace. In order to maintain or reestablish peace and security, it
has authority to adopt binding resolutions, suspend or expel members, impose
economic sanctions, and use military force. It consists of 15 people. Big Five (or
P-5) countries-US, Russia, China, UK, and France-have permanent "veto powers" that
allow them to veto actions taken by other members. General Assembly elects other 10
non-permanent members for terms of two years that are consistent with an
established, albeit unsatisfactory, regional balance.
General Assembly: This is the UN's main legislative body, also known as the
"parliament of nations." All UN members participate in the Assembly, and each
member has one vote. The Assembly has the authority to discuss and decide on any
issue covered by the Charter, and it is specifically tasked with reviewing and
approving the UN budget, calculating member contributions, and electing the UNSC
and the judges of the International Court of Justice along with the Security
Council. Important Assembly decisions must be approved by a two-thirds majority,
although it is important to note that these decisions are suggestions rather than
binding international law. Assembly does not have legislative authority and does
not control or monitor the Secretariat or the Security Council.
The Secretariat: This provides support to the other major UN bodies and manages
their established projects and policies. Although its primary operations are housed
in the UN's New York headquarters, it maintains offices all around the world and a
staff of roughly 40,000 people. The Secretary-General, who serves as both the UN's
main executive and public relations representative, is at its helm. The Secretary
General, who is appointed by the Assembly on the Security Council's recommendation
for a five-year term that is renewable, manages a complex bureaucracy with
employees from a variety of nations and cultures while attempting to uphold the
UN's independence, frequently amid rivalry among the P5 states.
Economic and Social Council: This consists of 54 members elected by General

Assembly. Its main responsibility is to coordinate UN and UN family of
organizations' economic and social activity. This entails managing operations of
numerous projects, funding, and specialized organizations. These organizations
include 'three sisters', the World Bank, IMF, and WTO, as well as organizations
like the International Labour Organisation (ILO), World Health Organisation (WHO),
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), and
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The growth of the UN's economic and social
institutions was essentially functionalist in nature, with new organizations being
established or existing ones being developed in response to emerging economic and
social issues.

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United Nations Charter
The United Nations Charter is a document that establishes the principles and
structure of the United Nations, which is an international organization created to
promote peace, security, and cooperation among nations. The Charter was adopted on
June 26, 1945, and it consists of 111 articles. Some of the most important articles
of the UN Charter include:
Article 1: The Purposes of the United Nations, which outlines the main objectives
of the organization, including maintaining international peace and security,
promoting human rights and fostering economic and social development.
Article 2: The Principles of the United Nations, which lays out the principles that
all member states should adhere to, such as the principle of sovereignty, non-
intervention in the internal affairs of other states, and peaceful settlement of
disputes.
Article 5: The Membership of the United Nations, which outlines the criteria for
membership in organization, including being a peace-loving state that accepts the
obligations of the UN Charter. Article 39: The Security Council, which establishes
the Security Council as the main body responsible for maintaining international
peace and security and gives it the power to take action,
including the use of force, to address threats to international peace and security.
Article 51: The Right to Self-Defense, which recognizes the inherent right of
states to defend themselves against armed attack.
Article 55: The Promotion of Economic and Social Cooperation, which calls for the
UN to promote higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of
economic and social progress and development.
• Article 56: The Duties of Member States, which outlines the obligations of member
states to cooperate with the UN in the promotion of the organization's purposes and
to respect and uphold the principles of the UN Charter.
The principal aims of the UN, as spelt out by its founding Charter, are as follows:
• To safeguard peace and security in order to save succeeding generations from
scourge of war To 'reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights
To uphold respect for international law
To promote social progress and better standards of life
Envisaged Role
1. Protection of World Peace: The UN's primary objective is to maintain

international peace and security. It does this through various mechanisms,
including the Security Council, which has the power to authorize the use of force
to address threats to international peace and security. The UN also engages in
peacekeeping operations, which involve sending troops and other personnel to areas
affected by conflict to help maintain peace and stability.
In addition to addressing conflicts, the UN also works to prevent them from

occurring in the first place. It does this by promoting diplomacy, mediation, and
other peaceful means of resolving disputes. The UN also works to promote
disarmament and prevent the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological
weapons.
2. Protection of Human Rights: The UN is committed to promoting and protecting

human rights around the world. It does this through a range of mechanisms,
including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human
rights treaties. The UN also has a number of human rights bodies, such as the Human
Rights Council, which monitor and address human rights abuses and violations.
The UN works to promote and protect a wide range of human rights, including civil
and political rights, economic, social and cultural rights, and the rights of
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women, children, and persons with disabilities. It also works to combat

discrimination, racism, and other forms of intolerance.
3. Social and Economic Development: The UN is committed to promoting social and

economic development around the world. It does this through initiatives such as the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to eradicate poverty, promote
sustainable economic growth, and address other global challenges such as climate
change and inequality.
The UN works with governments, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders
to promote sustainable development. It provides technical assistance, funding, and
other forms of support to help countries achieve their development goals. The UN
also promotes gender equality and the empowerment of women, as well as the rights
of indigenous peoples and other marginalized groups.
Protection of World Peace: UN's Record
The United Nations has made significant efforts to maintain international peace and
security since its inception in 1945. It has achieved several successes in
preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, facilitating diplomatic negotiations, and
providing humanitarian aid to conflict-affected areas. However, the UN has also
faced significant challenges and failures in preventing and resolving ongoing
conflicts, effectively deploying peacekeeping operations, and combating terrorism.
Peacekeeping Operations: The UN has been involved in a number of peacekeeping

operations around the world. These operations involve sending troops and other
personnel to conflict zones to help maintain peace and security. For example, the
UN has been involved in peacekeeping operations in places such as Cyprus, the
Democratic Republic of Congo, and Mali.
Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution: The UN has played a key role in facilitating
diplomatic efforts to resolve conflicts. For example, the UN played a pivotal role
in negotiating the peace agreement that ended the war in Bosnia in the 1990s. More
recently, the UN has been involved in negotiations aimed at resolving the conflict
in Syria.
Preventing the Spread of Nuclear Weapons: The UN has played a key role in
preventing the spread of nuclear weapons. The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons (NPT), which was negotiated under UN auspices, has been signed by
almost all countries in the world. The UN also works to promote disarmament and
prevent the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons.
Mediation and Conflict Prevention: The UN has also been involved in mediation and
conflict
Failures
and Ongoing Conflicts: UN has been unable to resolve several long-standing

conflicts around the world, such as the Israeli- Palestinian conflict, the conflict
in Afghanistan, and the conflict in Syria. Despite diplomatic efforts peacekeeping
operations, these conflicts continue to cause suffering and instability.
Ineffectiveness of Peacekeeping: While the UN's peacekeeping operations have helped
to prevent or mitigate conflict in some cases, they have also faced criticism for
their ineffectiveness and lack of resources. Peacekeepers have been accused of
sexual abuse and other misconduct, and there have been instances where peacekeeping
missions have failed to prevent atrocities, such as the genocide in Rwanda in 1994.
Proliferation of Weapons: Despite the
UN's efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, several countries have
developed nuclear weapons outside of NPT framework, including North Korea and
Pakistan. There are also concerns about potential for other countries to develop
nuclear weapons in future.

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government of Colombia and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) in an
effort to end the country's long-standing conflict. Terrorism: UN has struggled to
effectively address the threat of terrorism. While it has taken steps to combat
terrorism, including passing several Security Council resolutions and establishing
the Counter-Terrorism Committee, terrorist attacks continue to world.
Protection of Human Rights: UN's Record Success
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The UN's adoption of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 was a significant milestone in the protection
and promotion of human rights. The Declaration has since served as a guiding
framework for human rights protection and advocacy around the world.
International Human Rights Treaties: The UN has played a key role in the
development and adoption of international human rights treaties, such as the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. These treaties have helped to establish
legal frameworks for the protection and promotion of human rights.
Human Rights Council: The UN's Human Rights Council was established in 2006 to
promote and protect human rights around the world. The Council is responsible for
addressing human rights violations and making recommendations for action to address
them.
Support for Human Rights Defenders: The UN provides support for human rights
defenders who are at risk of persecution or other forms of repression. This support
includes providing protection, advocating on their behalf, and raising awareness of
their work. For example, the UN played a key role in ending the apartheid regime in
South
occur around the
Failures
Ineffective Response to Human Rights Crises: The UN has often been criticized for
its ineffective response to human rights crises. For instance, in the case of the
Syrian conflict, the UN Security Council was unable to take decisive action to stop
the conflict, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people and
widespread human rights violations. Similarly, during the genocide in Rwanda in
1994, the UN peacekeeping mission was unable to stop the killings despite receiving
warnings about the impending genocide.
Ongoing Human Rights Violations: Despite the UN's efforts to promote and protect
human rights, human rights violations continue to occur around the world. For
example, China's treatment of Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang has been widely criticized
as a human rights violation, including forced labor, arbitrary detention, and
systematic persecution. Despite international condemnation, the Chinese government
has continued to deny the allegations and the UN has been criticized for its
limited response.
Political Influence and Selectivity: The UN has been criticized for being
influenced by political considerations and for being selective in its approach to
human rights. Some countries have accused the UN of using human rights as a tool to
exert political pressure on certain countries while ignoring human rights
violations in others. For instance, the UN has been criticized for its limited
response to human rights violations in countries like Saudi Arabia, which is a key
ally of several Western countries.
Limited Enforcement Mechanisms: The UN's ability to enforce human rights treaties
and resolutions is limited. The organization relies

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Africa, and has been involved in peacekeeping efforts in several conflict zones,
including in East Timor and Sierra Leone. largely on moral and political pressure
to encourage countries to respect human rights, and there are few mechanisms in
place to hold countries accountable for human rights violations. For example, North
Korea's government has been accused of widespread human rights violations,
including forced labor, torture, and public executions, but there are few effective
measures that the UN can take to hold the government accountable for these
violations.
Social and Economic Development: UN's Record Success
Failure
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: The 2030 Agenda, adopted by the UN in
2015, outlines a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aimed at
eradicating poverty, promoting sustainable development, and fostering inclusive
economic growth. The SDGs build on the progress made under the MDGs and reflect a
broader, more integrated approach to development. The SDGs have helped to focus
international attention on key social and economic development issues, and many
countries have made progress towards achieving these goals.
The UN Development Programme (UNDP): The UNDP works to support countries in

achieving sustainable development and eradicating poverty. Through its programs and
initiatives, the UNDP has helped to promote inclusive economic growth, improve
access to education and healthcare, and support environmental sustainability.
Persistent poverty: Despite the efforts of the UN, poverty remains a significant
challenge in many parts of the world. According to the World Bank, as of 2019,
approximately 9.2% of the world's population lived in extreme poverty (defined as
living on less than $1.90 per day).
Inequality: Economic inequality remains a significant challenge, both within and

between countries. According to Oxfam, as of 2020, the world's billionaires had
more wealth than 4.6 billion people combined.
Climate change: The UN has been working to promote environmental sustainability and
combat climate change, but progress has been slow, and the impacts of climate
change continue to be felt around the world. For example, extreme weather events,
such as floods and droughts, have become more frequent and severe, and sea levels
are rising.
Some specialized UN Agencies
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): FAO is a specialized
agency of the UN that is dedicated to eradicating hunger and malnutrition,
promoting sustainable agriculture, and improving the livelihoods of rural
populations. Its membership includes 194 member countries and one member
organization, the European Union.
• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): IAEA is a specialized agency of the UN

that is responsible for promoting the peaceful use of nuclear energy, preventing
nuclear proliferation, and ensuring nuclear safety and security. Its membership
includes 172 countries.

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International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD): IFAD is a specialized

agency of UN that is dedicated to reducing rural poverty and promoting sustainable
agriculture. membership includes 177 countries.
" International Labour Organization (ILO): ILO is a specialized agency of the UN

that responsible for promoting social justice and decent work around the world. Its
mandate include setting labor standards, promoting social dialogue, and providing
technical assistance and suppon to countries facing labor and employment
challenges. Its membership includes 187 countries. • International Monetary Fund
(IMF): IMF is an organization that works to foster international monetary
cooperation, promote economic growth and stability, and reduce poverty around the
world. Its membership includes 190 countries.
International Organization for Migration (IOM): IOM is a UN-related organization

that works to promote safe and orderly migration, provide humanitarian assistance
to migrants and refugees, and combat human trafficking. Its membership includes 174
countries.
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU): ITU is a specialized agency of the

UN that is responsible for promoting the development of telecommunications and
information and communication technologies (ICTs) around the world. Its membership
includes 193 countries. • United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO): UNESCO is a specialized agency of the UN that is responsible
for promoting education, science, culture, and
communication. Its mandate includes promoting universal access to education,

protecting cultural heritage sites, and promoting scientific research and
innovation. Its membership includes 193 countries.
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO): UNIDO is a specialized

agency of the UN that is dedicated to promoting inclusive and sustainable
industrial development. Its mandate includes providing technical assistance and
support to countries facing industrial development challenges. Its membership
includes 171 countries.
World Bank: The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides
loans and grants to support economic development in developing countries. Its
membership includes 189 countries.
World Health Organization (WHO): WHO is a specialized agency of the UN that is

responsible for promoting public health around the world. Its mandate includes
developing health policies and guidelines, supporting research on health issues,
and providing technical assistance and support to countries facing health
challenges. Its membership includes 194 countries.
United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)
The Human Rights Council is an inter-governmental body within the United Nations
system responsible for strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights
around the globe and for addressing situations of human rights violations and
making recommendations on them. It has the ability to discuss all thematic human
rights issues and situations that require its attention throughout the year. It
meets at the UN Office at Geneva.
Successes:
The UNHRC has been successful in bringing attention to human rights violations
around the world and holding governments accountable for their actions. For
example, the UNHRC played a role in investigating and documenting human rights
abuses in Syria, leading to the creation of a Commission of Inquiry in 2011.
The UNHRC has also been successful in promoting the rights of vulnerable
populations, such as women, children, and persons with disabilities. For example,
the UNHRC adopted a resolution in 2018 on the rights of persons with disabilities,
which called for greater inclusion
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and participation in all aspects of society. Controversies:
The UNHRC has been criticized for being biased against Israel and ignoring human
rights abuses in other countries. Some countries, including the United States, have
accused the UNHRC of being politicized and anti-Israel. In 2018, the United States
withdrew from the UNHRC, citing bias against Israel and failure to address human
rights abuses in countries like China and Venezuela.
The UNHRC has also been criticized for its membership, which includes countries
with poor human rights records. Some countries with poor human rights records, such
as China, Saudi Arabia, and Cuba, have been elected to the UNHRC, leading to
questions about the effectiveness and credibility of the body.
Issues in United nations 1. Perspectives:
⚫ Realist views, represented by Kenneth Waltz, argue that the UN is manipulated by

hegemonic states and is subject to power politics. Examples include the influence
of the P3+P2 countries and the US involvement in the Korean War.
⚫ Social constructivist perspectives view international organizations like the UN

as products of ideas and constructions, reflecting the inter-subjective
consciousness of their member states. Marxist and critical schools of thought argue
that the UN represents the global capitalist system. •
2. Institutional Issues:
• Outdated principles and provisions, such as the recognition of monistic

sovereignty and labeling Germany and Japan as "enemy states." Lack of transparency
in UN institutions.
Insufficient funds and limited number of functionaries.
• Western domination in UN bureaucracy.
• Cumbersome process of amendment, requiring a 2/3rd majority, consent from the P5,
and ratification by member states.
Criticisms of the UN's large size and complex organization, as described by Dag
Hammarskjold and S.K. Jold.
3. Performance:
Ongoing conflicts and wars, including Soviet interventions in Hungary and

Czechoslovakia, and US interventions in Iraq and Kuwait.
Reluctance of member states to commit resources, with the new US administration

openly criticizing the UN.
Concerns raised by neo-realists about the potential instability and fate similar to
the League of Nations in a multipolar world.
Need for UN Reforms
Expansion of the Security Council Improving the efficiency of internal working

Enhancing UN peacekeeping operations Reforms to the UN General Assembly

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SECURITY COUNCIL REFORMS
Veto Reforms
The veto power was established as part of the UN Charter in 1945 as a way to ensure
that the major powers had a voice in the decision-making process of the UN. The
idea was that by giving the permanent members veto power, they would be more likely
to support the UN's decisions and take part in its activities.
How Does Veto Work?
The veto power at the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) allows the five
permanent members (United States, United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia) to
block any substantive resolution, regardless of the level of support from other
members of the council. This means that even if a resolution has the support of 14
out of 15 members of the council, it can still be vetoed by any one of the
permanent members.
Criticism of Veto Powers
Lack of accountability: Since the veto power can only be exercised by the five
permanent members of the UNSC, it gives them an unfair advantage and allows them to
act with impunity. This lack of accountability can lead to abuses of power, as the
permanent members can veto resolutions that are against their interests, even if
they are in the interest of the international community.
Inequity: The veto power is viewed as being undemocratic and unfair, as it gives
the five permanent members of the UNSC a privileged position over other member
states. It is argued that the current composition of the UNSC does not reflect the
current global balance of power and that it needs to be reformed to better reflect
the diversity of the international community. Example: Europe is overrepresented,
while Africa, South America have no representation.
Hinders progress: The veto power has been used on several occasions to block
important resolutions aimed at resolving conflicts and promoting peace and
security. This has led to frustration and a lack of progress on important global
issues, such as the Syrian conflict and Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Delayed action: The threat of a veto can also cause delays in decision-making, as
member states may be reluctant to bring forward resolutions if they know they will
be vetoed. This can lead to inaction in the face of urgent issues and can undermine
the effectiveness of the UNSC.
⚫ Self-interest: The veto power can be used to further the self-interest of the
permanent members, rather than promoting the broader interests of the international
community. This can undermine the legitimacy of the UNSC and reduce the
effectiveness of its decision-making processes.
Reforms Proposed
Expansion of the UNSC: One proposal is to expand the number of permanent and non-
permanent members of the UNSC to better reflect the current global balance of
power. This would make the UNSC more representative and ensure that a wider range
of countries have a say in decision- making. Countries such as Brazil, Germany,
India, and Japan have been lobbying for permanent membership on the UNSC, while
other proposals have suggested adding more non-permanent members.
Abolition of the veto power: The G4 countries have called for the abolition of the
veto power held by the five permanent members of the UNSC. They argue that the veto
power is undemocratic and has been used in the past to block important resolutions,
which has hindered the effectiveness of the UNSC.
⚫Code of conduct for the use of the veto: Another proposal is to establish a code
of conduct for the use of the veto power, which would prevent the permanent members
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circumstances, such as when there is a risk of mass atrocities or when there is a

clear international consensus in favor of a resolution. This proposal has been
supported by countries such as France and the United Kingdom.
⚫ Uniting for Consensus (UfC) proposal: This proposal advocates for an

intermediate approach to UNSC reform. It suggests that instead of creating new
permanent members, new semi-permanent members could be created that would be
elected for longer terms than non-permanent members. These semi-permanent members
would have increased privileges, including longer terms and more influence, but
without the veto power.
Conflicts arising put improper use of Veto
The Syrian conflict: Since the outbreak of the Syrian conflict in 2011, Russia and
China have used their veto power to block several resolutions aimed at addressing
the humanitarian crisis and holding the Syrian government accountable for human
rights violations. This has prevented the UNSC from taking effective action to end
the conflict and has prolonged the suffering of the Syrian people.
The Iraq war: In 2003, the United States and its allies invaded Iraq without the
authorization of the UNSC. This was partly due to the threat of a veto by France,
which opposed military intervention. The lack of a UN mandate for the invasion has
been a source of controversy and has undermined the legitimacy of the action.
The Israeli-Palestinian conflict: UNSC has been unable to take effective action to
resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict due to use of the veto power by the United
States, which has consistently vetoed resolutions critical of Israel. This has
prevented the UNSC from holding Israel accountable for human rights violations and
has hindered efforts to find a peaceful resolution to the conflict.
• The Kosovo crisis: In 1999, Russia and China vetoed a resolution authorizing the
use of force in Kosovo to prevent ethnic cleansing by Serbian forces. This led to
NATO launching a military campaign without UN authorization, which was criticized
by Russia and China and led to tensions between these countries and the Western
powers.
⚫ Ukraine-Russian War 2022: Russia vetoed Security Council resolution condemning

attempted annexation of Ukraine regions
G4 Nations
The G4 nations, which include Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan, are a group of
countries that support each other's bids for permanent seats on the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC). They seek to expand the UNSC to better represent the
current global balance of power and address the under- representation of developing
countries in the Council. The G4 nations believe that the UNSC should be more
democratic, effective, and representative.
The G4 nations believe that the UNSC should be more democratic, effective, and
representative. They argue that the current composition of the UNSC, with its five
permanent members and ten non- permanent members, does not accurately reflect the
world's current political and economic realities. The G4 nations seek to have more
permanent seats on the UNSC, with themselves included as
members, and also want more non-permanent seats to be added to the Council.
G4 nations have proposed various models for expanding UNSC, including increasing
number of both
permanent and non-permanent seats, and have emphasized importance of maintaining

the veto power as a means of ensuring the participation and engagement of the
permanent members of the UNSC. G4 nations have faced criticism from Coffee Club, a
group of small and medium-sized countries that oppose expansion of the UNSC. They
argue that adding more permanent members to the UNSC would only increase the power
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countries. The Coffee Club has also expressed concern that expanding the UNSC could
result in gridlock and inaction, as more permanent members could lead to more
vetoes and less cooperation.
Little Satisfaction
On January 1, India began its tenure as non-permanent member of the powerful 15-
nation UN organ for 2021-22 term
O India, Norway, Kenya, Ireland and Mexico join non permanent members Estonia,
Niger, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Tunisia and Vietnam and the five permanent
members in the Council for 2021
O India will be UNSC President in August 2021 and will preside over the Council
again for a month in 2022. The presidency of the Council is held by each member in
turn for one month, following the English alphabetical order of the member states'
names
On June 17, India was elected to the UN Security Council with 184 of the total 192
votes. A member country needs two-thirds majority of votes in the General Assembly
to become a non-permanent member. This is the eighth time India has been elected as
a non-permanent member
The UNSC has 15 members and five of thern (PS)-US, UK, Russia, China and France are
permanent members with veto rights
The ten elected or non-permanent members have a tenure of two years and no veto
rights. This makes them a toothless grouping
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THE G4 CASE
INDIA
By 1992, India, Brazil, Germany, and Japan staked their claims demanding incknsion
as permanent members
India has been part of UN since inception, has the workf's second-largest
population, is the world's largest democracy and has contributed maximum
peacekeepers to UN
O Brazil is the largest country in Latin America (unrepresented continent) and

fifth largest in the world
BRAZIL
O Japan and Germany are one of the
largest financial donors to the UN
o Besides G4 countries, South Africa (largest economy in African continent) is also

a claimant, as the continent remains urrepresented on high table of permanent
members
Steps taken for reform at the UNSC
GERMANY
JAPAN
The roadblock is that Articles 108 and 109 of the United Nations Charter orant P5
veto over any amendments to the Charter, requiring them to approve of any
modifications to the UNSC veto power, that they themselves hold So even if one
member of PS doesn't agree to any reform, the UNSC cannot be reformed
In 1993, an open-ended working group on the question of equitable representation

and increase membership of the security council was set up. This is the main
platform for negotiations reforms.
⚫ In 2003, a high-level panel on threats, challenges and change was set up. This
panel gave its report in 2004.
In 2005, the UN secretary general gave his own report on the matter titled "In
Larger Freedom: Towards development, security and human rights for all".
In 2007, the intergovernmental negotiation process started with veto and membership
reforms as its core interest.
In 2015 members agreed to go forward with "Text based negotiations" replacing the
previous informal mechanism of dialogue.
Discuss the relevance of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on the security of

women in conflict zones. (2018)
UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (UNSCR 1325) was adopted by the UN Security
Council in 2000 to address the issue of women's participation in conflict
prevention, management, and resolution, and the impact of armed conflict on women.
The resolution recognizes the disproportionate and unique impact of armed conflict
on women, and calls for their full and equal participation in all efforts to
maintain and promote peace and security.
The relevance of UNSCR 1325 on the security of women in conflict zones is

significant. The resolution acknowledges the importance of considering the
different needs of women and men in conflict situations and calls for the
protection of women and girls from all forms of violence, including sexual
violence, and for the prosecution of those responsible for such crimes. It also
recognizes the critical role that women can play in peace building efforts and
calls for their participation in decision-making processes related to conflict
prevention and resolution.
Since its adoption, UNSCR 1325 has led to a number of positive developments for
women in conflict zones. It has helped to raise awareness of the unique challenges
that women face during conflict and post-conflict situations, and has led to
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The resolution has also played a key role in promoting the participation of women
in peacekeeping missions, peace negotiations, and other peace building processes.
Despite these positive developments, challenges remain in implementing the

provisions of UNSCR 1325. There is a need for increased funding and resources to
support the implementation of the resolution, as well as greater political will
among member states to prioritize women's participation and protection in conflict
situations. Moreover, more needs to be done to address the root causes of gender
inequality and violence against women in conflict zones.
Overall, UNSCR 1325 has had a significant impact on the security of women in
conflict zones by promoting their participation in decision-making processes
related to conflict prevention and resolution, and by calling for greater
protection of women and girls from violence. While there is still much work to be
done to fully implement the provisions of the resolution, its relevance and
importance in promoting women's security in conflict situations cannot be
overstated.
Is the UN relevant today anymore?
For (Yes it is relevant)
Global Nature: One important point must be kept in mind despite the UN's
shortcomings: the world is safer with the UN than it would be without it. Even
while it will never be able to do so, the UN offers an essential foundation for
cooperation should the international community decide to make use of it. The UN
helps- however imperfectly-increasing the likelihood that international disputes
may be settled without going to war, and that if a war does break out, the armed
confrontation will swiftly result in peacemaking and peace building.
As a Peacekeeper: The UN's effectiveness in maintaining peace has been tarnished by

well- publicized peacekeeping "failures." Most studies indicate that UN
peacekeeping operations succeed more often than they fail. Operationally, the UN is
unquestionably superior to other organizations in fulfilling tasks like small-scale
peacekeeping, providing humanitarian aid, and overseeing elections. It has been
advantageous to move towards multidimensional peacekeeping.
Dynamic Role Playing: The UN has succeeded in changing and redefining itself in
light of new global concerns, rather than fossilizing around its original
objective. In addition to becoming the world's foremost organization promoting
economic and social growth, the UN has also shaped the agenda for contemporary
global challenges, from population
Against (No it is no longer relevant)
Flawed World Government: Because it was intended to be a supranational organization

that would regulate the world order, the UN has major flaws. As a result, the UN
has all the flaws of a potential global government, including a lack of legitimacy,
responsibility, and democratic credentials. The UN not only meddles in national
matters (as evidenced by its waning support for state sovereignty), but it also
tampers with the functioning of the balance-of-power system, threatening peace and
stability.
Poor Effectiveness: Many believe that the UN's inefficiency, rather than its
ability to influence in international affairs, is the main issue with the
organization. As is frequently noted, there have been more wars since the UN's
founding than there had been previously, and the agency frequently takes a back
seat as significant global events take place. The inability of the Security Council
to enact resolutions and get the USA's backing as well as regional support before
action can be done sometimes causes paralysis.
Selective Bias: According to this argument, the UN was founded with the moral
imperative to uphold human rights and fundamental freedoms as a result of the
struggle against fascism. The UN, however, veered towards a form of moral
relativism in which it tries to be all things to all of its members as it grew and

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control and pandemic preparedness to climate change and gender equality.
Reformable: It is absurd to say that the UN cannot be changed despite its flaws.
Both the operational and strategic approach to maintaining peace and providing
humanitarian help have considerably improved recently, although further
improvements may surely be made. For instance, the coordination of UN agencies
could be improved; the UN could sanction international action rather than always
carrying it out; and connections with regional organizations could be improved.
Views of Scholars
PSIR
became a truly global organization. The UN has a dismal track record of opposing
dictators, denouncing human rights abuses, and stepping in to stop genocide and
other grave crimes.
Dysfunctional due to rivalry: Most people believe that UN urgently needs reform,
but it's unclear how such reform can be implemented. Due to permanent members' veto
power, it is impossible to restructure the Security Council. The organization is
simply dysfunctional, being sprawling, convoluted, and rife with overlaps and
redundancy. Additionally, efforts to streamline the business appear to worsen
rather than improve the situation.
1. Ban Ki-moon: The former Secretary-General of the UN, Ban Ki-moon, has argued
that the UN remains relevant but needs to adapt to new challenges such as climate
change and cyber threats. He has also called for reforms to the Security Council.
2. Joseph Nye: He has argued that the UN remains relevant as a forum for
international cooperation, but that it needs to be complemented by other forms of
governance such as regional organizations and public-private partnerships.
3. Kofi Annan: Another former UN Secretary-General, argued that organization needs

to focus more on preventing conflicts before they occur, rather than simply
responding to them after the fact. 4. S. Jaishankar:
In a speech at UN General Assembly in 2019, Jaishankar emphasized the importance of

the UN as a forum for cooperation and dialogue, stating that "multilateralism is
not an option, but a necessity.
In a 2020 interview with the Council on Foreign Relations, Jaishankar discussed the
need for the UN to be more responsive to emerging challenges such as climate change
and cyber threats He also emphasized the importance of building consensus among
member states, stating that
"the UN is only as effective as the political will of its member states."
With global conflict, it is not the time to term the UN as irrelevant but rather
find constructive ways to reform it and make it more effective.
Although it faces issues, the UN still stands as the most successful platform of
global cooperation thus with reform it promises much more global cooperation.
. With the COVID pandemic, the importance of global institutions like the UN are
much more highlighted.
[India and Permanent Member seat, UN Peacekeeping is covered in Part B Unit 6]

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UNIT 10: REGIONALISATION OF WORLD POLITICS: EU, ASEAN, APEC, AARC, NAFTA.
⚫ Give reasons for the Regionalisation of world politics. (200 words) (2013)
Substantiate APEC as a regional economic and trade arrangement. (200 words) (2013)
"Despite so many agreed areas of cooperation, innumerable institutional mechanisms
and a
permanent secretariat, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

have not taken off as a meaningful regional grouping." Discuss. (2014)
'The European Union has become the most politically influential, economically
powerful and demographically diverse regional entity in the world.' Discuss. (2015)
How does regionalism shape world politics? Explain with examples. (2016)
⚫ American President Donald Trump's proposal to withdraw from 'NAFTA' would bring
unforeseen consequences to the regionalisation of world politics. Elaborate. (2017)
How has BREXIT' affected the regionalisation process initiated by European Union
and what could be its likely impacts on the regionalisation process of world
politics? (2017)
"Since its inception, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
has failed to deliver on its promises." What initiatives should be taken to
reinvigorate the organisation? (2018)
Evaluate the role of BIMSTEC in multisectoral technical and economic cooperation.

(2019) Critically analyse the role of ASEAN in the promotion of regional peace and
security through economic cooperation and trade. (2020)
Explain the success of ASEAN as a regional organisation. (2021)
Introduction to Regionalism
Regionalism is the theory or practice of coordinating social, economic or political

activities within a geographical region comprising a number of states. On an
institutional level, regionalism involves the growth of norms, rules and formal
structures through which coordination is brought about. On an affective level, it
implies a realignment of political identities and loyalties from the state to the
region. The extent of regional integration may nevertheless range from cooperation
amongst sovereign states on the basis of inter governmentalism to the transfer of
authority from states to
central decision-making bodies, in accordance with supranationalism
Since 1945, regional organizations have sprung up in all parts of the world. The
first phase of this process peaked in the 1960s, but the advance of regionalism has
been particularly notable since the late 1980s. This has given rise to the
phenomenon of the so-called 'new' regionalism. Whereas earlier forms of regionalism
had promoted regional cooperation, and even integration, over a range of issues -
security, political, economic and so on - the 'new' regionalism has been reflected
in the creation of regional trade blocs, either the establishment of new ones or
the strengthening of existing ones. Some even believe that this is creating a world
of competing trading blocs.
Types/Causes of Regionalism
1. Economic Regionalism: Economic regionalism refers to the integration of

economies in a specific geographic region. The main objective of economic
regionalism is to promote economic growth, reduce trade barriers, and enhance
economic cooperation.
Example: The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): NAFTA is an agreement
between the United States, Canada, and Mexico to eliminate tariffs and other trade
barriers between the three countries.

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2. Security Regionalism: Security regionalism refers to the cooperation of

countries in a specific geographic region to address security challenges. The main
objective of security regionalism is to promote regional stability, prevent
conflicts, and enhance security cooperation. Example: The use of military personnel
from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) to restore peace and
stability to Liberia, 1990-98.
3. Political regionalism: It refers to attempts by states in the same area to

strengthen or protect shared values, thereby enhancing their image and reputation
and gaining a more powerful diplomatic voice. Example: The Arab League was formed
in 1945 to 'draw closer the relations between member states and coordinate
collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to
consider in a general way the affairs and interests of Arab countries'.
Why States choose to integrate Regionally?
The reasons for the growth of regionalism frequently overlap with those for the
more general phenomena of international organisations. However, the trend towards
regional integration has sparked a specific theoretical discussion concerning the
drivers and mechanisms that lead to international integration and institution-
building.
Three main theories have been advanced:
Federalism Functionalism
Neofunctionalism
Federalism
The federalist vision of 'unity through diversity is achieved by a system of shared

sovereignty between international and national bodies and undoubtedly had a
powerful impact on the founders of the European Communities, expressed, in the
words of the Treaty of Rome (1957), in the desire to establish 'an ever closer
union'. However, federalism has had relatively little impact on the wider process
of integration or on the trend towards global governance. This is both because
federalist projects have been too ambitious, if not utopian, in that they require
states voluntarily to sacrifice sovereignty and because enthusiasm for federalist
projects has invariably been confined to political and intellectual elites, while
political nationalism has continued to hold sway over the wider public.
Functionalism
Functionalism is a theory of regional integration that suggests that regional

cooperation can be driven by the need to solve specific functional problems. The
idea behind functionalism is that regional integration can be used as a means to
achieve specific functional goals that individual countries cannot achieve on their
own. These functional goals can range from economic issues like trade
liberalization to security issues like the coordination of counterterrorism
efforts. In the context of regionalism, functionalism emphasizes the importance of
cooperation among member countries to address specific functional problems.
Example: Regional organizations like the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) were created in response to functional challenges such as the need to
promote economic development and regional security.
Neo Functionalism
As a result of the deficiencies in Functionalism a growing emphasis has therefore

been placed on what called neo functionalism. In the writings in particular of
Ernst Haas neo functionalism recognizes

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limitations of the traditional functionalist idea that integration is largely

determined by a recognition of growing interdependence in economic and other areas.
Instead, it places greater emphasis on the interplay between economics and
politics. From this perspective, functional cooperation tends to produce
transnational constituencies of advocates for still closer cooperation, creating a
dynamic that leads to wider political integration.
EUROPEAN UNION
Without doubt, the most advanced example of regionalism anywhere in the world is
found in Europe. The European Union (EU) has engaged in experiments with
supranational cooperation that have involved political and monetary union as well
as economic union. In the process, it has developed into a political organization
that is neither, strictly speaking, a conventional international organization nor
a state, but has features of each.
Intellectual Origins
Some scholars have identified Kant's ideas as having contributed to the development
of a political culture in Europe that emphasizes the importance of cooperation and
peaceful relations among nations. One of Kant's most famous works, "Perpetual
Peace: A Philosophical Sketch," was published in 1795 and presented a vision of a
world in which nations would be bound together by a system of international law and
institutions that would prevent war and promote peace.
Background
European Union (EU) was created in aftermath of World War II, period of
unprecedented destruction and suffering in Europe. War had left continent
devastated, with millions of people dead or displaced and its economies in ruins.
In this context, there was growing recognition among leaders that closer economic
and political cooperation was needed to rebuild and stabilize region.
One of the earliest steps towards European integration was the creation of the
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951. The ECSC was formed by six
countries - Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands - and
aimed to pool the coal and steel industries of these countries under a common
authority. The idea was that by cooperating in these strategic sectors, these
countries would be less likely to go to war with each other.
Success of ECSC led to signing of Treaty of Rome in 1957, which established the
European Economic Community (EEC). EEC aimed to create a common market among its
member states, with the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people. EEC
was also designed to promote economic growth, reduce trade barriers, and increase
competition among its member countries.
Over time, the EU has expanded to include more member states and has developed a
complex system of laws and institutions that regulate economic, social, and
political relations among its members. The EU has also expanded its areas of
cooperation to include foreign and security policy, justice and home affairs, and
other issues.
Evolution of European Union
Treaty of Rome (1957): Created European Economic Community (EEC), aimed to create
common market for 6 founding member (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg,
and Netherlands). ⚫ First Enlargement (1973): Denmark, Ireland, and the United
Kingdom joined the EEC. ⚫ Single European Act (1986): Created the single market,
which aimed to remove barriers to trade
and establish a free movement of goods, services, capital, and people within the
EEC. ⚫ Second Enlargement (1986-1995): Greece (1981), Portugal, and Spain (1986)
joined the EEC. Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU in 1995.

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Maastricht Treaty (1992): Created the European Union as a political and economic
union of its member states. It also introduced the concept of European citizenship,
established the European Monetary Union (EMU), and created the euro as a single
currency.
Third Enlargement (1995-2004): Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined EU in 1995.

Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland,
Slovakia, Slovenia joined in 2004Treaty of Amsterdam (1997): Expanded the EU's
areas of cooperation to include foreign security policy, justice and home affairs,
and other issues.
Treaty of Nice (2001): Reformed EU's institutions to prepare for admission of new
member states. Fourth Enlargement (2004-2007): Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the EU in
2004. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007 Treaty of Lisbon (2007): Further reformed
the EU's institutions and increased the powers of the European Parliament.
The American interest in formation of the EU
United States played important role in creation and evolution of European Union
(EU) as way to promote economic & political stability in Europe & counter influence
of Soviet Union during Cold War. After World War II, the US recognized the need for
European countries to rebuild their economies and cooperate to prevent another war.
The US also saw the Soviet Union as a threat to Western Europe and
believed that a unified Europe would be better equipped to resist Soviet

aggression. In 1947, the US implemented the Marshall Plan, which provided financial
aid to help rebuild the economies of Western Europe. The plan was successful in
promoting economic growth and stability, but it also had political implications, as
it encouraged countries to work together towards common goals. US also supported
creation of European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, which aimed to
integrate coal and steel industries of Western Europe. ECSC was seen as step
towards greater European cooperation and economic integration, that was viewed as
way to promote peace and stability in region. US continued to support European
integration and expansion during Cold War, including creation of European Economic
Community (EEC) & signing of Maastricht Treaty, which established EU in 1992.
Overall, US saw creation of the EU as a way to promote economic and political
stability in Europe, prevent another war, and counter the influence of the Soviet
Union during the Cold War. The US continues to support the EU as an important
partner and ally in promoting global peace and prosperity.
How Do the EU Institutions Work Together?
EU ane Nominate Approves European Counell European Parliament Nomina European

Central Bank European Commission Court of Justice of the EU Au European Court of
Auditors Counell of the EU (Council of Ministers) Appoints

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General Criteria to join the EU
Political criteria: The country must have stable institutions guaranteeing

democracy, the rule of law, human rights, and respect for and protection of
minorities. The country must also have a functioning market economy and the
capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the EU.
• Economic criteria: The country must have a functioning market economy and
capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within EU. This
includes having stable macroeconomic environment, sustainable public finance
situation, and functioning financial sector. Acquis communautaire: The country must
have the ability to adopt and implement EU laws and regulations, known as the
"acquis communautaire," which covers all areas of EU policy and legislation. This
includes everything from agriculture to foreign policy to environmental
regulations.
• Administrative and institutional capacity: The country must have the

administrative and institutional capacity to effectively implement and enforce the
acquis. This includes having a well- functioning public administration, an
independent judiciary, and an effective system of law enforcement.
Criticism of EU's joining criterons
Enforcing political criteria equally: Some critics argue that the EU has not always
enforced the political criteria for membership equally. For example, Turkey's long-
standing application for EU membership has been stalled for years due in part to
concerns over human rights violations, while other countries such as Hungary have
been allowed to remain in the EU despite concerns over democratic backsliding and
human rights abuses.
• Economic criteria being too strict: The economic criteria for joining the EU can
be difficult to meet, particularly for poorer countries. For example, when Bulgaria
and Romania joined the EU in 2007, they were required to meet strict criteria on
issues such as inflation, fiscal discipline, and banking regulation. However, many
argue that these criteria were too strict, and that the two countries have
struggled economically since joining the EU.
The complexity of the acquis communautaire: The acquis communautaire can be very
complex and difficult to implement, which can be a challenge for smaller, less
developed countries. For example, when Croatia joined the EU in 2013, it had to
adopt over 170,000 pages of EU law. Some argue that this process is too complicated
and can be a barrier to entry for countries that are not as familiar with EU
regulations.
• High administrative and institutional capacity criterion: The requirement that

countries have the administrative and institutional capacity to effectively
implement and enforce the acquis can be very high, particularly for poorer
countries with weaker institutions. For example, when Kosovo applied for EU
membership in 2018, it was criticized for not having a strong enough legal system
and public administration. Some argue that this criterion can be too high and can
make it difficult for countries to join the EU.
Challenges faced by European Union
Internal Challenges
External Challenges
Internal Challenges
1. Breaking Internal Solidarity: The EU has demonstrated solidarity in responding

to Russia's war against Ukraine although the conflict has contributed to rising
energy prices and inflation in the

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EU; the war also has galvanized debate on several long-standing EU initiatives,
including related to EU defense, energy, and climate policies, and EU enlargement.
2. Brexit: The UK was one of the largest and most influential members of the EU,
both economically and politically. Its departure from the EU has reduced the bloc's
overall economic and political clout. Further, Brexit has also impacted the general
notion of European solidarity within itself. 3. Economic inequality: The EU has
faced ongoing challenges in addressing economic inequality among its member states.
This has led to tensions
between richer and poorer countries and has made
it difficult to achieve consensus on issues such as fiscal policy and the

distribution of funds. Example: According to Eurostat, in 2020, the GDP per capita
in Germany was €41,400, while in Bulgaria it was only €6,700. Similarly, the
unemployment rate in Greece was 16.7% in 2020 while in Germany it was only 4.5%.
4. Democratic backsliding: Several EU member states, including Hungary and Poland,

have been criticized for their policies on issues such as press freedom, judicial
independence, and the treatment of minorities. This has led to concerns about
democratic backsliding within the EU.
5. Migration: The EU has faced challenges in managing migration flows, particularly

in the wake of the 2015 refugee crisis. The issue of migration has been a source of
tension among EU member states and has led to debates about how to manage borders
and share responsibility for refugees.
External Challenges
1. Russia: Russia's invasion of Ukraine that began in February 2022 has broken the
post-Cold War European security order and completely rewritten the EU-Russia
relationship that had formed over the last thirty years. For three decades, the
foundations of those relations were economic and energy interdependence. Now, as
Russia poses the biggest threat to peace and stability in Europe, all areas of
relations have been securitized. Through eight comprehensive sanctions packages
adopted by the EU, the union's member states are systematically cutting all
economic ties. Europe's decoupling
from Russian oil and gas ends fifty years of connectivity and mutually beneficial
energy relations Data: Because of the sanctions, Germany, Russia's most important
trading partner in the EU, recorded a 34 percent drop in exports to Russia in the
first half of 2022 compared with the same period in the previous year.
2. Trade conflicts: The EU faces ongoing trade conflicts with several countries,
including the United States, China, and Russia. These conflicts have led to tariffs
and other trade barriers that can harm the EU's economy and damage its
relationships with these countries.
3. Refugee and migration crisis: The EU has faced a significant refugee and
migration crisis in recent years, with millions of people fleeing conflict and
persecution in the Middle East and Africa. This crisis has put pressure on the EU's
borders and has created tensions among member states over how to address the issue.
4. Terrorism: The EU faces the threat of terrorism from both internal and external
sources. Terrorist attacks have occurred in several EU countries, and the EU has
had to work with other countries and organizations to coordinate efforts to combat
terrorism and extremism.
5. Climate change: Climate change is a significant external challenge facing the EU

and the worldThe EU has set ambitious goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
address the impacts climate change, but achieving these goals will require
cooperation and collaboration with other countries and organizations.
Europe's response to Russia and the future
The EU member states have shown unprecedented unity in their sanctions policy
toward Russia. The decline in economic relations has already been huge. Because of
the sanctions, Germany, Russia's

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S
ost important trading partner in the EU, recorded a 34 percent drop in exports to
Russia in the first alf of 2022 compared with the same period in the previous year.
Russia thus slipped from fourteenth twenty-fifth place in terms of destinations for
German exports in that period. After years of conflict mong EU member states over
the completion of the Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline from Russia to under the Baltic
Sea, the war in Ukraine led German decisionmakers to abruptly suspend approval of
the project. EU member states like Germany, which are heavily dependent on
Russian , are developing alternative energy sources in the Middle East, Norway, and
the United States, mainly for the supply of liquefied natural gas.
The war shows that the EU needs new short-, medium-, and long-term strategies for
dealing with in a completely different security reality, so as to change Russia
itself and affect its ability to act in the common neighborhood. Such a policy
shift was probably inevitable: a key reason for the Ukraine war was Russia's
perception of geopolitical competition in its shared neighborhood with the EU. The
Russian leadership was not willing to lose what it feels to be Russia's traditional
sphere of influence, including de facto control of Ukraine. Despite weaknesses and
contradictions in the EU's
approach, the union's neighborhood policy and soft power had begun to foster
transformation in the common neighborhood through its impact on societies. Russia's
elites, by contrast, could resort only to military power in a desperate attempt to
prevent a further loss of influence in Ukraine. But the brutal use of force to
subjugate another country is precisely what is causing the further decline of
Russian power and has strengthened European unity against Russian aggression.
The EU now needs to maintain the unity it has forged in response to the Ukraine war
to meet three big challenges with regard to Russia. First, the EU must build a
foreign and security policy vis-à-vis Russia on the basis that the union is now a
geopolitical actor and Russia is the major threat to European security. Second, the
EU must devise more proactive policies to integrate the Eastern neighborhood
outside Russia. And third, the EU must design a new Russia policy that is maximally
tough on the regime of President Vladimir Putin while keeping alive the idea of a
post-Putin Russia that is part of Europe.
Future of EU-Russia Relations
With the current regime in Moscow, there will be no reset of EU-Russia relations.
Only deep regime change in Russia will create the opportunity for a fundamentally
different EU policy toward the country. Russia itself has changed rapidly-and for
the worse-since the war started. It is becoming more closed and more repressive of
civil society and any kind of opposition. A key precondition for political change
in Moscow-but no guarantee of it-is a Russian defeat in Ukraine, meaning the ouster
of Russian forces from Ukrainian territory.
The integration of Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine into the EU, which would help
create successful examples of transformation, democratization, and reform in post-
Soviet countries beyond the Baltic states, is crucial for change in Russia. If
Ukraine wins the war, is reconstructed, and, at the same time, is integrated into
the EU, this will have a major impact on Russia. It would counter the Russian
leadership's argument that there is no alternative to authoritarian rule and would
confirm that democratization and successful reforms can take place in post-Soviet
countries and would also be possible for Russia.
Beyond the ongoing war in Ukraine, European countries need a long-term vision and
strategy for a different Russia in Europe. A crucial element of a new, common
European policy toward Russia is making the EU member states and their societies
more resilient against Russian influence. Better coordination among the member
states is especially important. Self-protection against disinformation and hybrid
attacks, military deterrence, and economic and energy decoupling to decrease
vulnerabilities will be the main elements of the EU's policy toward Russia in the
short and medium

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The proposition that Germany should not lead a new Russia policy because Berlin's
approach failed in the past needs critical reflection. A balanced approach is
required between the interests of bigger and smaller member states, meaning that
countries like France and Germany should not dominate the EU's Russia policy and
should learn lessons from the past. Yet, the EU can have a more effective Russia
policy only if the bigger member states change their approaches and become less
vulnerable to external influences, such as Russia's role in gas supplies or China's
huge market and role in supply chains. For this, the EU needs to account for the
failures of the past so it can redefine its policy for the
future.
If the EU is to become a global actor, its foreign policy toward powers like China
and Russia needs to show more ambition. Those member states that have historical
and societal ties with Russia will always have an influence on EU-Russia relations.
At the same time, Europe's energy and economic decoupling from Russia will make it
easier to formulate a common European policy toward Moscow. The economic component
in several member states' approaches to Russia will decline. But different
traditions in dealing with Russia will persist. It is also important for the EU to
coordinate its Russia policy with Washington while keeping a European profile in
dealing with Moscow and countries in
the Eastern neighborhood.
[Published in Carnegie Europe by Stefan Meister in Nov.2022]
[India - EU relations are covered in Part B]
Standard Conclusion
With its unique issues, the EU still continues to be the most successful example of
regionalism and thus members must focus on reform and innovation to ensure future
existence.
ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN) The most important regional

initiatives to have emerged in Asia have come out of the Association of SouthEast
Asian Nations (ASEAN). ASEAN was established in 1967 by Brunei, Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, with Vietnam (1995), Laos and
Burma (1997) and Cambodia (1999) joining subsequently. ASEAN was a product of the
Cold War period, its initial interests focusing mainly on security matters,
especially those linked to settling intra-regional disputes and resisting
superpower influence. However, the organisation moved steadily towards cooperation
on economic and trade matters, leading in 1992 to the agreement to establish the
ASEAN Free Trade Area, due to be completed by 2007. This was complemented by the
growth of political regionalism, in the form of an emphasis on so-called 'Asian
values'.
The intellectual origin of ASEAN can be traced back to the Cold War period, when
Southeast Asian countries were concerned about the spread of communism in the
region. The idea of regional cooperation was first proposed by Indonesia's then
Foreign Minister, Dr. Soetomo, in 1949. However, it was not until the 1960s that
ASEAN as we know it today began to take shape.
Background
ASEAN, or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, was established on August 8,

1967, with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration by Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. The creation of ASEAN was a response to the
changing political and economic landscape of Southeast Asia in the aftermath of
World War II and the Cold War.

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During the Cold War period, the Southeast Asian region was viewed as a potential
battleground between the United States and the Soviet Union. As a result, Southeast
Asian countries faced the threat of being caught in the middle of a global power
struggle, which would have had disastrous consequences for their economic and
political stability. The creation of ASEAN was seen as a way to promote regional
cooperation and stability, and to avoid being pulled into the orbit of either
superpower.
At the same time, the Southeast Asian countries were grappling with their own
internal challenges, including poverty, underdevelopment, and political
instability. By joining together in ASEAN, these countries hoped to strengthen
their collective bargaining power and promote economic growth and social
development.
Over the years, ASEAN has evolved into a regional organization that is focused on
promoting economic integration, political cooperation, and social and cultural
development in Southeast Asia. ASEAN has also expanded its membership to include
Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam, and has become a
significant player in regional and global affairs.
Objectives
The main aims behind the establishment of ASEAN were to promote economic growth,
regional peace and stability, active collaboration, and mutual assistance on
matters of common interest to all the members. ASEAN also seeks to maintain close
and beneficial cooperation with existing regional and international organizations
that share common aims and objectives. Evolution of ASEAN
ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok Declaration): The ASEAN Declaration is the founding
document of ASEAN. It outlines the principles and objectives of ASEAN, including
the promotion of regional peace and stability, economic cooperation, and the
promotion of social progress and cultural development.
• Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN): Signed in 1971, ZOPFAN aimed to
establish Southeast Asia as a zone of peace, freedom, and neutrality. It committed
ASEAN countries to refrain from using force in their relations with one another and
to respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each member state.
Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC): The TAC was signed in 1976
to provide a legal framework for regional cooperation and to promote friendly
relations among ASEAN member states and other countries in the region. It includes
principles of mutual respect, non-interference in each other's internal affairs,
and peaceful settlement of disputes.
⚫ ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA): AFTA was launched in 1992 with the aim of creating
a free trade area among ASEAN member states. It included the elimination of tariffs
and non-tariff barriers to trade in goods, services, and investment.
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): The ARF was established in 1994 as a forum for security
dialogue and cooperation among ASEAN member states and other countries in the Asia-
Pacific region. It aims to promote confidence-building measures and preventive
diplomacy to address regional security challenges.
• ASEAN Economic Community (AEC): The AEC was launched in 2015 to promote regional
economic integration and create a single market and production base among ASEAN
member states. It includes the free flow of goods, services, investment, skilled
labor, and freer movement of
capital.
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP): RCEP is a trade agreement

signed in 2020 between ASEAN member states and five other countries, including
China, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand. It is the largest trade
agreement in the world, covering over 2 billion people and around 30% of the
world's GDP.

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PSIR
ASEAN operates under six fundamental principles, two of which are mutual respect
for independence sovereignty, and territorial integrity, and non-interference in
member countries' internal affairs. ⚫ Non-interference policy: One of the key
factors that have contributed to the success of ASEAN is its policy of non-
interference in the internal affairs of member states. This policy has helped to
prevent conflicts between member states and maintain regional stability.
Consensus-based decision making: ASEAN operates on a consensus-based decision-
making process, which means that all member states must agree on a decision before
it can be implemented This has helped to promote cooperation and prevent any member
state from dominating the organization.
⚫ Economic integration: ASEAN has been successful in promoting economic

integration among its member states through the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and
other regional economic initiatives. This has helped to increase intra-regional
trade and investment and boost economic growth in the region.
ASEAN centrality: ASEAN has maintained its centrality in the region by engaging
with external partners through mechanisms such as the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)
and the East Asia Summit (EAS). This has helped to ensure that ASEAN remains the
primary driver of regional cooperation and integration.
Flexibility: ASEAN has been flexible in its approach to regional cooperation,

allowing for different levels of integration and cooperation depending on the
specific needs and circumstances of member states.
Comparative analysis of ASEAN and European Union
While both ASEAN and the EU are regional organizations with similar goals of
promoting regional cooperation and integration, there are some differences in their
approaches and levels of success. One key difference is that the EU has achieved a
much higher level of economic integration and cooperation among its member states,
with a single market, a common currency, and a range of other economic policies and
institutions. This has helped to promote economic growth and stability among EU
member states, as well as increased intra-regional trade and investment.
In contrast, ASEAN's economic integration has been more limited, with the ASEAN
Free Trade Area (AFTA) and other regional economic initiatives not yet leading to a
single market or common currency. However, ASEAN has made progress in other areas
of regional cooperation, such as in the areas of security, social and cultural
cooperation, and environmental sustainability.
Another key difference is that the EU has a more centralized and supranational
governance structure, with a range of institutions and decision-making processes
that are binding on member states. In contrast, ASEAN has a more decentralized and
consensus-based approach to decision making, with member states retaining
significant sovereignty over their domestic affairs.
Overall, while the EU has achieved a higher level of economic integration and
governance, ASEAN has been successful in maintaining regional stability, promoting
cooperation in a range of areas, and maintaining its centrality in the region. Both
organizations have their strengths and weaknesses, and their success depends on
their ability to adapt to changing circumstances and challenges.
Challenges faced by ASEAN
1. Geopolitical Stability: ASEAN states are located at a strategically important

junction, bordering two of the world's most populous economic powers, China and
India, which makes ASEAN a focal point for both regional and global powers. ASEAN
member states are also enmeshed in territorial

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disputes with interested powers. China's claim to territories in the South China
Sea, for example, overlaps with competing claims by Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia,
the Philippines and Vietnam. 2. Myanmar
⚫Human Rights Issues: According to the report of Amnesty International (AI), since
1978 the Rohingya's continue to suffer from human rights violations in their home
country Myanmar under the regime of military junta, and many have fled to
neighbouring Bangladesh as a result. Apparently, the vast majority of them have
been denied Myanmar citizenship. The reason that ASEAN did not take any response
about human right issues is the doctrine of non-interference in the internal
affairs of member states.
⚫ Coup: Following the military coup in February 2021 and the subsequent crackdown
on pro- democracy protesters, there has been widespread international condemnation
and calls for action to restore democratic governance in Myanmar. ASEAN has been
criticized for its perceived lack of a cohesive and proactive response to the
crisis, with some commentators arguing that the bloc's principle of non-
interference in the internal affairs of member states has hindered its ability to
take a strong stance against the military junta. Some ASEAN member states have also
expressed reservations about getting involved in the Myanmar issue, citing concerns
about sovereignty and the potential for further instability in the region.
3. Stagnated Economic Integration: ASEAN has not yet achieved its major goal of
economic integration. The establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in
2015 was viewed as the first step in addressing this, but it still lacks a common
regulatory framework, ultimately preventing ASEAN from becoming a major economic
player.
4. Terrorism: Terrorism and drug trafficking are also major challenges to ASEAN's
stability and development. The region has been a target of terrorist attacks by
groups such as Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) and the Abu Sayyaf Group. Drug trafficking is
another significant challenge facing ASEAN, as the region is a major producer and
transit point for illicit drugs
5. Divergent political systems: The ASEAN member states have diverse political
systems ranging from democratic to authoritarian, which can make it difficult to
achieve consensus on some issues. Some countries may prioritize their national
interests over regional goals, which could undermine ASEAN's collective efforts.
6. Institutional limitations: ASEAN's decision-making processes can be slow and

consensus-driven, which could hinder its ability to respond quickly to emerging
issues and crises. Additionally, ASEAN's institutional framework is relatively weak
compared to other regional organizations, which could limit its effectiveness in
implementing its policies and programs.
Explain the success of ASEAN as a regional organisation. (2021)
ASEAN has been a successful regional organization in Southeast Asia since its
establishment in 1967. The organization has contributed to the promotion of peace,
stability, and economic growth in the region.
One of the key factors in ASEAN's success is its commitment to the principle of
non-interference in the domestic affairs of member states. This has enabled the
organization to maintain good relations with all member countries, including those
with differing political systems and ideologies. Another important factor in
ASEAN's success is its ability to facilitate regional economic integration. The
establishment of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) in 1992 and the subsequent
formation of
the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015 have helped to promote trade,
investment, and economic growth in the region. According to the ASEAN Secretariat,
the region's total GDP has increased from $147.4 billion in 1975 to $3 trillion in
2020, with intra-ASEAN trade accounting for 23.5% of the region's total trade in
2020.

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Moreover, ASEAN's role in promoting regional security and cooperation has been
widely recognized. The organization has played an important role in resolving
conflicts and promoting stability in the region, including the resolution of the
Cambodia conflict in the 1980s and the management of the South China Sea dispute in
recent years. Additionally, ASEAN has been successful in fostering cooperation on
non-traditional security issues, such as counter-terrorism and disaster management.
Political scholars have offered different views on ASEAN's success. Some scholars
argue that ASEAN's success is due to its ability to balance power and maintain
neutrality in the region. Others point to the organization's ability to maintain a
high degree of consensus among member states, which has enabled it to act as a
cohesive and effective regional actor. Additionally, some scholars credit ASEAN's
success to its ability to adapt to changing regional and global circumstances, such
as the rise of China and the increasing importance of non-traditional security
issues.
Thus, ASEAN's success as a regional organization can be attributed to its

commitment to noninterference, economic integration, and regional security and
cooperation. The organization has been able to maintain good relations with all
member countries, promote economic growth and integration, and resolve conflicts in
the region. While challenges remain, ASEAN's success thus far offers valuable
lessons for other regional organizations seeking to promote peace, stability, and
economic growth in their respective regions.
Comparing EU and ASEAN
European Union (EU) Aspect Approach Decision-Making Imposition of Conditionalities

Supranationalism Qualified majority Imposes conditionalities on member countries,
even in the domestic sphere Promotion of Political Not used for promoting a
particular Model Human Rights and Democracy Monetary Union Charter/Constitution
Focus model of political life Criticized for not giving enough importance to human
rights and promotion of democracy Has a monetary union (Eurozone) Does not have a
specific charter ór constitution Nation is of less importance Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Inter-governmental Consensus-based majority Follows
the "ASEAN Way" based on the principle of non-interference in domestic affairs Not
used for promoting a particular model of political life Recently adopted charters
on human rights Currency swap arrangements Has its own charter or constitution
Nation is at the center [India-ASEAN covered in Part B] SAARC SAARC South Asian
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SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) is a regional

intergovernmental organization comprising eight countries in South Asia, namely
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
The organization was established on December 8, 1985, with the aim of promoting
regional cooperation and economic development among member countries.
The idea of forming SAARC was first proposed by Bangladesh President Ziaur Rahman
in 1980. Following his proposal, a meeting was held in Colombo, Sri Lanka in 1981,
which was attended by the heads of state or government of Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The meeting resulted in the
signing of the "Declaration on South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation",
which laid the foundation for the establishment of SAARC.
Background
The establishment of SAARC was seen as necessary to promote regional cooperation

and economic integration among South Asian nations. The South Asian region is home
to more than one-fifth of the world's population, and is rich in natural resources,
including oil, gas, and minerals. However, the region has also been plagued by
political instability, conflicts, poverty, and underdevelopment. Therefore, the
establishment of SAARC was seen as a means to promote peace, stability, and
development in the region through regional cooperation and integration.
• SAARC was also seen as a way to counterbalance the influence of larger

neighboring countries such as China and India, and to strengthen the bargaining
power of smaller South Asian nations in regional and international affairs.
SAARC aims to promote economic growth, social progress and cultural development
within the South Asia region. The objectives of SAARC, as defined in its charter,
are as follows:
• Promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and improve their quality of
life
• Accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the

region by providing
all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and realise their full potential
• Promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia
• Contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another's

problems Promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic,
social, cultural, technical and scientific fields
Strengthen co-operation with other developing countries

Strengthen co-operation among themselves in international forms on matters of
common interest;
and
• Cooperate with international and regional organisation with similar aims and
purposes.
Evolution of SAARC
The first SAARC summit was held in 1985 in Dhaka, where the SAARC Charter was
adopted. The Charter provides the framework for cooperation among the member states
in various sectors. Since then, SAARC has held 18 summits, with the most recent one
being held virtually in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
SAARC has signed several agreements and declarations to enhance cooperation among
the member states. These agreements include the SAARC Preferential Trading
Arrangement (SAPTA), which was signed in 1993 and came into effect in 1995. SAPTA
aims to promote trade among the member states by reducing tariffs on selected
products.

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In 2004, SAARC signed the SAARC Framework Agreement for Energy Cooperation
(Electricity), which aims to promote energy cooperation among the member states in
the areas of electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. SAARC has also
signed agreements on tourism, agriculture, health, and education.
2010: The sixteenth SAARC Summit was held in Thimphu, Bhutan. The SAARC Food Bank
was established.
2014: The eighteenth SAARC Summit was held in Kathmandu, Nepal. The SAARC Framework
Agreement for Energy Cooperation was signed.
Since 2016, SAARC has faced several challenges that have hindered its progress and
effectiveness as a regional organization. The most significant challenge has been
the ongoing tension between India and Pakistan, which has resulted in the
postponement of the SAARC summit since 2016.
SAPTA
SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA) was signed in 1993 and entered into
force in 1995. The Agreement reflected the desire of the Member States to promote
and sustain mutual trade and economic cooperation within the SAARC region through
the exchange of concessions. The agreement provided for a positive list; the trade
of the items on positive list could be regulated. There was a lack of commitments
on tariff reduction; it was a completely voluntary arrangement
SAFTA
South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) is an agreement reached in 2004 to create SAARC
free trade area. Members of SAARC signed framework agreement on SAFTA to reduce
customs duties of all traded goods to zero by 2016. It came into force on 1 January
2006 and is operational following the ratification of the agreement by the seven
governments. Major instruments of SAFTA:- Trade Liberalisation Programme, Rules of
Origin, Institutional Arrangements, Consultations and Dispute Settlement
Procedures, Safeguard Measures, Special Provisions for Least Developing Countries
of SAARC. Though an advance over SAPTA, SAFTA has not been able to improve the
trade relations of SAARC members significantly.
Reasons for Failure
Weak Cultural Identities: The South Asian Region comprises countries sharing common
history, heritage and culture. The horrors of divisions and sub-divisions have
however created fissures. These fissures are commonly articulated through the ideas
of distinct cultures. Pakistan wants to assert itself as Islamic State and calls
India a Hindu State. The debates regarding identity are similarly going on in Sri
Lanka and Bangladesh. The pursuit of maintaining distinct cultural identity by
every country has not allowed the region to come together.
Rivalry between India and Pakistan, 2 largest members of SAARC, has hovered hugely
on SAARC. The rivalry continues to restrain SAARC from functioning as a sub-
regional organization. India is a preponderant country - both in terms of size and
economy, in the SAARC Region. India's neighboring countries have often felt
insecure about India's ambitions. Thus, any attempts to secure free trade area are
met with the concerns of Indian businesses disrupting the indigenous
business of countries. This in turn leads countries to use SAARC as an anti-India

platform. ⚫ Indian Foreign Policy actions: The 1971 war, Indo-Sri Lanka Accord
continue to haunt the neighboring countries. India has not forcefully articulated
South Asian Vision; even the progressive ideas like the Gujral Doctrine have not
been implemented on ground.
Security Issues: The region is still beset with many unresolved border and maritime
issues. These unresolved borders have led to problems of Terrorism, Refugee Crisis,
Smuggling, Narco-Trade. The unresolved issues continue to mar cooperative
relations.

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⚫ SAARC Charter Article X(2) of the SAARC Charter mandates that decisions, at all
levels in SAARC, are only of multilateral issues, and only those issues are for
inclusion in the agenda in a SAARC summit meeting on the basis of unanimity. The
SAARC platform thus cannot be used to resolve bilateral issues; this has undermined
the scope and potential of SAARC.
India's History with SAARC:
Pratap Bhanu Mehta, in his book "Shaping the Emerging World: India and the
Multilateral Order," describes India's initial attitude towards SAARC as "akin to
attempt by Lilliputs to tie down Gulliver."
The Gujral Doctrine played a significant role in India assuming a greater role as a
regional leader. Prime Ministers Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh continued
to engage with India's neighbors, emphasizing regional cooperation.
According to Modi government, with deteriorating relations with Pakistan, SAARC's

future is ambiguous, and India is focusing more on BIMSTEC and IOR-ARC to isolate
Pakistan.
Issues with SAARC:
Kenneth Waltz, a realist scholar, argues that SAARC is manipulated by hegemonic

states, such as the power politics of P3+P2 and US influence in the Korean war. ⚫
Social constructivists view SAARC as a product of ideas and constructions
reflecting the inter- subjective consciousness of its members.
• Critics from Marxist and critical school argue that SAARC represents the global
capitalist system. Outdated principles and provisions, including the recognition of
monistic sovereignty and labelling Germany and Japan as "enemy states," pose
institutional challenges for SAARC. • ⚫ Lack of transparency, inadequate funds and
functionaries, and dominance of Western countries
in the UN bureaucracy hinder SAARC's effectiveness.
The cumbersome process of amendment and the divergence between the working of UNSC
and UNGA add to SAARC's challenges.
Despite SAARC's existence, wars and interventions have continued, highlighting its
limited impact. Multipolar world dynamics, according to neo-realists, may lead to
instability and a fate similar to that of the League of Nations.
Way Forward:
PM Modi's suggestion of 2-speed SAARC or "consensus minus one" approach can promote
i. • Including the South-Asian diaspora and involving regional players like China,
Japan, and Australia may address concerns of smaller states within SAARC.
Learning from ASEAN's experience, more frequent meetings and a pragmatic approach
towards Pakistan could bridge the trust deficit and promote regional prosperity.
• Emphasizing regional connectivity and India's leadership can contribute to

revitalization.
Conclusion:
S.D. Muni suggests that it should not be seen as history but as future prospect,
reconnecting region. India's focus on other regional initiatives does not diminish
the need for SAARC's relevance. Adapting to new dynamics and addressing the
challenges will be essential for SAARC's success.
BIMSTEC as an alternative to SAARC? BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-

Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) is regional organization comprising of
7 states - India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri
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Lanka, and Thailand. It was established in 1997, with the objective of promoting
cooperation among the member countries in various areas such as trade, investment,
energy, tourism, and technology. As for the question of whether BIMSTEC can replace
SAARC for India, it can be argued that the two organizations have different
objectives and functions, and hence, it may not be a matter of one replacing the
other. SAARC was established in 1985, with the aim of promoting economic and
cultural cooperation among the South Asian countries, while BIMSTEC is focused on
promoting cooperation among countries in the Bay of Bengal region.
•India has been a member of both organizations and has been actively participating
in their activities. However, in recent years, India's focus seems to have shifted
towards BIMSTEC due to Pakistan's refusal to reddress issues of cross border
terrorism. India has been pushing for greater cooperation among the BIMSTEC
countries in areas such as connectivity, trade, and counter-terrorism.
However, it is important to note that SAARC still remains the only regional
organization that
includes all the South Asian countries, including Pakistan and Afghanistan. Despite
the challenges faced by SAARC, there have been some positive developments in recent
years, such as the establishment of SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area) and the
signing of the SAARC Framework Agreement for Energy Cooperation.
Moreover, it is also worth noting that success of regional organizations depends

not only on commitment of members but also on geopolitical environment and the
broader global context. Thus, it is important to continue efforts to strengthen
both SAARC and BIMSTEC, and explore ways in which the two organizations can
complement each other's efforts towards regional cooperation. In conclusion, while
India may see BIMSTEC as a viable alternative to SAARC, it is important to
recognize that both organizations have their own unique roles and objectives.
Rather than replacing one with the other, efforts should be made to strengthen both
organizations and promote greater cooperation among their member countries.
[India and SAARC covered in part B]
ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION (APEC)
APEC stands for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, a regional economic forum that
promotes free trade and cooperation among its members. Established in 1989 and
currently has 21 member economies, including US, China, Japan, South Korea, and
Canada. Primary goal is to advance economic growth and prosperity in Asia-Pacific
region by promoting trade and investment liberalization, business facilitation, and
economic cooperation. It aims to achieve this by enhancing economic integration and
removing trade barriers through various means, such as implementation of Bogor
Goals, which call for free and open trade and investment in region by 2020 for
developed economies and by 2025 for developing economies.
1501 1993 Thall Chinese Taipal
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Background
The idea behind APEC was to establish a forum where leaders and officials from
member economies could meet and discuss ways to promote trade and investment in the
region. It was also seen as a way to provide a platform for dialogue on economic
and trade issues, and to facilitate cooperation and collaboration among member
economies.
At the time of its establishment, the Asia-Pacific region was experiencing rapid
economic growth, and there was a growing recognition of the importance of economic
cooperation and integration for sustaining this growth. The establishment of APEC
was seen as a way to harness the economic potential of the region and promote its
development.
Since its establishment, APEC has played an important role in promoting economic
growth and development in the Asia-Pacific region. Through its various initiatives
and programs, it has helped to reduce trade barriers, promote investment, and
foster economic cooperation among its member economies.
Structure
Leaders' Meetings: APEC's highest-level meeting held annually, attended by the

heads of state or government of member economies.
Ministerial Meetings: Attended by ministers responsible for various economic

sectors, including trade, finance, and energy.
• Working Groups: Covering various areas of economic cooperation, such as trade and
investment, transportation, and food security.
• APEC Secretariat: Responsible for providing technical and advisory support to

member economies and organizing APEC meetings.
Bogor Goals
The Bogor Goals refer to a set of free trade and investment targets that were
established at the Asia- Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) meeting held in Bogor,
Indonesia, in 1994. These goals were aimed at creating a free and open trade and
investment environment in the Asia-Pacific region by 2020 for industrialised member
economies and by 2025 for developing member economies. The Bogor Goals were seen as
an ambitious agenda for trade liberalisation, which aimed to create a level playing
field for
all economies in the region and to promote economic growth and development.
The Bogor Goals included specific targets for tariff reductions, non-tariff
measures, and trade in services, among others. These goals were implemented through
a process of voluntary, non-binding commitments by APEC member economies, rather
than through binding legal agreements. This approach was chosen in order to
encourage participation and ownership by member economies and to allow for
flexibility in implementation.
Thus, the Bogor Goals represented a significant milestone in the history of APEC
and in the promotion of regional economic integration in the Asia-Pacific region.
While progress has been made towards achieving these goals, challenges remain,
particularly in the area of non-tariff barriers and in achieving more balanced and
inclusive economic growth.
India and the APEC
India's interest in APEC stems from its potential to enhance economic cooperation
and integration with the Asia-Pacific region, which is one of the fastest-growing
regions in the world. APEC's focus on trade liberalization, business facilitation,
and economic cooperation aligns with India's economic reform agenda, which aims to
promote trade and investment in the country.

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India's participation in APEC as an observer has allowed it to engage with member

economies and participate in APEC activities and initiatives. India has also used
its participation in APEC to promote its 'Act East' policy, which aims to deepen
economic and strategic ties with the Asia-Pacific region.
India's Potential in the APEC
India's growth trajectory aligns with APEC's agenda of enhancing regional

integration through trade and investment liberalisation and facilitation across the
Asia-Pacific. Critically, foreign trade accounts for an increasing share of India's
GDP, growing from less than 15% in the early 1990s to around 40% at present
Its status as an emerging power has played a role in this realisation, as has the
changing structure of its economy. New requirements have come to the fore, such as
the further integration of its flourishing services sector into global value
chains, greater foreign investment and easier skilled worker flows.
The material benefits on offer to APEC member economies by the addition of India to
the forum include increased access to India's labour force and booming consumer
markets, as well as increased investment opportunities. In return, India will gain
opportunities to raise its trade and investment profile in the region, gain access
to APEC's resources and expertise (including. importantly, the APEC Business
Advisory Council), and proactively participate in topics of conversation at APEC
forums that strongly resonate with India's own developmental interests, such as
automation, SMEs, and women's economic participation.
Indian membership of APEC thus helps respond to the opportunities and challenges of
increased protectionism and slowing growth in the West on one hand, and China's
unchecked regional advance on the other. In India, APEC will find an alternate
market for labour, consumers and investments, and an additional counterweight to
help check unilateral economic ambitions in the region. It will also help APEC
embrace some notion of 'Indo-Pacific' and give it a renewed purpose in a renewed
21st century.
Advantages for India if it joins APEC:
Trade Negotiations: Membership in APEC would provide India with the opportunity to
negotiate trade agreements with member economies, facilitating greater integration
into the global economy. This could lead to expanded market access for Indian goods
and services, promoting economic growth.
• Investment Inflows: Being a part of APEC would attract investment inflows into
India. APEC member economies have significant investment potential and India's
membership would enhance its attractiveness as a destination for foreign direct
investment (FDI).
⚫ Enhanced Competitiveness: APEC's mechanisms and best practices would enable

Indian officials and businesses to learn from the experiences of member economies.
This knowledge sharing and capacity building would help Indian businesses become
more competitive in the global market, driving innovation and productivity.
By joining APEC, India can leverage the platform to strengthen its economic ties
with key regional players, expand its trade networks, attract investments, and gain
access to valuable knowledge and practices. These advantages would contribute to
India's economic growth and development.
APEC's reservations
According to scholars, There is thus a gap between India's protectionist impulses

and its its globe- trotting economic diplomacy (note the 2014 blockade of the WTO's
Trade Facilitation Agreement by the government, which has prioritised economic
relations in its foreign policy engagement).

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• There are also some concerns among existing APEC members about India's economic
policies and regulatory environment, which may not be fully aligned with the free
trade and investment principles espoused by APEC.
Thus, several APEC members are wary of India playing spoiler to the forum's
economic agenda. Given the consensus-based nature of the forum, India could slow
the pace of reform. However, just as New Delhi needs to narrow the divergence
between its foreign and trade policies
India should reassess whether time has come and gone for it to truly capitalise on
its membership in APEC. At same time, APEC must conduct its own bracing reality
check on the extent of its function and ambition.
Conclusion
Alyssa Ayres, a senior fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations, argues that
Washington should support India's membership in APEC as a gesture of goodwill
towards Indian priorities. Despite having a sizable economy of over $2 trillion,
India has been denied entry into APEC for more than two decades, which Ayres
believes lacks strategic rationale.
NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (NAFTA) The North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA), which was enacted in 1994 and created a free trade zone for Mexico,
Canada, and the United States, is the most important feature in the U.S.-Mexico
bilateral commercial relationship.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was established on January 1, 1994,
as a trilateral trade agreement between Canada, Mexico, and the United States. The
idea of a free trade area between the three countries was first proposed in 1980 by
Ronald Reagan, the President of the United States at that time, and was further
developed during the administration of George H. W. Bush. NAFTA was seen as a way
to promote economic growth, increase trade, and create jobs in North America. The
agreement was signed by the leaders of the three countries in December 1992 and was
ratified by their respective legislatures in the following year.
Tariff Reduction: One of the primary goals of NAFTA is to eliminate tariffs on

goods traded between the member countries. Over the years, NAFTA has phased out
tariffs on most goods traded between Canada, Mexico, and the United States.
Rules of Origin: NAFTA has established rules of origin, which determine whether a
product is eligible for preferential treatment under the agreement. To qualify for
preferential treatment, a product must meet certain criteria, such as being
produced in a NAFTA country or containing a certain percentage of North American
content.
Dispute Settlement: NAFTA has a dispute settlement mechanism that allows member
countries to resolve disputes related to the agreement. This mechanism involves a
panel of experts who review the case and issue a binding decision.
Investment: NAFTA includes provisions that protect and promote foreign investment
in the member countries. These provisions provide investors with a set of basic
rights, such as the right to fair and equitable treatment and protection against
expropriation.
Provisions
• Labor and Environmental Standards: NAFTA also includes provisions that aim to
promote labor and environmental standards. These provisions establish minimum
standards for labor and the environment, and require member countries to enforce
these standards.

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PSIR
Job losses: One of the main criticisms of NAFTA is that it has led to job losses in
the United States as companies moved production to Mexico to take advantage of
lower labor costs. ⚫Trade imbalances: Critics argue that NAFTA has led to trade
imbalances between the United
States and Mexico, with the United States importing more goods than it exports to
Mexico.
Environmental concerns: Some critics argue that NAFTA has led to environmental
degradation as companies in Mexico may not be subject to the same environmental
regulations as those in the United States.
⚫ Labor concerns: Labor advocates have criticized NAFTA for failing to address
labor rights and protections, leading to low wages and poor working conditions in
Mexico.
⚫ Dispute resolution: Dispute resolution mechanisms under NAFTA have been

criticized for being too slow and cumbersome, making it difficult for companies to
seek recourse for unfair practices Intellectual property rights: Some critics argue
that NAFTA's provisions on intellectual property rights disproportionately benefit
large corporations, making it difficult for smaller businesses and individuals to
compete.
Agriculture: NAFTA has had significant impacts on the agriculture sector, with some
arguing that it has led to the displacement of small farmers and the consolidation
of larger agribusinesses.
United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement
In 2018, Trump successfully negotiated a new trade agreement with Mexico and Canada
called the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), which replaced NAFTA. The
USMCA includes provisions on labor rights, environmental protections, and digital
trade that were not part of NAFTA, and it also includes updated rules on
intellectual property and agricultural trade. Trump claimed that the USMCA was a
better deal for American workers and businesses than NAFTA.
Differences with NAFTA
Labor and Environmental Standards: The USMCA includes new provisions to promote
higher labor standards and strengthen environmental protection. For example, the
agreement requires Mexico to pass new labor laws that recognize workers' rights to
organize and bargain collectively, which was a major concern under NAFTA.
• Auto Rules of Origin: The USMCA includes stricter rules of origin for auto
production. Under the new agreement, a higher percentage of a vehicle's parts must
be manufactured in North America to qualify for duty-free treatment. The USMCA also
requires that a certain percentage of auto production be done by workers earning at
least $16 per hour.
⚫ Sunset Clause: The USMCA includes a provision that requires the agreement to be
reviewed and renewed every 16 years. This is designed to provide more certainty and
stability for businesses and investors.
Digital Trade: The USMCA includes new provisions to support digital trade, such as
rules prohibiting data localization requirements and measures to protect cross-
border data flows.
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UNIT 11: CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL CONCERNS
The struggle for democracy has been marked by bitter strife and tribulations.'
Examine the statement, illustrating the cases of Pakistan, Nepal and Myanmar.
(2015) Examine the main problems and challenges in looking after world politics'
environmental concerns. (2016)
Give an assessment of the Feminist critique of contemporary global issues. (2017)

The recent move of the USA to withdraw from the Paris Climate Agreement is a
setback in the consensus achieved on protecting the world environment. In this
context, assess the future perspective on climate control. (2017)
• Would you agree that the ongoing debates on international environmental politics
continue to be marred by a new North-South ideological divide over historical
responsibility and developmental model? Illustrate your answer with suitable
examples. (2018) Discuss the importance of personal data protection in the context
of human rights. (2019)
Is democracy promotion in developing countries a feasible idea? (2019) Examine the

role of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and
other major efforts by UN to address the global environmental crisis. (2020)
DEMOCRACY
Standard Introduction
• The concept of democracy is at the centre of fierce debates in political theory

as well as in commonplace discussions on politics.
• To begin, with the idea of democracy, it can be argued that it is central to any
discourse on politics and government, in modern times. Because any discourse about
politics or the state or the government in modern times revolves around the idea.
It can be understood in two dimensions:
• As a form of govt (narrow view): here it represents the govt by the people. -
Several exponents of democracy have treated democracy chiefly as a form of govt.
John Austin, James Bryce, A.V. Dicey, John Seeley and A.L. Lowell are some
prominent supporters of this view. As a value system (broad view): A respect for
human rights, human dignity, liberty, equality, fraternity, rule of law etc.
Democracy has both instrumental and intrinsic values, Intrinsic values of democracy
lies in moral superiority and giving political equality whereas its instrumental
value lies in the common good of all like giving the better leadership choice and
minimizing the abuse of political power, by distributing it equally among citizens.
Phases of Democracy
First Phase (1828-1926): Occurred between 1828 and 1926. Involved countries such as
the USA, France, and the UK.
Second Phase (1943-1962): Occurred between 1943 and 1962. Involved countries such
as West Germany, Italy, Japan, and India.
Third Phase (1974 onwards): Began in 1974. Marked by the overthrow of right-wing
dictatorships in Greece, Portugal, and Spain. The retreat of the generals in Latin
America. The collapse of communism from 1989 onwards.

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Theories supporting the expansion of democracy:
Immanuel Kant's idea of perpetual peace: Kant advocated for the establishment of
democratic
governments as a means to achieve lasting peace among nations.
Democratic peace theory: This theory posits that democracies are less likely to
engage in armed conflicts with each other, promoting the idea of spreading
democracy to foster international peace UN foreign policy: The United Nations has
an active agenda in promoting democracy as a fundamental value and encourages its
member states to uphold democratic principles.
Expansion of democracy under the third wave: The third wave of democracy,
characterized by the spread of democratic systems in various regions, provides
impetus for the global expansion of democracy.
Debate on the model of democracy: The discussion centers on the different models of
democracy, with a focus on the Western and non-Western approaches, as well as the
concept of guided democracy.
⚫ Democratic deficit in global governance institutions: Institutions such as the

IMF, World Bank, and WTO have been criticized for their democratic deficit,
prompting calls for greater transparency and inclusivity in their decision-making
processes.
Forms of Democratic Deficit Today
1. Erosion of civil liberties: In many countries, there has been a decline in civil
liberties, such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of
assembly. Governments may impose restrictions on these fundamental rights, limiting
the ability of citizens to express themselves and participate fully in democratic
processes.
Example: Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro has exhibited authoritarian tendencies,

with rhetoric that undermines democratic values and policies that threaten
environmental protections, human rights, and indigenous rights. He has also clashed
with democratic institutions and sought to consolidate power within his presidency.
2. Suppression of dissent: Governments may crack down on political opposition,

activists, and human rights defenders, using tactics such as harassment,
intimidation, arrests, and even violence These actions undermine the democratic
principle of a robust and pluralistic political environment Example: Under
President Vladimir Putin, Russia has experienced a significant erosion of
democratic institutions and a crackdown on political opponents, independent media,
and civil society. •
3. Concentration of power: Power becomes increasingly concentrated in the hands of

a few individuals or a single political party, diminishing the checks and balances
necessary for a healthy democracy. This concentration can be observed in various
branches of government, including the executive, legislative, and judicial
branches.
Example: China has seen a consolidation of power under President Xi Jinping, who
has tightened control over the government, media, and civil society.
4. Manipulation of elections: Electoral processes can be undermined through various

means, such as gerrymandering, voter suppression, and manipulation of the media
environment. These tactics distort the will of the people, hindering the fair
representation of diverse voices and undermining the legitimacy of elections.
Example: The Russian government has been accused of engaging in various tactics to
manipulate elections and limit political competition.
5. Lack of transparency and accountability: Democratic deficits often arise from a

lack of transparency and accountability in governance. When decision-making
processes are opaque

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citizens are left uninformed and unable to hold their leaders accountable for their
actions. This lack of transparency erodes trust in democratic institutions.
6. Rise of authoritarianism: Authoritarian regimes or leaders may exploit

democratic processes to gain and consolidate power, undermining democratic
principles from within. They may exploit legal loopholes, weaken institutions, and
manipulate public sentiment to consolidate their control and limit the influence of
opposition forces.
Example: The rise of authoritarianism is evident in several countries worldwide.

China, under President Xi Jinping, has witnessed increased control over the
government and suppression of dissent. Russia, led by President Vladimir Putin, has
experienced the erosion of democratic institutions and crackdowns on political
opponents. Turkey, under President Recep Tayyip
Erdogan, has seen the centralization of power and repression of dissenting voices.
7. At Global Institutions: Global institutions, such as the United Nations Security
Council, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, WTO, G7, and G20, exhibit a
democratic deficit. Decision-making processes often lack inclusivity and
accountability, with power concentrated among a few dominant nations. The veto
power in the UNSC and skewed voting systems in the IMF and World Bank undermine
equitable representation. The WTO's negotiations prioritize the interests of
powerful countries, while the exclusivity of the G7 and G20 limits democratic
legitimacy. Addressing this deficit requires reforms that enhance transparency,
inclusivity, and representation, ensuring all nations have a voice in shaping
global policies and fostering a more democratic international order.
Challenges to Democracy in Developing Countries with examples
Political Instability: Examples include countries like Afghanistan, which has

experienced ongoing conflicts and political instability for decades, hindering the
establishment of a stable democratic system.
⚫ Limited Civic Participation: Countries like Myanmar have faced challenges in

achieving broad- based civic participation due to historical factors, social
divisions, and restrictions on political freedoms.
⚫ Weak Institutions: Zimbabwe has faced challenges with weak institutions,

including allegations of electoral irregularities, limited separation of powers,
and a lack of independent oversight. • Economic Inequality: Brazil has struggled
with high levels of economic inequality, which have contributed to social divisions
and undermined trust in democratic processes.
⚫ Ethnic and Religious Divisions: Nigeria faces challenges with ethnic and
religious tensions that have at times led to violence and hindered efforts to build
a cohesive and inclusive democratic society.
• External Interference: Countries like Venezuela have faced allegations of

external interference, with accusations of foreign powers exerting influence on
domestic politics and undermining democratic processes.
Is Democracy on the Decline in the current global scenario?
Arguments for the Decline of Democracy:
• Rise of Authoritarianism: The increase in authoritarian leaders and regimes in

countries like Russia, China, Turkey, and Hungary is seen as a threat to democratic
values and institutions. ⚫ Backsliding of Established Democracies: Some argue that
established democracies, such as the United States, Poland, and India, are
experiencing erosion of democratic norms, polarization, and the concentration of
power in the hands of the ruling parties.

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Arguments against the Decline of Democracy:

Global Spread of Democracy: Over the past few decades, the number of democracies in
the world has increased significantly, with countries like South Korea, Chile, and
Tunisia transitioning to democratic systems.
• Democratic Resilience: Despite challenges, many democracies have shown resilience

and the ability to withstand crises, as seen in countries like South Africa,
Mexico, and Indonesia, where democratic institutions have survived and adapted to
changing circumstances.
⚫ Citizen Mobilization: There has been a rise in citizen-led movements advocating

for democratic reforms, such as the pro-democracy protests in Hong Kong, Belarus,
and Sudan, which demonstrate a strong desire for democratic governance.
Global Decline of Democracy
Global Decline: Democracy faced a serious crisis in 2017, with basic tenets such as
free and fair elections, minority rights, freedom of the press, and the rule of law
coming under attack worldwide. Over the past 12 years, there has been a decline in
global freedom, with 71 countries experiencing net declines in political rights and
civil liberties.
• Democratic Setbacks: Many countries that were previously seen as success stories
for democracy, such as Turkey and Hungary, have been sliding into authoritarian
rule. Myanmar, which had shown signs of democratic opening, carried out ethnic
cleansing and faced international criticism.
⚫ Rise of Populist Leaders: Populist leaders appealing to anti-immigrant sentiment

have gained votes and parliamentary seats in several European countries, weakening
established parties. This trend has contributed to partisan fragmentation and
difficulty in creating stable governing coalitions.
⚫ Decline in Youth Interest: Young people, who have little memory of past
struggles against totalitarianism, may be losing faith and interest in democracy.
The idea and promotion of democracy have been tarnished among many, leading to a
dangerous apathy.
• Autocratic Influence: Autocratic powers like China and Russia have taken
advantage of the retreat of democracies and increased their internal repression
while exporting their influence to other countries. This behaviour includes
politicized courts, intolerance for dissent, and predetermined elections.
• Economic and Security Risks: The spread of antidemocratic practices poses

economic and security risks. When more countries embrace democracy, all countries,
including the United States, become safer and more prosperous. Autocratic and
repressive regimes lead to the erosion of treaties, alliances, and stability,
providing fertile ground for violent extremists.
United States' Role: The United States has been retreating from its traditional
role as a champion and exemplar of democracy. The Trump administration explicitly
expressed its intention to cast off principles guiding US policy and showed
scepticism toward international agreements and collective global security. This
departure marks a break from previous presidents' commitment to democracy as the
best form of government.
Freedomhouse 2023 Report Highlights
Data
Sixteen consecutive years of decline: The text mentions that there has been a
decline in global freedom for 16 consecutive years.
⚫ 60 countries suffered declines: Over the past year, a total of 60 countries

experienced a decline in freedom.

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⚫ 25 countries improved: In contrast to the declining countries, only 25 countries

showed improvement in terms of freedom.
38 per cent live in Not Free countries: Currently, approximately 38 per cent of the
global population resides in countries categorized as "Not Free." This proportion
is the highest since 1997.
• 20 per cent live in Free countries: Only about 20 per cent of the global
population resides in countries categorized as "Free."
Causes for Decline (According to Freedomhouse)
⚫ The promotion of autocratic norms: Autocrats have gained a more favourable

international environment over the past 15 years, empowered by their own political
and economic might and diminishing pressure from democracies. This alternative
order lacks a unifying ideology or concern for the well-being of populations. It
aims to minimize checks on autocratic abuses and maintain power, resulting in
disorder, armed conflict, corruption, and economic volatility.
⚫ Dropping the pretence of competitive elections: Authoritarian leaders no longer

uphold the facade of competitive elections. In Russia's parliamentary elections,
opposition leader Aleksey Navalny was imprisoned, opposition candidates were
prevented from running, and irregularities were observed. Nicaragua's presidential
election lacked competitiveness, with President Daniel Ortega's government refusing
electoral reforms and targeting the opposition through laws and arrests. Hong
Kong's Legislative Council elections were tightly controlled, limiting suffrage,
excluding candidates based on political criteria, and suppressing independent
media.
A proliferation of coups and power grabs: Coups increased in 2021, indicating

weakened deterrents against antidemocratic actions. Myanmar experienced a coup
after credible elections, leading to a state of emergency, arrests of political
leaders, crackdowns on protests, and severe human rights abuses. Sudan witnessed a
military seizure of power, postponement of elections, ongoing protests, and a
violent response from security forces, resulting in a government controlled by the
armed forces.
⚫ The rise of illiberal streaks within democracies: Democracies are experiencing

internal challenges as leaders and their supporters manipulate political systems,
disregard the principles of pluralism and equality, and prioritize their own
interests over the well-being of society as a whole. This erosion of democratic
principles endangers the rights and well-being of all residents.
⚫ Distrust in elections and the assault on democratic processes: In both the
United States and Brazil, leaders who fear losing power have sowed distrust in
elections and made baseless claims of fraud. This undermines public confidence in
the electoral system and poses a threat to the integrity of future elections.
Criticism of Freedomhouse Reports
• Western Bias: Critics argue that Freedom House tends to focus more on Western
liberal democracies as the ideal standard while being less understanding or
appreciative of different political systems and cultural contexts. This bias can
lead to a limited understanding of the progress and challenges in non-Western
countries.
o Example: Freedom House tends to be more critical of countries like Russia or

China while overlooking human rights issues in countries that have close
relationships with Western
powers.
Vague Standards: Freedom House may apply different standards when assessing
countries based on their geopolitical importance or relationships with Western
powers. This inconsistency in applying standards may undermine the credibility and
objectivity of their

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reports.
⚫ Lack of consultation with local experts: The methodology of Freedom House

reports has been criticized for relying heavily on external sources and expert
opinions without sufficient consultation with local experts and organizations. This
can result in a limited understanding of local contexts and dynamics.
⚫ Simplistic categorization: Freedom House uses a numerical scoring system to

categorize countries as "Free," "Partly Free," or "Not Free." Critics argue that
this simplification fails to capture the complexities of each country's political
and social dynamics, leading to an oversimplified and inaccurate assessment of
their democratic status.
India and democracy in context of international affairs
India has consistently advocated for the democratization of the world order and the
strengthening of the voice of smaller nations. It has pushed for the
democratization of international institutions such as the UN Security Council, IMF,
and World Bank, advocating for increased representation for developing countries.
At the same time, India upholds the principle of respecting the sovereignty of
states and adheres to a policy of non-interference in domestic affairs. This
commitment to non-interference shapes India's foreign policy approach.
Democracy has had an impact on India's relations with its neighbouring countries.
For instance, India's policy towards Myanmar has been influenced by its concerns
for democracy in the country In the past, India emphasized democracy in Myanmar,
but since the 1990s, it has overlooked this factor. On one hand, India has taken a
more pragmatic approach to Myanmar's governance, while on the other hand, it has
also participated in conferences and initiatives, such as the Conference on
Democracy or the League of Democracy sponsored by the USA, which aim to promote
democracy. India has also shown its commitment to democracy by contributing to the
UN Democracy Fund, which supports projects that strengthen democratic governance
worldwide.
Way Forward/Conclusions
Countering authoritarianism as priority: Governments should make support for

democracy and countering authoritarianism central to their foreign policy, national
security strategy, and domestic reform agenda. This requires a sustained and bold
response.
Active citizen participation: Ensuring a better democratic world involves the

active participation of both governments and engaged citizens. Governments should
involve civil society organizations, human rights defenders, and empowered
electorates in shaping the democratic agenda.
Background
HUMAN RIGHTS
The concept of human rights has emerged as one of the most influential and
inspiring ideas of our time. Rooted in the belief that all human beings are born
free and equal in dignity and rights, human rights have gained significant
recognition and importance in the modern world. According to legal scholar Ronald
Dworkin, human rights are considered inalienable, permanent, universal,
and equal, emphasizing their inherent value and applicability to every individual.
The year 1948 marked a significant milestone with the adoption of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations. This landmark document brought
human rights into the realm of law, elevating them from philosophical and moral
ideals to legally recognized and protected principles. The Universal Declaration
serves as a guiding framework for promoting and
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safeguarding human rights globally, laying the foundation for subsequent

international human rights instruments and treaties.
⚫ Since its inception, the concept of human rights has provided a framework for
addressing inequality, injustice, and the violation of basic freedoms. It has
become a powerful tool for advocating for social justice, equality, and the dignity
of every individual, regardless of their background, race, gender, or beliefs. The
recognition and protection of human rights are crucial for fostering a just and
inclusive society where every person can live with dignity and enjoy their
fundamental freedoms.
Globalization and Human Rights: Two Schools of Thought
are two main schools of thought regarding the relationship between globalization
and human . One school argues that globalization has been beneficial for human
rights, while the other contends that globalization has undermined human rights.
1. Globalization as beneficial for human rights:
• Democracies and human rights: Proponents of this view argue that globalization
has contributed to the spread and consolidation of democracies, which are typically
associated with the protection and promotion of human rights.
Proliferation of instruments, conventions, and institutions: Globalization has led

to the
development of numerous international human rights instruments, conventions, and

institutions that aim to protect and enforce human rights on a global scale. Growth
of human rights consciousness: The interconnectedness and information-sharing
facilitated by globalization have raised awareness about human rights issues,
leading to a greater emphasis on human rights discourse and activism. 2.
Globalization undermining human rights:
⚫ Neo-liberal capitalism: Critics of globalization argue that the dominant

neoliberal economic model associated with globalization prioritizes profit over
human rights, leading to widening income inequalities and marginalization of
vulnerable groups. ⚫ Anti-poor effects: Globalization's focus on market-driven
policies and deregulation has often
resulted in adverse impacts on the socio-economic rights of marginalized

communities, exacerbating poverty and inequality.
⚫ Weakening of social and economic rights: The rolling back of the state and the
erosion of social welfare systems in some contexts have weakened the protection of
social and economic rights, such as access to healthcare, education, and social
security.
⚫ Feminization of poverty: Globalization has been linked to the feminization of

poverty, where women disproportionately bear the brunt of economic inequalities,
discrimination, and limited access to resources and opportunities.
Promoting Human Rights in the Global Context
To effectively promote human rights, it is crucial to address the structural

reasons behind the failure to fully uphold and protect human rights. Several
perspectives shed light on these challenges: Communitarian and post-colonial
critics: They argue that human rights are based on Western ideology, neglecting
diverse cultural perspectives and values.
• Post-modern and radical theorists: They view human rights as a pretext for
interventionism and advancing geopolitical agendas, questioning their universality
and impartiality. Lack of clarity on rights and who is considered human: The
absence of consensus on which rights should be recognized as human rights and
debates surrounding the rights of certain individuals (such as terrorists)
complicate the implementation of human rights.
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Realist view and state sovereignty: Realists argue that human rights infringement
can be seen as interference in the sovereignty of states. However, the concept of
sovereignty as responsibility emphasizes that human rights transcend national
boundaries and promote global solidarity.
Given these challenges, the following measures can be taken to promote human
rights: ⚫Depoliticize the issue: Western countries should approach human rights in
a non-political manner, focusing on shared values and principles rather than
advancing their own interests. Dialogue between civilizations: Principles of human
rights should be developed through
meaningful dialogues and engagement among diverse civilizations, respecting

cultural relativism. Capacity building: South nations need support to enhance their
capacity in countering the negative effects of globalization on human rights.
Strengthening UN agencies: UN agencies involved in human rights work should receive

adequate resources and capacity-building efforts to enhance their effectiveness.
Addressing transparency and democratic deficit: Efforts should be made to address

transparency issues and democratic deficits within institutions like the UN Human
Rights Council. While globalization may have weakened the power of states, it does
not necessarily imply a weakening of
human rights. Today, states, civil society, and the international community must
work collaboratively to enforce and protect human rights. By embracing dialogue,
respecting cultural diversity, and enhancing capacities, the promotion of human
rights can become a collective effort to create a more just and inclusive world.
UNHRC
The UN Human Rights Council was created in 2006, replacing the UN Commission on
Human Rights. The Commission, established by ECOSOC, consisted of 53 members
elected for three-year terms without restrictions on consecutive terms. However,
dissatisfaction with the Commission's functioning, including the inclusion of
countries with poor human rights records, led to the establishment of the UNHRC.
UNHRC is comprised of 47 members and is directly accountable to General Assembly

(UNGA). Members are elected by an absolute majority in the UNGA for two-year terms,
with a maximum of two consecutive terms. The UNGA has the power to suspend
membership if a member's actions or record violate human rights. Members of the
UNHRC are expected to demonstrate a strong commitment to human rights and have made
significant contributions in the field.
The functions of UNHRC include promoting universal respect for human rights,
coordinating and mainstreaming human rights within the UN system, and recommending
cases for action to Security Council through the UNGA. The council utilizes various
mechanisms for its functions, such as the universal periodic review of countries,
reporting on the status of human rights to the UNGA, and providing avenues for
individual or state complaints through its complaint and advisory procedures. While
the UNHRC has shown improvements compared to its predecessor, it has faced
criticism for being influenced by Western countries and accused of furthering
Western agendas. It is important for the council to maintain neutrality in its
actions and avoid any perceived bias. Additionally, the effectiveness of the
UNHRC's resolutions depends on the cooperation of states and the will of the
international community, which can sometimes hinder implementation.
In conclusion, the UNHRC plays a vital role in promoting and protecting human
rights globally., Efforts should be made to ensure its actions appear impartial and
unbiased. Collaboration and commitment from states and the international community
are essential for the effective implementation of the council's resolutions.

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Major Data
CLIMATE POLITICS
1. Temperature Rise: The average global temperature has increased by about 1.4
degrees Fahrenheit over the past 100 years (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration)
2. Decline in Ice cover: Arctic sea ice is now declining at a rate of 13.1 percent
per decade
3. Emissions Data:
Electricity and Heat Production account for 25% of 2010 global greenhouse gas
emissions. • Transportation accounts for 14% of 2010 global greenhouse gas
emissions. Agriculture accounts for 24% of 2010 of global greenhouse gas emissions.
4. IPCC 6th Assessment Report
Highest Emissions: Average annual global greenhouse gas emissions in the decade of
2010- 19 were at their highest levels in human history.
⚫ Limiting global warming to around 1.5 degrees Celsius requires global GHG
emissions to peak before 2025 at the latest, and be reduced by 43% by 2030.
Environment at global stage
Until the 1970s, the environment was not a major concern in the field of
international relations. The focus on environmental issues and their integration
into global governance emerged largely due to the efforts of civil society groups.
⚫ The turning point came with the Stockholm Conference in 1972, which marked the
beginning of international environmental diplomacy. India played a significant role
in this development and claimed a leadership role in shaping the fundamental
principles in environmental negotiations.
The Stockholm Conference emphasized the need for international cooperation to

address environmental challenges and led to the establishment of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). India actively participated in the conference and
contributed to the formulation of key principles, such as the principle of common
but differentiated responsibilities, which recognizes that developed and developing
countries have different responsibilities in addressing environmental issues.
Since then, environmental concerns have gained increasing recognition in

international politics, leading to the negotiation and adoption of various
environmental agreements and conventions, including the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement.
India's involvement in shaping environmental negotiations and its claim to

leadership in this area demonstrate its commitment to addressing global
environmental challenges and contributing to the development of international
environmental norms.
Emergence of climate debate
The emergence of the climate debate and the recognition of environmental issues as
a global concern have been influenced by various factors:
Civil society and global environmental movement: The climate debate gained momentum
through the efforts of civil society, particularly in advanced countries. Rachel
Carson's book "Silent Spring" played a significant role in raising awareness about
environmental issues and initiating the global environmental movement.
• Two types of environmentalism: Over time, two approaches to environmentalism have

emerged. Deep ecology emphasizes the intrinsic value of nature and advocates for
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behavior. Shallow ecology focuses on practical solutions and sustainable

development within the existing economic and social systems.
Late 20th-century international agenda: Environmental issues started to appear on

the international agenda in the late 20th century, with a particular emphasis on
pollution problems. The 1972 Stockholm Conference led to the establishment of the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and laid the foundation for addressing
global environmental challenges.
Brundtland Commission and sustainable development: The 1983 report "Our Common
Future" by the UN Commission on Environment and Development, also known as the
Brundtland Commission, introduced the concept of sustainable development. It aimed
to define the type of development that the global South would pursue, considering
the environmental and social dimensions.
Agenda 21 and Rio principles: To implement sustainable development strategies,

Agenda 21 was developed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The summit also
resulted in the formulation of Rio principles, such as the polluter pays principle
and the commitment to taking action even in the absence of complete scientific
certainty.
Major issues with climate debate agenda or negotiations
National interests often take priority over global environmental concerns.
Lack of collective action and shared responsibility for global environmental

protection. Balancing environmental concerns with economic growth and welfare in
democracies and welfare states.
Environmental degradation poses security threats, contributing to the concept of

ecological security.
Critique of globalization and neoliberal capitalism for contributing to

environmental degradation.. Gender inequalities and disproportionate impacts of
climate change on women. India's Climate Goals
Prime Minister Narendra Modi proposed a five-fold strategy (Panchamrittas) for

India to play its part in helping the world get closer to 1.5 degrees Celsius on
the first day of the global climate meet in Glasgow. Non-Fossil Fuel-Based Energy
Capacity: India aims to increase its non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity to 500
GW by 2030.
Renewable Energy Usage: By 2030, India plans to meet nearly 50% of its energy
requirements through renewable energy sources.
⚫ Carbon Emission Reduction: The country aims to reduce its total projected carbon
emissions by nearly one billion tonnes between the present and 2030.
Carbon Intensity Reduction: India targets reducing the carbon intensity of its
economy to less than 45% by 2030.
Carbon Neutrality and Net Zero Emissions: India aims to achieve carbon neutrality
and net zero emissions by the year 2070.
India's Global Leadership and Initiatives:
Per Capita Emissions: India's per capita greenhouse gas emissions, which are
currently around 1.96 tCO2e, are less than one-third of the world's per capita
emissions of 6.55 tCO2e. This has solidified India's reputation as a global leader
in climate action.
Infrastructure for Resilient Island States (IRIS): India has launched the IRIS
initiative, which provides technical, knowledge, and financial assistance to small
island nations in their efforts to address climate change impacts. Developed
countries also support this initiative.

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The One Sun, One World, One Grid: India has launched the International Solar
Alliance, establishing the first-ever international network of solar power grids.
This initiative aims to strengthen ties with climate-vulnerable countries.
Negotiations on Coal Power and Fossil Fuel Subsidies: India, along with countries
like China, Iran, Venezuela, and Cuba, rejected a clause calling for the "phasing-
out" of unabated coal power and inefficient fossil fuel subsidies. Instead, they
proposed a "phased-down" approach. This demonstrates India's growing influence in
climate diplomacy.
2.1°F
The increase in the Earth's temperature
C 2.6 inches
10x
The rise of global sea levels
CO2 100x
The rate of current global warming
30%
e increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide
The increase in the ocean's acidity
150
years
About how long we've known
Global environmental debates
North-South debate: Disagreements between developed and developing countries

regarding responsibility and burden-sharing for environmental issues, including
historical vs. current responsibility, common but differentiated responsibilities
(CBDR), aid vs. trade, and differing approaches to addressing environmental
challenges.
Private property vs. Public property debate: Divergent views on the role of private
ownership and market forces in managing environmental resources, with liberals
advocating for private ownership and market discipline, while eco-socialists argue
for community ownership to ensure environmental protection.
⚫ Reformist ecology vs. Radical ecology debate: A division between those

advocating for incremental reforms within the existing system to address
environmental problems and those advocating for radical transformations of the
economic and social systems to address ecological concerns.
• Climate change scientists vs. Climate change skeptics: Ongoing debates between
scientists who provide evidence for human-induced climate change and skeptics who
question the scientific consensus, leading to differing approaches and policies
related to climate change mitigation and adaptation.

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NORTH-SOUTH CLIMATE DIVIDE
Causes
PSIR
Economic and Geographic Divide: The North-South divide in global environmental

politics i characterized by the differences between the industrialized economies of
the global North (such as the US, Canada, Western Europe, developed parts of Asia,
Australia, and New Zealand) and the less developed and developing countries of the
global South (including regions like Africa, Latin America, and developing Asia).
This divide is based on factors such as geographical location, political stability,
technology, and economic development.
⚫ Unequal Responsibilities: The Kyoto Protocol reinforced the division between

developed countries (Annex I) and developing nations (non-Annex I). It was
recognized that developed countries are mainly responsible for the high levels of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to their industrial activities spanning over 150
years. The principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities" placed an
excessive burden on developed nations to address climate change. However, developed
countries have been reluctant to accept full responsibility and have insisted that
developing nations also reduce emissions.
⚫ Different Goals and Perspectives: The North and South have different ultimate
goals in global environmental politics. The North views improving the state of the
global environment as the central goal, while the South sees the uneven, unfair,
and inappropriate state of the global system and North-South relations as the
central problem. This difference reflects competing perspectives on environmental
priorities and global cooperation.
⚫ Environmental Scarcities and Control: Environmental issues have added to the

controversy over the North-South relationship. The South often views environmental
concerns as a means for developed countries to control and exploit their economies.
The North sees environmental threats as an opportunity for global cooperation. The
South desires industrialization and development similar to the North but is
concerned about the potential environmental degradation and demands technology
transfer and financial assistance from the North.
Blame Game and Lack of Accountability: The North-South debate has turned into a
"blame game" regarding responsibility for GHG emissions and minimizing the problem.
Neither the North nor the South is fully accepting responsibility for the
environmental degradation caused by industrial activities or actively taking
accountability. The North pressures the South to be mindful of environmental
degradation, while the South focuses on industrialization and development without
fully considering the environmental costs.
Impact of North-South Divide on Climate Crisis
Structural Inequalities: The North-South divide, rooted in structural inequalities

in the global economic system, contributes to global environmental issues. The
dominance and inequality between the capital-rich developed North and the
developing South shape the beliefs and interests of both blocks, reinforcing their
dichotomy.
⚫ Consumption and Emissions: Developed nations in the North consume the majority
of the world's energy and are responsible for a significant portion of greenhouse
gas emissions. Calls for developing countries to raise their environmental
standards based on Western norms are met with resistance, as the South argues for
differentiated responsibilities and the right to development. ⚫ Sustainable
Development: The concept of sustainable development is challenged by the North-
South divide. While there is a recognition of the need for equitable development
that considers environmental and developmental needs, industrialized countries are
often reluctant to give up their advantage and make international commitments or
liabilities.

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• Trade and Investment Policies: Economic policies, such as free trade agreements
and regulation of investment policies, often disadvantage developing countries. The
tools of economic analysis developed in the past are insufficient to address the
changing dynamics of the global system, where the North dominates capital goods
exports and the South relies on primary product exports.
⚫ Vulnerability and Burden Sharing: The impacts of climate change are

disproportionately felt by
the South, creating inequality in vulnerability. Disagreements arise between the

North and South on what constitutes fair burden sharing in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. • Negotiation Impasse: The North-South divide influences international
climate negotiations, blurring understanding of the causes and solutions to the
impasse. It is important to use the North- South lens to inform and enhance
understanding, but not as an end in itself.
COP27 OUTCOMES
The 2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference or Conference of the Parties of
the UNFCCC, more commonly referred to as COP27, was the 27th United Nations Climate
Change Conference, held from November 6 until November 20, 2022, in Sharm El
Sheikh, Egypt.
• Loss and Damage Fund: Agreement to establish a fund to provide financial

assistance to developing countries affected by climate disasters, addressing their
need for rescue and reconstruction. However, the mechanism of operation and finance
provision/administration are yet to be determined.
⚫ 1.5°C Temperature Limit: Continuation of the focus on limiting global warming to
1.5°C. The "ratchet mechanism" was upheld, requiring countries to strengthen their
commitments annually. However, the absence of a plan to peak emissions by 2025
indicates a lack of commitment to climate action.
⚫ Fossil Fuels: While a commitment to phase down coal was agreed at COP26, the
inclusion of a commitment to phase down all fossil fuels was a subject of intense
debate at COP27 but was not included in the final resolution.
• Food Security: Recognition of safeguarding food security and ending hunger as a

fundamental priority. Protection and conservation of water systems are highlighted
as means to help communities protect themselves from climate impacts.
• Technology: Launch of a five-year work program to promote climate technology

solutions in developing countries.
• Reform in Finance Institutions: Discussions on reforming publicly funded finance

institutions to provide more assistance to developing countries for greenhouse gas
emissions reduction and adaptation. The recapitalization of development banks and
the need for increased climate finance were discussed.
⚫ Adaptation: Reaffirmation of the commitment to increase funding for adaptation

measures. Efforts to double the proportion of the US$100 billion annual commitment
to adaptation were supported.
• Mitigation: Launch of a mitigation work program aimed at scaling up mitigation

ambition and implementation until 2030. Governments are requested to revisit and
strengthen their 2030 targets in national climate plans by the end of 2023.
• Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan: Emphasizing the need for at least US$4-6
trillion annual investments for a global low-carbon economy. Calls for a
comprehensive transformation of the financial system and engagement of various
financial actors.
Criticism
Firstly, COP27 did not reach any new agreements regarding the reduction of fossil
fuels or the establishment of new targets for greenhouse gas emissions.

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Secondly, the mitigation work program, which was a significant component of the
efforts to
uphold the 1.5°C temperature limit outlined in the Glasgow Climate Pact, did not
have the opportunity to assess progress based on the commitments made in Glasgow.
Thirdly, according to a recent analysis by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), the
current flow of adaptation finance to developing countries falls significantly
short of the required amount, estimated to be five to ten times higher. Developed
countries have yet to fulfil their promise of providing $100 billion annually for
both mitigation and adaptation financing. Lastly, developed countries are
advocating for the inclusion of agriculture in climate action under The Koronivia
Joint Work on Agriculture. This framework, established under the UNFCCC,
acknowledges the potential of agriculture in addressing climate change.
TERRORISM
[Also refer Unit-6]
Until the 1990s, terrorism was widely considered to be a security concern of the
second order, often being ignored by standard textbooks on international politics.
However, the events of 11 September 2001 changed this dramatically, encouraging a
major reappraisal of the nature and significance of terrorism.
For some, what was variously dubbed 'new' terrorism, 'global' terrorism or
'catastrophic' terrorism had become the principal security threat in the early
twenty-first century, reflecting the fact that, in conditions of globalization,
non-state actors (in this case terrorist groups) had gained important advantages
over states.
Beyond this, the inauguration of the 'war on terror' suggested that resurgent
terrorism had opened up new fault lines that would define global politics for the
foreseeable future. However, terrorism is both a highly contested phenomenon and a
deeply controversial concept.
Distinguishing terrorism from other forms of violence
Based on the criteria above, we can begin to separate terrorism from other types of
violence based on some very simplified distinctions:
Killings perpetrated by non-state actors against civilians, which are not

ideological in nature i.e. not motivated by a particular political, economic or
social goal, are classified as homicide;
Violence perpetrated by non-state actors against civilians, specifically based on

ethnicity, sexuality, gender, or disability, without political or social intent to
cause widespread fear, is classified as a hate crime;
⚫ Violence involving open combat between opposing armed forces is classified as

state-based armed conflict, if at least one of the parties is the government of a
state;
⚫if, in the scenario above, none of the parties is the government of a state, this
is classified as a non- state conflict;
Violence perpetrated by governments against civilians is classified as one-sided

violence
Views on Terrorism
Realist View: Realists view terrorism as a violent challenge to established order

by non-state groups seeking power. It stems from the belief that non-state actors
engage in clandestine violence and target civilians due to their weakness in
challenging states through conventional armed conflict. The realist approach sees
terrorism as a subversion of civil order, leading to an uncompromising response
from the state. Realists prioritize protecting the political community over civil
liberties and believe in contravening conventional morality when necessary.
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• Liberal View: Liberals also see terrorism primarily carried out by non-state
actors but focus more on ideology as a motivation rather than simple power seeking.
They emphasize the role of political or religious ideology in creating a sense of
injustice and hostility that blinds terrorists to moral and human costs. Liberals
grapple with ethical dilemmas in countering terrorism, recognizing it as an attack
on liberal-democratic principles while striving to ensure that counter-terrorism
efforts align with human rights and civil liberties.
• Critical Views: State terrorism is considered more significant due to the greater
coercive capacity of states. Terrorism becomes a mechanism used by states to
maintain power or exert influence over other states.
Social Constructivist: Another critical perspective, influenced by constructivist

thinking, views terrorism as a social or political construct. It argues that
commonly accepted knowledge about terrorism perpetuates stereotypes and
misconceptions, defining certain groups as non-legitimate while legitimizing
existing institutions and political structures. This perspective is particularly
applied to discourses related to the "war on terror," where terrorism is used to
de-legitimize adversaries of dominant actors in the global system.
Data from Global Terrorism Index 2023
In 2022, deaths from terrorism fell by 9 per cent to 6,701 deaths, and the number
of incidents declined by almost 28 per cent from 5,463 in 2021 to 3,955 in 2022.
Afghanistan remained the country most impacted by terrorism for the fourth
consecutive year, despite a 75 per cent reduction in attacks and a 58 per cent
reduction in deaths. However, the GTI report no longer includes acts committed by
the Taliban since they took control of the government.
• The deadliest terrorist groups in 2022 were Islamic State (IS) and its
affiliates, followed by al- Shabaab, Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA), and Jamaat
Nusrat Al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM).
• IS remained the deadliest terror group globally, with the most attacks and deaths
in 2022. However, terrorism deaths attributed to IS and its affiliates declined by
16 per cent. Deaths attributed to unknown jihadists in countries where IS operates
increased significantly. ⚫ Terrorism attacks became more deadly in 2022, with an
average of 1.7 deaths per attack
compared to 1.3 deaths per attack in 2021. This marks the first increase in
lethality rate in five years.
Over 88 per cent of attacks and 98 per cent of terrorism deaths in 2022 occurred in
countries involved in armed conflict. Countries involved in conflict experienced
attacks seven times deadlier than peaceful countries.
South Asia had a decrease of 30 per cent in terrorism deaths in 2022, excluding the
improvement in Afghanistan. Pakistan saw a significant increase in deaths, with the
Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA) being the fastest-growing terrorist group in the
world.
Current Trends in Global Terrorism
1. Rise in Far-Right Extremism: The threat of far-right extremism and white

supremacist terrorism has grown in recent years. These groups espouse ideologies
centred on racism, xenophobia, and anti-government sentiments, leading to attacks
targeting religious and ethnic minorities, immigrants, and perceived political
adversaries.
Examples: The Christchurch Shooting in New Zealand, and Wisconsin Gurudwara

Killings in the USA were all racially motivated.

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Iraq 2. Returnees and Foreign Fighters: The return of foreign fighters from
conflict zones, such as Syria, and Afghanistan, poses a security concern. These
individuals may bring combat experience radical ideologies, and networks that could
contribute to terrorist activities in their home countries or regions.
• Example: Perpetrators of the November 2015 Paris attacks were EU citizens

returned from Syria.
3. Lone-Actor and Small Cell Attacks: There has been an increase in lone-actor and
small-cell attacks carried out by individuals or small groups inspired by extremist
ideologies. These individuals often self-radicalize online, making them difficult
to detect and prevent. 4. Global Reach of Extremist Propaganda: The internet and
social media platforms have enabled
extremist groups to disseminate propaganda, recruit followers, and inspire attacks

globally. Efforts to counter online radicalization and curb extremist content
remain ongoing challenges.
5. Continued Threat of Islamist Extremism: Islamist extremist groups, such as ISIS

(Islamic State of Iraq and Syria) and al-Qaeda, continue to pose a significant
global threat. Although ISIS has lost territorial control in Iraq and Syria, it has
shifted to insurgency tactics and retains the ability to inspire and direct attacks
worldwide. Al-Qaeda, while diminished, maintains its presence in various regions
and affiliates.
• Example: Groups like Boko Haram and Al Shabab in Africa
6. Hybrid Tactics: New terrorist groups employ a combination of traditional and

unconventional tactics, blending physical attacks with cyberattacks, guerrilla
warfare, suicide bombings, and unconventional weapons. This versatility and
innovation make them difficult to anticipate and counter.
Has Globalisation aided in the proliferation of Terrorism?

Points in favour:
• Increased connectivity and communication: Globalization has facilitated increased

connectivity and communication among people worldwide. This has provided
opportunities for terrorist organizations to spread their ideologies, recruit
members, and coordinate their activities on a global scale. For example, social
media platforms have been used by terrorist groups to disseminate propaganda and
radicalize individuals.
Economic disparities and grievances: Globalization has led to economic disparities

between countries and within societies. Some argue that these disparities, coupled
with the perception of Western dominance and exploitation, have fueled feelings of
marginalization and grievances, which can contribute to radicalization and support
for terrorist causes.
Transnational networks: Globalization has allowed terrorist networks to establish

transnational connections, secure funding, and access resources more easily. They
can exploit global financial systems, transportation networks, and technology for
their operations. The 9/11 attacks, for instance, involved terrorists from multiple
countries who leveraged global travel and financial systems.
As a Clash of Civilisations: A variety of theories have been advanced to explain

the advent of global or transnational terrorism. The most influential and widely
discussed of these has been Samuel Huntington's theory of a 'clash of
civilizations. Huntington suggested that twenty-first- century conflict will not
primarily be ideological or economic but rather cultural, conflict between nations
and groups from 'different civilizations'. In this light, 9/11 and the so-called
'war on terror' that it unleashed could be seen as evidence of an emerging
'civilizational' struggle between the West and Islam.
R 2-PSIR Optional | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com | Telegram Channel:

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Points against:
⚫ Historical roots of terrorism: Terrorism has existed long before modern era of
globalization. Many conflicts driven by ideology, religion, nationalism, or
territorial disputes predate the current phase of globalization. For example,
groups like the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Basque separatist organization
ETA were active well before the acceleration of globalization. • Localized
grievances and conflicts: While globalization may contribute to some grievances,
many acts of terrorism are rooted in local or regional issues, such as political
repression, ethnic tensions, or separatist movements. These factors are often
specific to particular regions or
countries and may have little to do with globalized dynamics.
⚫ State sponsorship and geopolitical factors: Terrorism is sometimes fueled by

state-sponsored actors and geopolitical interests, which can be independent of
globalization. State support for terrorist organizations may stem from political or
strategic motivations, rather than globalization-related factors. Examples include
the alleged support of certain states for proxy groups in regional conflicts.
NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION (Nuclear treaties is covered in Part B)
Background
The use of nuclear weapons for political purposes, specifically by the United
States, has been a subject of historical debate. The United States employed nuclear
weapons to bring an end to the war in East Asia, marking a significant turning
point in the history of warfare.
⚫ The purpose behind the use of nuclear weapons was to serve a broader diplomatic
goal- establishing the United States as a superpower. By demonstrating the
devastating power of nuclear weapons, the United States sought to assert its
dominance and solidify its position on the global stage. This act of nuclear
aggression sparked a nuclear arms race as other nations felt compelled to develop
their own nuclear capabilities in response.
The use of nuclear weapons as a means of achieving political objectives has been a
contentious issue, with proponents arguing that it can be an effective tool for
deterrence and maintaining a balance of power. Critics, on the other hand, raise
concerns about the catastrophic humanitarian consequences and the potential
escalation of conflicts.
Motivations for Nations to Acquire Nuclear Weapons
Cold War Era: During the Cold War era, several factors motivated nations to acquire
nuclear weapons. These motivations included the security dilemma, nuclear
deterrence, balance of terror, and the symbolic impact and international prestige
associated with possessing nuclear capabilities. The concept of vertical
proliferation, where nations sought to enhance their nuclear arsenals, emerged as a
defining feature of this period. Scholars like Robert Jervis referred to this
period as the "nuclear revolution."
⚫ Post-Cold War Era: In the post-Cold War era, motivations for acquiring nuclear
weapons have evolved. Nations now face increased incentives, such as ensuring their
security in the absence of nuclear umbrellas (e.g., India), utilizing nuclear
weapons as diplomatic tools (e.g., Pakistan), or leveraging them for bargaining
power (e.g., North Korea). Despite the end of the Cold War, major powers continue
to deploy nuclear weapons, while globalization has made proliferation easier due to
the release of nuclear technology after the collapse of the USSR. Moreover, the
emergence of non-state actors with nuclear capabilities poses significant dangers
in the international arena. The

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Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) scenario highlighted the lack of a

concrete security architecture, which undermines stability in the realm of nuclear
weapons.
Restraints on Nuclear Weapon Use:
While nations may acquire nuclear weapons, there are several factors that restrain
their use. Realist scholars like Kenneth Waltz argue that nuclear weapons can serve
as instruments of peace by providing a deterrent effect.
Additionally, social constructivists, such as Nina Tannenwald, emphasize the role

of norms, values, and institutions in shaping nations' choices. Many states with
the potential to develop nuclear weapons, including Japan, Germany, and Australia,
have deliberately chosen not to do so Furthermore, nuclear weapon states have
refrained from using them since the devastation of Hiroshima, exemplified by events
like the Vietnam War. The non-proliferation regime has also grown stronger over
time, evidenced by initiatives like the Nuclear Prohibition Treaty and the enduring
relevance of the INF Treaty, which has held accountable the two major powers
involved.
2021 ESTIMATED GLOBAL NUCLEAR WARHEAD INVENTORIES The world's muotoa armed states
possess a combined total of nearly 13,080 nuclear warheads: more than 90% belong to
Russia and the United States, Approximately 9,600 warheads are in military service,
with the rest awaiting diamantlement.
300
40-50
Current Nuclear Proliferation Status
1. North Korea: North Korea conducted multiple nuclear tests in recent years, which
led to increased concerns about its nuclear weapons program. It withdrew from the
NPT in 2003 and has since claimed to possess nuclear weapons. Negotiations and
diplomatic efforts have been ongoing to address North Korea's nuclear program.
2. Iran: The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was an agreement reached in
2015 between Iran and the P5+1 countries (the United States, Russia; China, the
United Kingdom. France, plus Germany). The agreement aimed to restrict Iran's
nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief. However, the United States
withdrew from the JCPOA in 2018, and Iran subsequently began violating some of its
commitments. Negotiations and discussions have been ongoing to revive the agreement
and address Iran's nuclear activities. 3. Russia's Nuclear Threat:
Post Ukraine crisis, Russia has frequently used the Nuclear threat to rattle NATO
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Putin's proposal to put nuclear arms in Belarus poses risks to NATO's nuclear
posture, similar to the situation in the 1980s when Moscow deployed new missiles
aimed at Europe and Japan. Belarus has allowed nuclear arms on its territory, and
Putin has announced that Russia would introduce them if necessary. Short-range
Iskander ballistic missiles are reportedly in Belarus,
and a nuclear weapon storage facility is being prepared near western border, close
to Poland. Putin also mentioned that Belarusian combat aircraft have been
configured to carry nuclear weapons. However, Moscow may be concerned about NATO's
dense air defences and the possibility of a disloyal Belarusian pilot attacking
Russia.
• Poland has expressed concerns about threat and has discussed "nuclear sharing"
with US. If Russia deploys nuclear arms in Belarus, Poland may request NATO
consultations.
Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)
The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), also known as the Iran nuclear
deal, is an international agreement reached in 2015 between Iran and the P5+1
countries (China, France, Russia, UK, U.S., and Germany). The JCPOA aimed to
address concerns about Iran's nuclear program and ensure its peaceful nature.
Under the JCPOA, Iran agreed to limit its nuclear activities and allow
international inspections by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in
exchange for relief from economic sanctions imposed by the United Nations, the
European Union, and the United States. The key provisions of the agreement
included:
Uranium Enrichment: Iran agreed to significantly reduce its stockpile of enriched

uranium and limit enrichment levels to 3.67%, which is below the threshold required
for weapons-grade uranium (typically around 90%).
Centrifuges: Iran committed to reducing its number of installed centrifuges by two-

thirds and using only its older models for enrichment. The agreement also placed
restrictions on the research and development of advanced centrifuges.
Fordow Facility: Iran agreed to convert the Fordow nuclear facility into a research
center and refrain from enriching uranium at that site for at least 15 years. The
facility was subject to continuous monitoring by the IAEA.
Arak Reactor: Iran agreed to redesign its heavy-water reactor in Arak to prevent
the production of weapons-grade plutonium. International collaboration was
established to modernize and internationalize the reactor.
Transparency and Verification: The JCPOA established a comprehensive monitoring and

verification mechanism. Iran agreed to provide the IAEA with access to its nuclear
facilities, supply chain, and other relevant sites to ensure compliance with the
agreement. What happened to the JCPOA deal?
The JCPOA, signed in 2015 by the P5+1 countries (China, France, Russia, UK, the
U.S., and Germany), aimed to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons and allow
inspections by IAEA. In exchange, Iran received relief from economic sanctions. The
implementation of the JCPOA expanded Iran's breakout capacity from three months to
one year, demonstrating the concessions Iran made for economic benefits.
Critics, including former U.S. President Donald Trump, considered the deal flawed
because it focused only on Iran's nuclear weapons program, lacking effective
restrictions on Iran's ballistic missile program and other aggressive policies. In
2018, Trump unilaterally withdrew from the JCPOA
agreement.
Since then, Iran has openly enriched uranium to a purity level of 60%. While the
JCPOA was not perfect, it did prevent Iran's advancements and even caused some
regressions in its nuclear program.

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However, after Trump's withdrawal, Iran began violating the agreement, surpassing
the pre-2015 number of nuclear centrifuges and enriching large quantities of
uranium.
GENDER JUSTICE IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS International politics traditionally

overlooked gender issues, focusing primarily on state and inter-state relations
with little relevance given to sexual politics and gender relations. However, since
the 1980 feminist perspectives have gained prominence in world affairs, bringing
attention to gender biases and
inequalities.
Impact of globalisation on Gender
Positive Impacts Greater human rights and women's rights awareness Emancipation of
women from traditional roles in developed countries Progressive gender-related
policies and practices Recognition of gender biases in international politics
Efforts towards gender equality and empowerment Negative Impacts Exploitation and
low wages in feminized work sectors Feminization of migration and potential
exploitation Boosted sex tourism and ethical concerns Exploitation of women by
multinational corporations Feminization of poverty and limited access to income and
property
Efforts Taken by the International Community Regarding Women:
• UN Secretary-General Campaign "Unite to End Violence Against Women": A global

campaign aimed at addressing and eliminating violence against women. Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): Adopted by
the UN General Assembly in 1979, it is an international treaty that promotes
women's
rights and seeks to eliminate discrimination against women in all areas of life.
Establishment of UN Commission on the Status of Women (CSW): Established by ECOSOC

in 1948, the CSW has played a key role in the development of international
treaties, conventions, and conferences on gender-related issues.
. World Conferences on Women: Various conferences, such as the 1st Women's

Conference in Mexico (1975), 2nd Women's Conference in Copenhagen (1980), 3rd
Women's Conference in Nairobi, and 4th Women's Conference in Beijing (1995), have
focused on women's empowerment, gender equality, and critical areas of concern.
• Beijing Platform for Action: Adopted at the 4th Women's Conference in Beijing, it
outlines a comprehensive agenda for achieving gender equality and women's
empowerment.
• Follow-up Summits and Reviews: Regular follow-up and review meetings have been
conducted to assess the progress and implementation of initiatives related to
women's rights and empowerment.
Gender Mainstreaming: The United Nations has integrated gender perspectives and
considerations into all its programs, policies, and bodies since 1995.
CEDAW Ratification: The Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against

Women has been ratified by 185 states, emphasizing their commitment to eliminating
gender-based discrimination.
UN Women: Established in 2010, UN Women is a dedicated UN entity that focuses on

gender equality and women's empowerment by coordinating and promoting efforts
across the UN system.

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Changes on the Ground Regarding Women's Issues:
1. Limited Achievements: Despite international efforts, the actual status of women

has not seen significant improvement in many regions.
2. Worsening Situations: Factors such as terrorism rise of fundamentalism, ethnic

conflicts, climate change, and economic crises have further exacerbated challenges
faced by women. 3. Lack of Understanding and Perspective: There is still a lack of
comprehensive understanding of women's issues and perspectives, which hampers
effective policy-making and implementation. 4. Lack of Political Will: Insufficient
political will and commitment to address gender inequality and empower women
remains a significant barrier to progress.
5. Inadequate Resources: Limited availability of resources, including funding,

infrastructure, and support services, hinders the implementation of effective
initiatives for women's empowerment. 6. Gender Not a Priority: In many societies,
gender equality and women's rights are not given the
necessary priority, leading to slow progress in addressing gender disparities.
7. Impact of COVID-19: The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately affected women

and exacerbated existing gender inequalities.
• Increased Trafficking: The pandemic has contributed to an increase in human

trafficking, exploiting vulnerable women and girls.
Domestic Violence: Lockdown measures have led to a rise in domestic violence

incidents, with women being disproportionately affected.
Economic Impact: Women, particularly those engaged in unorganized work, have faced
severe economic repercussions due to job losses and reduced income opportunities.
⚫ Migration Disruptions: Restrictions on mobility and halted migration have
disrupted women's ability to access employment opportunities, impacting their
financial independence. Work-Life Balance: Remote work arrangements have added to
the burden of women, as they
juggle household chores and professional responsibilities simultaneously.
Mental Health Challenges: Women have faced increased mental health challenges due
to the stressors and uncertainties brought about by the pandemic.
Conclusion
The pursuit of gender justice in international politics has been a complex and
ongoing process. Despite efforts and initiatives, progress on the ground has been
limited, Scholars emphasize the need for sustained commitment, transformative
policies, and inclusive approaches to empower women, combat discrimination, and
advance gender justice in international politics. By embracing feminist principles,
we can work towards creating a more just and egalitarian world where
gender equality is not just a goal, but a lived reality for all individuals.

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PART B
UNIT 1: INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY: DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY; THE INSTITUTIONS OF

POLICY-MAKING; CONTINUITY AND CHANGE.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
Identify the elements of change in India's Foreign Policy. (150 words) (2013) The
economic content of India's Foreign trade is increasingly growing. Substantiate the
statement with economic diplomatic engagements of India in last decade. (200 words)
(2013) The Ministry of External Affairs is losing its importance in the making of
India's foreign
policy with the parallel rise of the P.M.O. Explain. (2014)
The social structure of a country influences its foreign policy-making. How does
the social structure of India impact the course and direction of its foreign
policy? (2015) How does the Parliament determine and influence making of India's
foreign policy? (2015) Which determinant factors play an important role in making
India's foreign policy? Illustrate
with examples. (2016)
Do you agree with the view that the Indian Foreign Policy is increasingly being
shaped by the Neoliberal outlook? Elaborate. (2018)
"India is often said to have a rich strategic culture." Discuss. (2018)
"India's current foreign policy marks significant qualitative shifts from that of
the previous regimes." Discuss. (2018)
• Discuss the role of the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) in promoting
India's soft power abroad. (2018)
Examine the role of 'parliamentary diplomacy' in India's foreign policy. (2019)
How is India responding to the idea of Indo-Pacific? (2019)
Examine the increasing significance of maritime security in India's foreign policy.

(2019) Describe the structure and function of the National Security Council of
India. What role does it play in the formulation of Indian foreign policy. (2020)
Explain the philosophical foundations of India's foreign policy. (150 words) (2021)
How do the constituent states influence the foreign policy making process in India?
(2021) Peaceful co-existence remains the cornerstone of India's foreign policy.
Comment. (2022) Discuss the role of public diplomacy in the enhancement of India's
global standing.(2022) Critically examine the major factors responsible for a
turnaround in the trajectory of India's foreign policy in the post-cold war period.
(2022)
Scope
Objective of Indian Foreign Policy Fundamental Principles and Features of India's

foreign policy Emerging Challenges Determinants of Indian Foreign Policy
Institutions of Policy-Making
Indian Foreign Policy
India is one of the most ancient civilizations in the world and from ancient times,
India's foreign policy remained independent whether it was the Mauryan Empire, the
Gupta Empire or the Mughal Empire. The British were the determinants of India's
foreign policy during the colonial period, who used India for their benefit. But
after independence, India's foreign policy is again fulfilling Indian interests.

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Today, India is in selected countries of the world in military field, space,

religious culture etc. and India has used them better in its foreign policy
formulation. Many factors are responsible in determining the foreign policy of a
country, in which geopolitical, military force etc. are important.
Dr. S. Jaishankar, in his illuminating book "The India Way: Strategies for an
Uncertain World,"- India's foreign policy as an embodiment of its rich historical
legacy, emphasizing the principles of peaceful coexistence, non-alignment, and
respect for the sovereignty and equality of nations. With deep-rooted values and a
commitment to inclusive growth, India's foreign policy reflects a genuine desire to
foster global stability, peace, and prosperity.
He portrays India as a responsible, progressive, and visionary nation that seeks to

shape a better world order. With its rich heritage, unwavering principles, and a
desire to contribute to global well-being, India's foreign policy, as envisioned by
Jaishankar, shines as an exemplary model for other nations to emulate.
1. General Foreign Policy
"Foreign policy is the set of strategies and policies that a state uses to pursue
its interests and achieve its goals in the international system." - Joseph Nye
"Foreign policy is the struggle for power among nations."- Hans Morgenthau "Foreign
policy is the process by which states articulate their goals and implement
strategies to achieve those goals in relation to other actors in the international
system." - Robert Keohane
"Foreign policy is the behavior of states in the international system, including

their interactions with other states, non-state actors, and international
organizations." - Kenneth Waltz
"Foreign policy is a social construct that reflects the norms, values, and beliefs
of the society that creates it."- Alexander Wendt
2. Foreign Policy
"Indian foreign policy is shaped by a combination of historical legacies, domestic

politics, and strategic imperatives. India's relations with its neighbors and major
powers are driven by a mix of economic, security, and ideological considerations.
India's foreign policy also reflects the country's ambition to be a major player in
the international system." - Dr. Harsh V. Pant "Now the times have changed; the
first thing is that we no longer live in a bipolar world. The world is inter-
connected and inter-dependent. You will have to connect with everybody at the same
time. Even if there are two opposing countries, they will have to be friends."-
Narendra Modi
"Foreign policy is an instrument available to a country to protect and promote its

national interests. There is broad agreement on the concept of national interest,
namely that it comprises the obligation to defend the country's national security,
to maximize economic benefits for its citizens from international trade and
commerce, as also to enhance the effectiveness of its 'soft power' through
propagation of its core cultural assets"- Chinmaya R. Gharekhan
"India's foreign policy has always been characterized by a combination of idealism

and pragmatism. The country has pursued its interests while remaining committed to
principles such as non-violence, democracy, and human rights. India's foreign
policy priorities include promoting regional stability, combating terrorism, and
expanding its economic and strategic influence." Dr. S. Jaishankar

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Foreign Policy
1. General Definition
Foreign policy refers to the general guidelines that a country follows in

establishing and conducting relations with other countries. It brings in
predictability in foreign relations and builds trust between two nations.
Foreign policy is a policy pursued by state actors towards other state and non-
state actors (IMF, WB, UN, NGOs) to secure their political, economic, social and
military objectives. o Political objective: sovereignty
Economic objective: FTAs
Social objective: Indian diaspora
Military: Defense weapon acquisition.
2. Scholars' Definition
According to George Modelski, "Foreign policy is the system of activities evolved

by communities for changing the behavior of other states and for adjusting their
own activities to the international environment..... Foreign Policy must throw
light on the ways in which states attempt to change, and succeed in changing, the
behavior of other states."
Example: Great Britain's stand on Kashmir was vague during cold war period. Here,
Indian foreign policy attempted to change Great Britain's position in India's
favour. On the other hand, the erstwhile USSR supported India on the Kashmir
question for many years. In this case, Indian foreign policy's objective was to
ensure continuity of USSR's favourable position.
As per Joseph Frankel, "Foreign Policy consists of decisions and actions, which
involves to
some appreciable extent relations between one state and others." Huge Gibson says,
"Foreign policy is a well-rounded comprehensive plan based on knowledge and
experience for conducting the business of government with rest of the world. It is
aimed at promoting and protecting the interests of the nations. This calls for a
clear understanding of what those interests are and how far we hope to go with the
means at our disposal. Anything less than this falls short of being a foreign
policy."
Padelford and Lincoln defines it as, "A State's Foreign Policy is totality of its
dealings with the external environment.....Foreign Policy is the overall result of
the process by which a state translates its broadly conceived goals and interests
into specific courses of action in order to achieve its objective and preserve its
interest."
According to C. C. Rodee, Anderson and Christol, foreign policy implies

"formulation and implementation of a group of principles which shape the behaviour
pattern of a state while negotiating with other states to protect or further its
own interests".
According to J.N Dixit, Foreign policy of a country is a statement of what it
stands for and the role that it takes upon itself and projects to the world.
Objective of Indian Foreign Policy
1. Preservation of India's territorial integrity and independence of foreign

policy: The territorial integrity and protection of national boundaries from
foreign aggression is the core interest of a nation. India had gained a hard earned
independence from foreign rule after long time. Thus, it was natural for her to
give due emphasis on the independence of foreign policy.
Example: India's effort to strengthen Afro-Asian solidarity endorsement of

principles of noninterference, in the internal affairs of other nations and finally
the adoption of the policy of nonalignment should be seen in this light.

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2. Promoting international peace and security: India as a 'newly independent and

developing country rightly realized that international peace and development are
correlated. Her emphasis on disarmament and the policy of keeping away from
military alliances is intended to promote global peace.
3. The economic development of India: The fast development of the country was the
fundamental requirement of India at the time of independence. It was also required
to strengthen democracy and freedom in the country
⚫ In order to gain financial resources and technology from both blocks and to
concentrate her energy on the development, India opted away from the power bloc
politics, which was the defining feature of Cold War international politics.
The foreign policy practice of India also reveals its two other objectives:
o Elimination of colonialism and racial discrimination
o Protection of the interests of people of Indian origin abroad.
Example: An official statement of the Ministry of External Affairs (2010) notes

that India's foreign policy seeks to safeguard her enlightened self-interest.
Kanwal Sibal, a former Indian diplomat and foreign policy expert, has indeed
highlighted three core objectives that have consistently shaped India's foreign
policy approach:
⚫ Territorial Integrity and Sovereignty: Protecting India's borders and defending

against external threats.
• Internal Development and Well-being: Promoting economic growth, poverty

alleviation, and social welfare for the benefit of Indian citizens.
⚫ Strategic Autonomy: Maintaining independence and freedom of action in foreign

policy decision- making to pursue national interests.
Determinants of Indian Foreign Policy 1. Geographical factors:
This factor is called geopolitics.
Political position: India occupies a central position in Asia and occupies the
largest area in South Asia. In such a situation, any big incident in the whole of
Asia affects India. ⚫ Local geography: The Himalayas are like sentinels of India
which play an important role in
determining relations with other Himalayan countries such as Nepal, Bhutan,

Myanmar. But the desire of China to maintain its dominance in the region
continuously since 1962 has a clear
impact on India's foreign policy, which has recently shown a change in relations
with Nepal. Oceanic position: India's dominance over the Indian Ocean is necessary
to become an important power of the Indian-Pacific region. At present, the Indian
Ocean region is an important route of trade and communication for the whole world.
Hence, it also plays an important role in determining the foreign policy of India.
Scholar view:
。 Mackinder and Mahan are two prominent scholars.
Mahan (Sea Power)
Mahan emphasizes importance of being a sea based power. e.g. UK,
He gives example of Britain's naval supremacy, Suez canal, location of Singapore
etc.
He also talks about having naval base at Diego Garcia in Indian ocean near
Lakshadweep. USA purchased it in 1970s from Britain.
✓ France, USA(Only US base in Africa), China all have naval base in Djibouti.

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India has naval base at Duqm, Oman. India getting port in Indonesia (search on
google). Assumption island in Seychelles. Mackinder emphasizes importance of being
a land based power. e.g. Russia
, Eastern Europe
East Europe is center of world. Heartland. One who controls heartland will control
Rimland (Rest of Europe) and he will control whole world. Attack on easter Europe
is possible only via land route thus it is important to be land based power. There
is a debate for landlocked countries: Being a landlocked country can lead
to compromise on sovereignty e.g. Poland, Belgium.
Eastern Himalayas: Daulta Beg Oldi, Bhutan, Doklam (Chumbi Valley). Far Eastern
Himalayas: 1962 war (Thag La and Bhum La passes), NEFA region.
Napoleon: He once stated that any country's foreign policy is determined by its
geography. Country's size, location, topography etc. are basic determents of any
country's foreign policy.
. Lord Curzon: In 1903 Lord Curzon, the then Governor General of India, predicted
that the geographical position of India would more and more push it into the
forefront of international affairs.
Nehru: In 1948 Nehru spoke of India as the pivotal centre of South, South-East, and
Western Asia.
Shivshankar Menon: According to Shivshankar Menon, political division of south Asia

is artificial. Hence the borders have not been scientifically demarcated and the
border conflicts remains unresolved. Further, due to lack of consolidation of
national identity, nations are more sensitive about territorial disputes. This lead
to politicization of border issue as seen between India and Pakistan and recently
between India and Nepal. 2. Economic Development:
⚫ Economic sovereignty is of utmost importance in determining foreign policy. Like

its policy, India had to open its markets in 1991, but after that India has become
very strong financially. India's economic growth has attracted many countries.
• Today, India is an important energy consumer, with countries like Turkmenistan,

Iran Russia having economic alliances with India. But still the negative trade
balance with China remains India's main problem.
As per Keohane and Nye, it is a love-hate relationship where countries with

political differences are forced to cooperate due to economic interdependence.
⚫ Economic liberalization has raised the stakes and the influence of businessmen,
industrialists and entrepreneurs in foreign affairs. Foreign policy has to promote
trade, create jobs, bring in needed civilian and defence technologies and promote
inward as well as outward investments. Nehru: Aim of Foreign Policy is to promote
economic development.
o India adopted NAM and we sought help of both west and soviet block in
developmental needs. Example: Steel Plants @ Durgapur (UK), Rourkela, Bhilai Steel
Plant (Russia) India has FTA in good with ASEAN. Only such regional group.
India is arguing for WTO reforms. Hedge against protectionist policies.
Global South - TRIPS, India's generic drug industry.
3. Military power:
Realist theory: Military strength is key determinant of state power.

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To have strong military, you need strong economy, industrial and developed economy.
Countries in south Asia face 'Security Dilemma' due to various factors like
artificial boundaries, asymmetry in terms of economy, size etc. This was the main
purpose behind Panchsheel and 'Hindi chini bhai bhai'. However, diplomacy of
appeasement couldn't prevent Indo-China war of 1962. Further, consistent threat
posed by Pakistan also made it imperative for India to strengthen its defence
capacity.
Military strength is not only essential to win the war but also to prevent the war
through deterrence. For example, Mutual Assured Destruction doctrine associated
nuclear weapons has been credited by realist scholars for cold war remaining cold.
Realist scholars like Waltz consider nuclear weapons as 'weapons of peace, and
support gradual proliferation'
Further, increasing military expenditure by one country can force other country to
increase its own military expenditure or to form alliance with other countries.
This gives rise to trust deficit and security dilemma as explained by John Herz.
Example: Military built-up by Germany gave rise to alliance between England and
France. Today India is the third most powerful country in the Army, fourth in the
Air Force and sixth in the Navy. At the same time, India is rich in nuclear power.
Everyone knows India dominance in space. In such a situation, they play an
important role in the foreign policy making of India. • War are less likely:
Globalization is building economic interconnectedness Complex interdependence
Liberalist also argue. Greater economic interdependence between major world
economic players makes open conflict/war between them less likely.
o Liberal scholars like Thomas Friedman (Golden Arches Theory) and Richard
Rosecrance (Trading States) also give importance to economy and interdependence
over military strength.
According to WTO, Arms race is detrimental to economy. Relative strength matters

not absolute strength. Military is required not militarism.
o Example: In 1950-1962 there was no rapid increase in military expenditure. After

following defeat with China, there was increase in military expenditure.
Also 4 wars India fought with Pakistan forced India to increase military
expenditure.
India pursued Nuclear option, primarily keeping Chinese threat in mind. Especially
after China acquired nuclear capability by 1967.
o Pakistan's acquisition is mainly because of 1) Indian acquisition 2) To deter

India from launching a conventional war against Pakistan.
4. Government System:
India has a democratic governance system that inspires many countries of the world
to accept Indian ideology, for example, ASEAN countries plagued by China look
towards India because India's democracy follows the principle of peaceful
coexistence.
But many times in the parliamentary system, the role of state governments is also
important in determining foreign policy, it becomes more important if there is a
coalition government at the center, as was shown in the Tamil issue in Sri Lanka
and the 2005 US Nuclear Deal. ⚫ Populist issue: China has gave offer since 1961
that India gives up its claims on Aksai China and it will give up attempts to
procure NEFA region. But it is never settled since it will affect
domestic politics.
Para Diplomacy: MEA talks about it, center must be looking to involves states in
drafting Foreign Policy. Its emerging as a strong determinant of FP
For paradiplomacy, the autonomous nature of sub-state units appears to be a

preconditionStefan Wolff enumerates five elements of autonomy: demographic
distinctiveness autonomous entity; devolution of power; legal entrenchment; limited
external relation powers

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and integrated mechanism. All of these elements are essential to make sub-state
units autonomous, thereby allowing them to undertake paradiplomacy.
What can be done?: Punjab on both sides can be involved. Bengalis on other side.
However states should not be given complete/final say in Foreign Policy. Regional
interests should not overshadow national interest.
o Lack of autonomy can cause situation like previous as in case of Teesta River and
TMC in Bengal; Kerala with its diaspora in Gulf; DMK and AIDMK - Tamils in Sri
Lanka.
Democratic peace theory (Michael Doyle)
It explains behaviour of democratic states. It says that incidences of war between

two democracies is much lesser than democracy and a non-democracy. It has been
proven statistically.
⚫Reason behind it:
。 Decision making process: It has to offer justification for its acts to people in
general, legislature. And offering such justification also becomes difficult when
another country is also democracy and promote peace. This delays the process of
decision making - this allows other actors time.
。 War creates economic tensions: Which affects business class and also vote bank of
party. He provide view that, during 3 wars between India and Pakistan (1948, 1965,
1971), the Pakistani military was in charge of Pakistan's foreign policy.
However, it must also be noted that though there is no empirical evidence of war
between democracies, democracy can't always ensure cooperative and peaceful
relationship. For example, India has strained relationship with Nepal despite Nepal
adopting democracy.
5. Role of Constituent states - Para diplomacy
The active participation of the states in foreign policy making has been termed as
"Para diplomacy" Creation of a new States Division within the Ministry of External
Affairs (MEA) reflects New Delhi's recent realisation of the crucial part that
states now play in the nation's engagements in foreign affairs. How the states are
playing the major role
• There have been various instances of the state's active role in the foreign
policy making. 。 Economic diplomacy by the states - Organising the investor's
summit to get investment - States like Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, and other states have regularly organized investor summits in order to gain
foreign investment.
Influence on the international treaties - The most prominent example is the

opposition by the West Bengal government to a potential Teesta River treaty between
India and Bangladesh.
。 Influencing the bilateral engagements- Role of Tamilnadu in engagement with Sri

Lanka. In November 2013, then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh decided not to attend
the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Colombo under pressure from
leading parties in Tamil Nadu.
o Calling of state by centre on many occasions In April 2015, the Union government
asked Andhra Pradesh CM to lead a high-level Indian delegation to China on India's
behalf. • Creation of external affairs ministry in the state - For example - The
state government of Telangana has proposed to frame its own policy for external
affairs and particularly for NRI affairs
o Creation of Diaspora cell by the states Some states also have Diasporas cells
functioning out of their state capitals that the MEA actively advises and assists
on these issues.

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• Influence of the bordering states - In the recent time it has become difficult to
pursue a neighbourhood policy without getting the Border States on board who has
started playing the active role. For example North eastern states in dealing with
Myanmar and Bangladesh Thus we can say that Para diplomacy does not advocate for
the freedom of states to conduct foreign policies that are either antagonistic to
or distinct from those of the Union government.
But it advocates that rather than simply viewing the states as "stakeholders," the
states should be seen as active enablers of India's foreign policy goals.
6. History:
History and culture can be seen as important in the formulation of India's foreign
policy. History of India's colonization, racial discrimination, economic drain,
decolonization and partition pushed India towards Non-Alignment post Independence.
o The value of ahimsa and morality led India to call for nuclear disarmament.
India's historically constructed foreign policy goals of being a moralpolitik great
power and maintaining purna swaraj can clearly be seen in its response to nuclear
proliferation • Upinder Singh argues that by connecting the independence movement
with "the ancient
Indian intellectual and philosophic tradition, Gandhi created the impression that
nonviolence was rooted in a unique way in the Indian psyche". This created the
concept of
ahimsa, or non-violence, that remains an influence on Indian foreign policy. o

India's decision not to partner with foreign governments and to develop nuclear
capabilities reflect its foreign policy goal of maintaining purna swaraj through
non-alignment and modernisation.
• Example: India's stance against Apartheid in South Africa and support for
decolonialization and anti-imperialism is derived from this experience and Gandhian
idealism
⚫ Exception: But it is not always necessary that present will continue on lines of
past. e.g. France & Germany were historical rivals in WW I and WW II. But EU
formation was led primarily by France and Germany.
o Compulsions of history can be overcome over a period of time. If other factors

are in favour of countries - then historical antagonism may not stand in between.
7. Culture
⚫ Kautilya's theory of a powerful kingdom with the ideals of Buddha and Gandhi
shows the path of India.
•India's civil-civilian religious relationship is well established from many

countries of the world where there are Hindu, Islam, Christian, Buddhist
majorities. The basis of India-Israel relations is somewhere in the policy of all
religions of India.
The defining characteristics of India's foreign policy in the first few decades
after Independence such as non-alignment, anti-colonialism, anti-racialism, non-
violence, disarmament, and peace-making were also influenced by culture of Pacifism
and Gandhian nonviolence.
• Strong cultural unity of the people is always a source of strength for them. It
materially influences their ability to secure the objectives of national interest
during the course of international bargaining.
• Other example of cultural influence in Foreign Policy: Cultural diplomacy of

Ashoka the Great, continues to be a major tool of Indian foreign policy. In
consonance with the ideal of Vasudhaiv kutumbkam, India has indeed been pursuing
her foreign policy taking the whole world as a family well before the wave of
globalization brought about closer interactions amongst different parts of the
world. Swami Vivekanada's exhortation of taking all the people as our brothers and
sisters still resonate in the conduct of Indian foreign policy.

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Soft Power (Joseph Nye)
Soft power is the ability to co-opt rather than coerce (contrast hard power). In
other words, soft power involves shaping the preferences of others through appeal
and attraction. Hard power uses coersion to achieve aims. e.g. Iran - economic
sanctions.
Soft power relies on co-opting and it involves a willing adhere. It can use
incentives also. e.g. Aid diplomacy (ITEC provides technical assistance to African
countries.), India given money to Bhutan, Nepal.
Instruments of soft power: Shared values, tourism, shared ideas on political

institutions, yoga, Bollywood, Incredible India!.
Idea: Increasing influence of your country in another country without coercive

measures. Diaspora success story: 3 Cr Indian diaspora worldwide; $100Bn comes as
remittances which is highest in the world; They helps mobilise support for India in
local politics as was seen during Indo-US civil nuclear deal; High diaspora in west
Asia has helped strengthen India's relations with the countries even after having
ideological differences; Government celebrating pravasiBharathiya divas to
reconnect with the OCIS.
Steps India has taken to enhance its soft power:
o Establishing public diplomacy division
。 ICCR: Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), is an autonomous organisation

of the Government of India, involved in India's external cultural relations
(cultural diplomacy), through cultural exchange with other countries and their
peoples.
o India chair in foreign universities
o Working with private sector and NGOs
o Development Partnership Assistance
o India Brand Equity Foundation
o Make in India
Problem with soft power
It is not easy to measure/quantify. You can't really access it. Number of

institutions which are built to use soft power are non-state actors. Government
have little/no control over it.
。 It takes considerable time. It doesn't happen overnight. Time consuming process.
It doesn't only involve 'good values' being shared.
Use of soft power is going to increase in future with countries become more and
more stronger militarily and economically.
。 Despite rise of India as a global actor, its foreign policy has been lacking
coherence and efficacy because of the scarce use of its soft power.
8. Domestic Social Structure
According to Nehru, foreign policy is an extension of domestic policy. Foreign

policy of any country is aimed at achieving domestic political, economic and social
goals at international level.
Shared ethnicity, culture, religion and race can be source of cooperation as well
as conflict. While in Europe, it has acted as binding agent in post-world war 2, in
south Asia, it is source of conflict. As the partition of subcontinent was
artificial and product of colonialism, nationalism is not consolidated in these
countries and ethnic conflicts are common between as well as within states.
。 Example: The conflict between India and Pakistan is product of identity crisis.
Stephen P. Cohen calls it 'paired minority conflict.' Similarly, the Madhesi issue
and Tamil issue have led to deterioration of India-Nepal and India-Sri Lanka
relations respectively.

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9. Regional and Global Environment:
Regional events are also important in determining foreign policy. For example, in
1971, the alliance of China, US and Pakistan brought a crisis situation for India,
then India got inclined towards Russia.
⚫ At present, the increasing dominance of China is also a reason for

intensification of India-US relations. India has increased India's capacity and
power with Look East to Act East policies and China's rise in ASEAN.
• After globalization, when the whole world connected with each other, global
factors also became important in determining foreign policy. India may oppose the
move to withdraw from the Paris Agreement on environment issues, even if there is
cooperation between India and America. And this is also an example of India wants
democratic government in Afghanistan for the suppression of terrorism.
After the Second World War, the world order has changed in many ways, keeping in
mind that India tries to reform the UN Security Council.
⚫ Foreign policy is not static but dynamic concept. According to Morgenthau, NI is

static as well as dynamic.
According to Henry Kissinger, nations have no permanent friends or enemies, only

permanent interests. Broadly this holds true for India too. India's relationships
and priorities have changed over time.
o Example: During the Cold War, India's interests were best served through a close
relationship with the Soviet Union, which gave India much needed political and
diplomatic support on key issues in the UN, as well as valuable economic and
defence assistance. Post- cold war, India's foreign policy goal was to promote its
economic development and multilateralism. India's membership of RIC and BRICS
grouping was aimed at hedging against negative consequences of the US hegemony.
Diplomats and Politician View:
PM Modi: Today, India and the US have, as PM Modi put it, "overcome the hesitations
of history," and there is a much greater congruence of interests. Similarly, India-
Japan relations that remained low-key and insubstantial for many decades are now
very vibrant and dynamic.
MEA S. Jaishankar: Age of an alliances is over and India will go for issue-based
partnerships.
o Rajiv Sikri: According to Ambassador Rajiv Sikri, in this changing landscape, a

more self-confident and ambitious India is seeking to develop a new paradigm for
India's foreign policy where India would not be a mere 'balancer' or 'swing state'
but a 'leading state' that seeks a place at the global high table.
。 Shivashankar Menon: Foreign policy is about 'Maximizing'. Thus, India's foreign

policy has also changed from time to time to protect itself from regional and
global challenges.
Current issues which influence Foreign Policy 。 Russia-NATO tensions: Tensions

between Russia and NATO countries have risen sharply at the end of the year over
Russian troops along the border with Ukraine, and although US President Joseph
Biden and Russian President Vladimir Putin met once, and spoke a number of times in
2021, tensions are unresolved and likely to spill over into 2022. ■ India, which
did not oppose the Russian takeover of Crimea in 2014, is now facing a tough
tightrope over the US sanctions over Crimea- and the US's CAATSA law that
threatened financial and visa sanctions against big defence deals with Russia.

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。 COVID-19 diplomacy: India began the year on a diplomatic high-shipping vaccines

around the world, eventually, more than 100 million doses to nearly 100 countries
under Vaccine Maitri programme, but as the COVID-19 virus mutated, India became the
centre of the world's concern, and the government had to cancel all plans to export
both medicines and vaccines.
Taliban takeover Afghanistan: In February 2021, a virtual summit between Prime

Minister Modi and Afghanistan's President Ashraf Ghani saw India reaffirm its role
as a development partner to Afghanistan and committed to ensuring a peaceful
Afghanistan But events overtook all plans- Ghani fled Kabul as the Taliban took
over the country, aided by Pakistan and the U.S. and its allies all left.
After the Taliban takeover, India is caught in the middle of this dilemma divided
between restoring Afghanistan as a strategic priority in its policy and the
practical hurdles on the ground.
Currently, India is assessing three broad ways of potential engagement with

Afghanistan
Providing humanitarian assistance.
Exploring a joint counterterrorism effort with other partners. Engaging in talks

with the Taliban.
10. National Interest
Realists say that National interests guide a country's foreign policy. It is the
key determining factor of foreign policy of any state. It is of supreme importance
while formulating foreign policy. Behaviour of states in the international field is
guided by national interest to a great extent.
The primary task of India's foreign policy is to ensure country's security and
territorial integrity, and a peaceful external environment for India.
According to Henry Kissinger, nations have no permanent friends or enemies, only

permanent interests. Broadly this holds true for India too. India's relationships
and priorities have changed over time.
India's policy of non-alignment was in consonance with socialistic model of

development adopted by India. However, India also cooperated with other countries
for its own economic growth.
For example, India cooperated with the US for green revolution whereas India
adopted 5- year plan from USSR.
As India is a growing economy, it has to ensure India's energy security, since

India depends hugely on imported oil, gas and coal, as well as many other raw
materials and natural resources. Further, energy security and enhanced trade and
commerce are chief determinant of India's 'Look West policy' and 'Act East Policy'
respectively 11. Persona of the Leadership
Persona of the leadership also arguably plays a very important role in formulation
of a decisive foreign policy of a country. Globally, on a number of occasions,
decisive pushes to foreign policies of different countries have been provided by
strong leaders.
o Example: Victory of the allied powers, especially Britain in the Second World
War, has squarely been attributed to the resolute leadership provide by Prime
Minister Winston Churchill.
On the contrary, weak personalities become the cause of disastrous moments in a

country's foreign policy.

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S
o Example: During V. P. Singh's tenure as Prime Minister, India's war against

terrorism was comprehensively weakened by the release of a number of hardened
Kashmiri terrorists
in exchange for the meek release of daughter of Mufti Mohammad Sayeed. Indian
policy: Jawaharlal Nehru's idealistic vision and utopian perspective of India's
relations with her neighbours not only cost her dearly in terms of loss in India-
China war but also produced a number of perennial problems such as Kashmir. On the
contrary, Indira Gandhi's resolute leadership not only won India her war with
mischievous Pakistan but also earned all weather friends like Soviet Union and made
India a nuclear country to be feared by its inimical forces. Even in contemporary
times, personality aspects of PM Modi has a strong bearing on India's International
relations, who has a strong voice in international arena. 12. Population:
India is currently the most populous and youngest country in the world, so India is
becoming a consumption-oriented country, in such a situation it will fulfill the
need of a big market for all the producing nations, which is the determinant of
foreign policy.
But with such a large population, problems like hunger, poverty are evident on
India's foreign policy. Many times there has been a dispute in the World Trade
Union between India and America about the government's intervention in agricultural
subsidies.
There are various determinants of a foreign policy with their own interests and
contradictions. Managing these contradictions among various factors and delivering
a coherent policy that is in sync with changing realities of the world order is a
challenge in itself and India has all these years stood up to this challenge.
"The determinants of foreign policy are complex and interrelated, and their
influence varies over time and across different nations. Successful foreign policy
requires a delicate balancing act, taking into account the needs and interests of
the state, its allies, and its adversaries." - Michael Cox
Quotes
"A comprehensive foreign policy takes into account the entire spectrum of
determinants - political, economic, military, technological, cultural, and
geographical - and seeks to balance their influences in a judicious manner" -
Shashi Tharoor
"In crafting foreign policy, it is essential to consider all the determinants that
shape the interests and values of a nation, and to strike a balance between them in
a way that advances the country's security and prosperity while respecting
international norms." - Hillary Clinton
"Foreign policy should be based on a holistic view that incorporates all the
determinants, rather than a narrow focus on any one particular factor. This is
essential for achieving long-term stability and prosperity for a nation." - Kofi
Annan
Continuity and changes in Indian foreign policy India's foreign policy is shaped by
a combination of continuity and change, reflecting the country's evolving power
status, pragmatic considerations, and pursuit of strategic autonomy.
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Continuity in India's Foreign Policy:
⚫ Quest for Strategic Autonomy: India's pursuit of strategic autonomy,

characterized by independence from external constraints, has remained consistent.
This includes transitioning from non-alignment to issue-based multi-alignment.
Permanent Seat at the UN: The goal of securing a permanent seat at the United
Nations Security Council has persisted across different political parties,
including Prime Minister Modi's strong bid for India's membership.
⚫ Leadership at WTO and Representing Developing Countries: India has consistently

sought leadership positions at the World Trade Organization (WTO) and has
negotiated on behalf of developing countries, demonstrating continuity in its
pursuit of representing their interests. Act East Policy: The Act East Policy, seen
as a rebranding of the Look East Policy, reflects continuity in India's efforts to
deepen engagement with East and Southeast Asian countries.
Strategic Partnerships: India's strategic partnerships with the United States, the
European Union, and Gulf countries highlight the continuity between previous
governments and the Modi administration, focusing on enhancing ties with key global
players.
Changes in India's Foreign Policy:
New Power Status and Pragmatism: Changes in India's foreign policy reflect its
evolving power status rather than ideological predispositions. There has been a
shift towards a more pragmatic approach, shedding moralizing concerns.
• outlook. Economic Content: India's growing economic power, especially since the
liberalization of 1991, has added significant economic dimensions to its foreign
policy, contributing to a more pragmatic
⚫ West Asia Policy: There has been a visible change in India's approach to West
Asia, including dehyphenation of the Israel-Palestine issue and independent
visits to both nations. There is also growing convergence with Gulf countries in
areas ranging from energy to strategic and intelligence cooperation.
Strategic Use of Soft Power: Prime Minister Modi has strategically utilized soft
power to enhance India's image, positioning himself as a brand ambassador of Brand
India.
Aspiring Leading Power: India aspires to be a leading power and is willing to

shoulder greater responsibilities, evident through initiatives like the
International Solar Alliance, leadership in the COP21 Paris Agreement, and its role
as a net security provider in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with a focus on blue
economy and SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region). In recent years,
India's foreign policy has witnessed a shift in style and energy while maintaining
its focus on national interests as the foundation. The country has become more
assertive in pursuing its interests and asserting its status as a great power
within the region. This increased assertiveness is reflected in India's proactive
engagement on the global stage, seeking to enhance its presence and influence
Six broad phases of India's Foreign Policy: 1. The First phase (1947-62):
Optimistic Non-Alignment • Period of a bipolar world :The United States and the
USSR India's objectives o Resist dilution of its sovereignty Rebuild its economy
and o Consolidate its integrity Five principles of peaceful coexistence or
Panchsheelwas evolved 。 Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and
sovereignty

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° Mutual non-aggression
° Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs
o Equality and mutual benefit
o Peaceful co-existence
India was in a critical role in the establishment of the Non-Alignment Movement

(NAM)
2. The Second phase (1962-71): Decade of Realism and Recovery
⚫Post 1962 war: India made pragmatic choices on security and political challenges.
⚫ Looked beyond NAM: India concluded a forgotten defence agreement with the US in
1964. • India's external pressures on Kashmir (Tashkent agreement 1965): US and UK.
Agreement did not contain a no-war pact/renunciation of Pakistan's aggression in
Kashmir India now started tilting toward USSR
3. The Third phase (1971-91): Greater Indian Regional Assertion
India's remarkable use of hard power: Contribution in liberation of Bangladesh in

1971. Complex phase of US-China-Pakistan: Thisthreatened India's prospects as a
regional power. Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation 1971 was
signed. Major Soviet contribution: The construction of shipbuilding and ship-repair
facilities at Bombayon the west coast and at Visakhapatnam on the east coast.
India get sanctions from US and its allies:after Peaceful Pokhran I test in 1974.
• Collapse of the USSR, Gulf War, Economic Stagnation: BoP crisis in India (1991).
4. The Fourth phase (1991-98): Safeguarding Strategic Autonomy
⚫ Unipolar world (USA): India changed its approach to world affairs
Quest for strategic autonomy :Focused on securing nuclear weapon(Pokhran II)

India engaged with the US, Israel and ASEAN more intensively.
The Gujral Doctrine:
With neighbours like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka, India does
not ask for reciprocity but gives and accommodates what it can in good faith and
trust. 。 No South Asian country should allow its territory to be used against the
interest of another country of the region.
No country should interfere in the internal affairs of another.
° All South Asian countries must respect each other's territorial integrity and
sovereignty. 。 They should settle all their disputes through peaceful bilateral
negotiations.
Application of Gujral Doctrine
。 Mahakali River Project was gifted to Nepal,
o Freezing of border disputes with China
。 Ganga Water sharing agreement with Bangladesh in 1996 allowed it to withdraw more
water than even what 1977 agreement allowed.
o People-to-people contact between India and Pakistan were increased by easing visa
restrictions, movements of cultural groups across borders etc.
The expanding role of India in the East Asia has been evident in India's look east
policy.
5. The Fifth phase (1998-2013): India, a Balancing Power
India's search for energy security to ensure its current rate of economic growth.
India gradually became a balancing power (against the rise of China).
Reflected in India-US nuclear deal (123 Agreement).
India has common cause with China on climate change, consolidated ties with Russia:
BRICS, a major global forum.
6. The Sixth phase (2013-Present): Energetic Engagement
Transitional geopolitics: India's policy of NAM outdated: Focus on Multi Alignment

• Prioritizing an integrated neighbourhood; i.e."neighbourhood First."

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NATO ally like status to India

Bid for a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
⚫ Membership of groups like NSG, Australian group, Wassenar arrangement etc
India's Look East policy has morphed into a proactive Act East policy, which
envisage accelerated across-the-board engagement between the two growth poles of a
vibrant Asia
⚫ Commerce, Culture and Connectivity (3Cs) are the three pillars of India's robust
engagement with ASEAN
Moulding WTO: So as to benefit India's agriculture and services sector along with
other developing nations.
Project Mausam would allow India to re-establish its ties with its ancient trade
partners and re-establish an "Indian Ocean world" along the littoral of the Indian
Ocean.
India, more aware of its capabilities and expectations.
Being among the major economies of the world. • Ability to create and sustain
global technology. Shaping key global negotiations (Paris Conference).
SAGAR initiative: Asserting beyond South Asia
Containing Pakistan from supporting the menace of terrorism.
Fundamental Principles and Features of India's foreign policy In David Malone's

book "Does the Elephant Dance? Contemporary Indian Foreign Policy," key principles
of Indian foreign policy are defined as
Panchasheel and Non-Prescriptive Approach: Emphasizing peaceful coexistence with

neighbours and avoiding interference in West Asia.
Quest for Strategic Autonomy: Pursuing partnerships based on national interests,

ensuring independence in decision-making.
⚫ Strategic Restraint and Diplomatic Dispute Resolution: Demonstrating patience

and resolving conflicts through diplomacy, using force as a last resort.
Multipolar World Order: Advocating for multiple centers of power for global
stability. Focus on Economic Prosperity and Soft Power Enhancement: Prioritizing
economic growth, attracting investment, and gradually enhancing cultural diplomacy
and soft power projection
According to Ambassador Achal Malhotra, in the present dynamic and complex world
order, India's foreign policy has become proactive, flexible as well as pragmatic
so as to make quick adjustments to respond to evolving situations. In the
implementation of its foreign policy India, however, invariably adheres to a set of
basic principles on which no compromise is made.
1. Moral Principle Panchsheel (Five Virtues): They were formally enunciated in the
Agreement on Trade between the Tibet region of China and India signed on April 29,
1954 and later evolved to act as the basis of conduct of international relations
globally. Jawahar Lal Nehru, the initiator of Indian foreign policy, prioritized
global peace while designing foreign policy. These Five Principles are: Mutual
respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty . Mutual non-
aggression Mutual non-interference Equality and mutual benefit Peaceful co-
existence
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Support for Panchsheel: Diplomats and ambassadors, such as N.R. Pillai and K.P.S.
Menon has argued that the Panchsheel principles provide a framework for peaceful
coexistence and cooperation between nations.
o Critique of Panchsheel: Other scholars, such as Rajesh M. Basrur, argue that the
Panchsheel principles are outdated and do not adequately address contemporary
geopolitical challenges.
Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (The World is One Family): It is based on the concept of

Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka Vishwas.
o In other words, India views the entire world community as a single large global
family, where members live in harmony, work and grow together, and have trust in
one another. • Proactive and Impartial Assistance: India does not hesitate in
promoting democracy wherever potential exists.
o This is done by proactively providing assistance in capacity building and

strengthening the institutions of democracy, albeit with the explicit consent of
the concerned Government. (Ex. Afghanistan).
⚫ Global Problem Solving Approach: India advocates a global debate and global
consensus on issues of global dimensions such as world trade regime, climate
change, terrorism, intellectual property rights, global governance, health hazards.
o Example: Under the Vaccine diplomacy initiative, India exported 60 million doses,
half on commercial terms and 10 million as grants.
2. Principle based on Power Bloc
Non-Alignment Policy: India's foreign policy is guided by the principle of non-

alignment, which means that India will not align with any power bloc or alliance
and will maintain its independent foreign policy.
。 Cold war period policy: Moreover, these alliances came out as a foremost
standpoint of Cold War politics post-Second World War, and India wanted to avoid
this. Nature of policy: Non-alignment principle in Indian foreign policy was a
constructive and
dynamic thought instead of impartiality, non-intervention, or separateness.
o It states making a self-determining standpoint on international matters as per

the distinctions of each case; however, at the same time, it is not devoted to
getting influenced by any military alliance.
o Additionally, the principle of Non-Alignment secured great recognition in many

other developing nations. In this way, not joining any military and superpower
alliances became essential for many countries to maintain the autonomy of Foreign
Policy.
。 Moreover, in 1947, under the guidance and direction of Jawaharlal Nehru, India
managed
to organize the Asian Relations Conference to shape the vision of Asian solidarity.
o Nehruvian Non-alignment: This view, named after India's first Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru, argues that non-alignment was an important tool to maintain
India's independence and sovereignty in the face of Cold War tensions between the
US and the USSR. This view is supported by scholars such as Sumit Ganguly and
Srinath Raghavan. o Critique of Non-alignment: Some scholars, such as K.
Subrahmanyam, argue that non- alignment was a flawed strategy that limited India's
ability to pursue its national interests and contributed to its economic
stagnation.
3. Principles based on World Order and Autonomy
⚫ Strategic Autonomy: India's foreign policy seeks to maintain strategic autonomy,

which means that India will pursue its national interests while remaining
independent of external pressures and influences.

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A new paper by a group of leading policymakers, analysts and thinkers, titled

'India's Path to Power: Strategy in a World Adrift', has pointed out that, a period
of geopolitical change and transformation carries risks but also creates spaces for
emerging countries like India to expand its strategic autonomy, that is, to enhance
its ability to take relatively autonomous decisions on matters of vital interest to
it.
o According to S. Jaishankar, Strategic Autonomy as a framework provides a chance

for India to exploit the possible opportunities that are brought by the convergence
of interests across the geopolitical chessboard.
Support for Strategic Autonomy: Scholars, such as C. Raja Mohan, argue that
strategic autonomy is essential for India to pursue its national interests and
maintain its independence in a rapidly changing global system.
Critique of Strategic Autonomy: Some diplomats and ambassadors, such as Shiv

Shankar Menon, argue that strategic autonomy can lead to isolationism and limit
India's ability to engage with the global community.
Multi-polarity: India's foreign policy seeks to promote a multi-polar world order,

in which power is distributed among multiple nations and no single nation dominates
the global system. o Support for Multi-polarity: Scholars, such as Harsh V. Pant,
argue that promoting a multi-polar world order is essential for India to balance
against the power of dominant nations such as China and the US.
o Critique of Multi-polarity: Other scholars, such as Sreeram Chaulia, argue that

India's pursuit of multi-polarity can lead to strategic ambiguity and limit its
ability to engage with the global community.
Five pillars of Indian diplomacy for strategic autonomy & global good
Recently, the Foreign Secretary Harsh Vardhan Shringla released a list of five
pillars of Indian diplomacy for strategic autonomy and global well-being.
Strategic autonomy refers to the ability of a state to pursue its national

interests and adopt foreign policy at will without being hindered in any way by
other states.
Pillars
1. Indian in thought: The tradition of the Middle Path that arises from the
teachings of Buddhism. India tends to avoid extreme strategic and political
behaviour
⚫ For example: Adherence to a two-state solution on the Israel-Palestine issue. 2.

Multipolar focus: India places "our Neighbourhood First, we Act East and we Think
West and we have revitalized our approach to these policies."
For example: India is implementing railway projects with Bangladesh and Nepal as
well as Chabahar and Sittwe Ports in Iran and Myanmar, respectively. India has also
invested in power projects in Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal.
At the same time India's northeastern states will provide a land bridge with ASEAN
countries, India has also joined hands with the United States, Japan and Australia
in another forward-looking partnership.
3. Act as an international force multiplier for the government: The Ministry of MEA
is the
global arm of the government and has a global footprint and presence For example:
India helped several countries in the early days of the Covid pandemic by providing
essential medicines, vaccines and other Covid-related assistance. This generated
immense goodwill for us and was reflected in the support and assistance we received
from our partner countries during the second wave.
4. Force for global good: India looks not just for its own good but betterment of
whole humanity. At the global level India is consistently striving to improve
global governance.
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⚫ For example: Humanitarian aid and disaster relief (HADR) has been proactively
provided by India. India's vision for the Indian Ocean is based on the concept of
SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) etc.
5. Looks to the future: Our efforts at rebalancing include our endeavour to

participate in the search for solutions to common problems
⚫ For example: India's efforts to reform the United Nations Security Council
(UNSC) and meets the Sustainable Development Goals, the International Solar
Alliance, etc. 4. Principles related to Peace and Cooperation
• Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes and bilateral engagement: India's

persistent belief in peacefully settling international clashes is one of the
essential elements in Indian foreign policy. The Indian constitution and the
Charter of the UN also comprise this principle.
o Furthermore, India has played a primary role in resolving the Korean conflicts
and encouraged conferred settlement of the Palestine issue, borderline issues with
neighboring nations, and other such struggles and issues.
。 India has always been against foreign military interference in solving global
problems, and this principle is the foundation of Indian foreign policy.
o Currently, India has favoured the resolution of Iranian nuclear issues'

democratic upsurge
problem in the middle east and many more with the strategy of a peaceful
settlement. 。 Current Change in Stance: India believes that violent retaliation and
confrontation can only complicate the matters. War is no solution; after every war
the conflicting Parties ultimately come to negotiating table by which time much
damage has already been done. This applies in particular to Pakistan- the origin of
State-sponsored terrorism targeted at India. The policy of engagement is, however,
to be misunderstood as India's weakness.
Strong and loud messages emanate from India each and every time our patience is
tested. ■ Example: The Surgical strike to target terrorist - launch pads in
Pakistan occupied Indian territory in September 2016 is one such example. Air
Strike at terrorist camps in Balakote in February 2019 in retaliation to Pulwama
terrorist attack is yet another example.
Decolonisation and Demilitarisation:
o As a sovereign nation, India also had a profound respect for the international
laws and ideologies of self-governing equality of countries and non-intrusion in
other countries' domestic affairs promoted by the United Nations in the Indian
Foreign Policy. ° India played a fundamental role in preserving global peace by
adding to the decolonization
sovereign and active involvement in United Nations' pacification activities.
o India has also sustained the cause of demilitarisation practised by the United
Nations. India suggested a very determined program of nuclear demilitarization even
before the UN in 1988.
о Even though the UN members haven't accepted this suggestion, India's opinions are
still committed to the Origin of universal demilitarisation.
o Furthermore, India has suggested and backed the reorganization of the Security
Council and UN societies to formulate the configuration of the Security Council as
more genuine and independent. Therefore, India is among the applicants for
perpetual members of the Security Council.
• Key element of such policy:
▪ South-South Cooperation:
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Support for South-South Cooperation: Scholars, such as Amitav Acharya, argue that
South-South cooperation is an important alternative to traditional North- South aid
relationships and can promote more equitable and sustainable development outcomes.
Critique of South-South Cooperation: Other scholars, such as William Easterlyargue

that South-South cooperation can perpetuate the same problems dependency and
corruption that have plagued traditional aid relationships. Providing Foreign Aid:
✓ Positive Impact: Scholars, such as Shashi Tharoor, argue that India's foreign aid
has had a positive impact on recipient countries, particularly in terms of
infrastructure development and poverty reduction.
Negative Impact: Other scholars, such as Jayati Ghosh, argue that India's foreign
aid can reinforce existing power structures and benefit Indian corporations at the
expense of local communities.
Non-Interference
o India does not believe in interference in the internal affairs of other

countries. However, if an act - innocent or deliberate - by any country has the
potential of impinging upon India's national interests, India does not hesitate in
quick and timely intervention. Here intervention is qualitatively different from
interference, particularly when the intervention is made at the request of the
country concerned. (Examples: Bangladesh 1971, IPKF in Sri Lanka (1987-90),
Maldives (1988)
Opposition to export of ideologies and change of regimes
o India believes in and supports Democracy; however, India does not believe in the
export of ideologies.
By extension of the above principle, India does not endorse the idea of regime
change or violation of territorial integrity in a particular country by use of
force or other means by another country or a group of countries.
Example: US interventions in Iraq, Libya, Syria or Russia's intervention in

Georgia, Ukraine etc.
At the same time, India does not hesitate in promoting democracy wherever potential
exists; this is done by proactively providing assistance in capacity building and
strengthening the institutions of democracy, albeit with the explicit consent of
the concerned Government. (Ex. Afghanistan)
⚫ Global Consensus on Issues

o India advocates a global debate and global consensus on issues of global
dimensions such as world trade regime, climate change, terrorism, intellectual
property rights, global governance.
o Scholars such as C. Raja Mohan and diplomate Syed Akbaruddin argue that India's
emphasis on multilateralism and global cooperation is essential for promoting peace
and stability in the world.
Emerging Challenges
1. Rising China: China is the only major country that had a positive growth rate at
the end of 2020, and its economy is poised to grow even faster in 2021. Militarily,
it's getting stronger and strained Indo-China relation is a concern.
Challenges: Scholars such as Brahma Chellaney and C. Raja Mohan argue that China's
growing economic and military power poses a significant challenge for India,
particularly in

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the context of border disputes and competition for influence in the region.
Opportunities: On the other hand, some scholars such as Rajesh Basrur argue that
India can
leverage China's economic rise to its advantage, by seeking greater economic

engagement with China and positioning itself as a counterweight to China's regional
ambitions. 2. Growing Russia-China Axis: The sanctions imposed on Russia after
Crimea's annexation has pushed Russia towards a tighter embrace of China. This
seems to signal reduced interest in countries such as India.
3. Russia Ukraine Issue: It is certainly a complex international political issue

when countries like India find it difficult to choose between politics and moral
imperative. As realist prudence demands, India cannot simply undertake a moralist
standpoint on Russia-Ukraine Conflict and ignore the dictates of politics.
However, Many respondents indicated optimism for Russia, despite its invasion of
Ukraine; 43% saw Russia as India's most reliable partner since Independence.
4. Growing India-US proximity: Also, India's closeness to the U.S. has weakened its
links with traditional friends such as Russia and Iran.
⚫ 85% of respondents thought the USA will be India's leading partner in the next
10 years; 83% of respondents also agreed that the USA support will be crucial to
India's rise. 5. Changing Middle East Equations and energy security:
⚫ Even after Abraham Accords, the situation remains fluid and has not reduced the
risk of a confrontation between Iran and Israel.
Iran could well be tempted to use its nuclear capability to enhance its position.
This does pose problems for India since both have relations with it. • India's tilt
toward Israel is shift from traditional stance.
o Challenges: Scholars such as Ashok Kumar Behuria and C. Raja Mohan argue that
India's growing energy demand and dependence on imported energy sources poses a
significant challenge for its energy security.
。 Opportunities: Some scholars such as Rahul Tongia argue that India can leverage
its growing renewable energy sector and pursue greater regional cooperation on
energy issues to enhance its energy security.
• Self-Imposed Isolation of India: Currently, India remains isolated from two

important supranational bodies of which it used to be a founding member, viz., the
NAM and the SAARC. o Moreover, India has opted out of the RCEP.
This self-imposed isolation doesn't synergise with India's aspiration of becoming a

global power.
Weakening Ties with Neighbours: This can be seen from instances like China's Cheque
Book Diplomacy vis-a-vis Sri-Lanka, strain in relation with Bangladesh on NRC issue
and recent border controversy with Nepal due to the release of the new map.
⚫ Refugee Crisis: In spite of not being a party to the 1951 Refugee Convention and
its 1967 Protocol, India has been one of the largest recipients of refugees in the
world. o The challenge here is to balance protection of human rights and national
interest. As the Rohingya crisis unfolds, there is still a lot that India can do to
facilitate the finding of long- term solutions.
⚫ Evolving Geopolitical Landscape: Ambassadors and diplomats such as Nirupama Rao

and Shivshankar Menon have emphasized the challenge of navigating an increasingly
complex and unpredictable global geopolitical landscape, with shifting alliances
and growing competition among major powers. While some scholars such as Happymon
Jacob argue that India can leverage its soft power and strategic location to play a
greater role in shaping the

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regional and global order.
⚫Climate Change: Climate change is getting prominence in every international talk.

It is getting
important in foreign policy Challenges: Scholars such as Navroz Dubash and Amitav
Ghosh argue that climate change poses a significant challenge for India,
particularly in the context of its vulnerability to climate impacts and its role as
a major emitter of greenhouse gases. 。 Opportunities: Diplomats such as Harsh V.
Shringla have emphasized the opportunity for India to position itself as a leader
on climate change by pursuing a low-carbon development path and advocating for
greater global cooperation on the issue.
Dr. S Jaishankar ten observations on the Policy Shifts in the "Modi Era"
• Building strong partnerships with likeminded countries - going for Issue Based
alignments. Managing great power relationships - expanding regional outreach and
increasing global footprint. • Pragmatic decisions based on risk-benefit
calculations.
Unpredictability has been used to enhance value.
Willingness to use the instrumentality of military power. Defense policies, now an

integral part of the diplomacy Business, investment now central to diplomacy
Stronger drive in implementation
Soft power.
Diaspora card being played more effectively
Rise of Realpolitik in India's Foreign Policy in recent times: In Realpolitiks,

Foreign policy is conducted on the basis of practical and material concerns rather
than ideological or ethical principles.
1. Changing dynamics of Foreign Policy to Realpolitik
• Indian foreign policy for centuries has been guided by civilizational values like
non violence, tolerance, Sarva Dharma Sambhava etc which prompted India to take a
leadership role in the Non Aligned Movement (NAM).
• Later the Gujral doctrine talked about non-reciprocal accommodation of India's

neighbours and stated that India must help its neighbours without expecting
anything in return. According to foreign policy experts like Happymon Jacob, Harsh
V Pant, Kanti Bajpai, etc
under the present regime India is showing more Realpolitik viz
Multi alignment rather than Non- alignment
o Increasing cooperation with USA,
o De-hyphenation of Israel-Palestine etc.
o Focus on BIMSTEC rather than SAARC
o Look East to Act East policy
o Wooing foreign investments
Neighbourhood first policy etc
o Offensive -defensive strategy against Pakistan
⚫ However, Kanti Bajpai, a political analyst has observed that the present
government has been following a "cooperation-defection" cycle. The government
cooperates with other countries but on its own terms and defects when it is not
able to do so.
2. Instances where Realpolitiks dominated concerns:

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Rohingya issue: India's stance against the Rohingya refugees reflects a shift from
its traditional stance of welcoming refugees though India is not a party to UN
convention on refugees
• Israel-Palestine issue: India is taking a dehyphenation stance on Israel and

Palestine. That means India's relationship with Israel would stand on its own merit
and will be independent from her relationship with Palestine. PM Modi also became
the first Indian PM to visit Israel Strategy against Pakistan: India's offensive
defensive strategy against Pakistan was visible when it conducted a surgical strike
which was a departure from the past.
Less interest in NAM: In the recent past, India is not showing importance to Non
Aligned
Movement (NAM) and even Indian PM skipped a meeting of NAM. ⚫ Relation with USA:
Simultaneously growing India-US ties is evident in the defence relationship between
the two countries.
⚫ Selective engagement: India began pursuing the neighbourhood first policy with
increased vigour in 2014. But it has hit a roadblock. India is now selectively
engaging with these countries with one big agenda-countering the presence of China
• Shift focus to BIMSTEC: SAARC has hit a roadblock with the recent summit being
cancelled after Pakistan's aggression towards India. India has now shifted its
focus to sub regional groupings like BIMSTEC
• Handling Doklam issue: India also showed diplomatic maturity during the Doklam
standoff and prevented it from escalating into a full scale war
⚫ Political visits of PM: PM Modi himself is leading the high level political
visits across the world. Political considerations took a backstage while economic
considerations were given priority.
3. Consequences of increasing reliance on Realpolitik:
India being soft state: India would no longer be considered as a "soft state".
(Soft state is a concept given by Gunnar Myrdal which says that the State is unable
to implement its policies.)
• Concerns of a two- front war from China Pakistan alliances
o Though India is successful in the diplomatic isolation of Pakistan in the

international arena, it is pushing Pakistan to forge new alliances with countries
like Russia Realignment in relationships: Increasing closeness with countries like
USA and Israel is pushing our traditional allies like Russia to realign its
relationship with China and Pakistan.
4. Criticism of rise of Realpolitiks in India's Foreign Policy

More focus on hard power: India's focus on hard power(military power) for foreign
policy outcomes sidelines our rich soft power(ideological power, goodwill)
attributes. Big brother attitude: The concerns among the small neighbouring
countries like Nepal against India's 'big brother' attitude
China's focus on soft power: Even though countries like China have the military
might to use hard power, there is an increased focus on soft power. The BRI is an
important part of China's Soft power. It seeks to make the countries economically
dependant on it.
• Dynamic environment: Basing a foreign policy on immediate practical concerns is

not advisable in a dynamic global scenario. It would reduce the element of trust in
bilateral ties. 。 For example, USA's reversal of many of the commitment's given by
the previous government has reduced the trust on US.

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INSTITUTIONS OF POLICY-MAKING
Foreign Policy Making in India falls under the jurisdiction of the Union or Central
Government of India. Like any other country, India's foreign policy expands its
sphere of influence, strengthens its role across nations, and makes its presence
feel like an emerging force.
Foreign policy making is a complex and multifaceted process that involves a variety
of institutions and actors within the government and this ever needed with the
increasing interdependence and enlarging scope of foreign policy demand due to the
rise of globalisation.
Let's discuss the various institutions involved in making of Foreign Policy:
1. Parliament
PSIR
⚫ Primary roles of parliament in foreign policy making: To ensure that the

government is held accountable for its actions and decisions. This includes
scrutinizing foreign policy decisions and providing oversight of the executive
branch.
⚫ Power of parliament: India's Parliament has the power to legislate on foreign

affairs. This authority includes legislation or amendment of any law for the
successful implementation of international treaties, agreements and conventions.
。 Example: After Beru Bari union case Supreme Court said that India needs to pass
Constitutional amendment if India gives away any territory 100thAA related to
exchange of conclaves
Example: Crucial treaties and international agreements need Parliamentary approval.

For example: Indo-US nuclear deal
Example: Example: The grants given by MEA to different nations via budget has to be
passed by Parliament
Scholars view: Some scholars argue that the parliament should have a more active
role in foreign policy making, as foreign policy decisions can have significant
implications for national security and other important issues. According to Indian
political scientist C.Raja Mohan, "Parliament should be more than a passive
observer of foreign policy. It should be an active participant in shaping foreign
policy decisions." Similarly, British political scientist Philip Cowley argues that
"Parliament is not simply a forum for debate, but an institution with a crucial
role to play in holding the government to account and shaping foreign policy
decisions."
Functions of parliament on Foreign policy
。 Oversight: Among its important oversight functions, Parliament has a Standing

Committee on External Affairs and a Standing Committee on Defence, which grill the
officials on issues pertaining to foreign relations and external security.
Deliberation: Parliament is also a chamber of deliberation where various policies
and
programmes of the government are deliberated upon.
Example: India's nuclear cooperation agreement with the US was widely discussed in
Parliament. Similarly, Nehru faced severe criticism in Parliament for his policy
towards China.
Maintain goodwill relations: Indian Parliamentary Delegations are invited by the

Parliaments of foreign countries to visit their countries as their guests on
goodwill missions.
Example: India's invitation to foreign country heads on republic day as chief

guest. Issues/Challenges
。 Limited capacity: Scholars such as Dr. Avinash Paliwal have argued that
parliamentarians need to be provided with better training and resources to engage

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effectively in foreign policy making. Similarly, parliamentarians such as Shashi

Tharoor have called for greater investment in research and analysis to enable
parliamentarians to engage in informed debate on foreign policy issues.
o Partisanship: Some scholars, like Dr. V. Krishnappa, have called for the de-
politicization of foreign policy making. This could involve the establishment of
bipartisan committees or mechanisms to facilitate consensus building on foreign
policy issues.
Example: As executive enjoys majority in parliament, it rarely holds the government
accountable due to party politics. For example, the prices of Rafael Aircrafts were
not disclosed due to security concerns.
Time constraints: Some parliamentarians, like P. Chidambaram, have called for more
time to be allocated for foreign policy debates in Parliament. This would allow for
a more thorough examination of govt decisions and greater scrutiny of foreign
policy issues. 。 Lack of resources: Some scholars and parliamentarians have called
for greater investment
in research and analysis, as well as for better access to information and

expertise.
Example:Dr. Jayshree Sengupta has argued that parliamentarians should be given

access to classified information to enable them to engage more effectively in
foreign policy debates. .
o Decline of parliament: As pointed out by former Vice President, Hamid Ansari,

parliament has become 'Chambers of Anarchy' where debates are rare and informed
debates are rarer. The ruling party and opposition are like warring parties. Due to
this decline of parliament, its control over executive and foreign policy decisions
has become weaker 2. Cabinet
In most of the Parliamentary systems of the governments like India, the important
decisions . on issues of national and international affairs are decided by the
cabinet. Initially Nehru unilaterally formulated India's foreign policy rather than
actually involving the Cabinet
• Due to coalition politics use of cabinet members especially of coalition partners

has become crucial
The Cabinet being the top most decision making body of the government, determines
the course of India's external relations by giving necessary directions.
⚫ Though none of the current cabinet committees deal exclusively with foreign
affairs, the issues dealt by such Cabinet committees, directly impact India's
foreign policy and practices. Minister of external affairs is member of four
cabinet committees on Economic Affairs, Parliamentary Affairs, Political Affairs
and on Security.
o During the Chinese invention of 1962, the 'Emergency Committee' was setup to deal
with the matter on national emergency. Chaired by the PM himself, the committee
performed remarkable tasks on national and external issues. It also played
prominent role during the time of Rann of Kutchh dispute with Pakistan in 1965.
Similarly, the committee on World Trade Organization matters also worked to resolve
issues related to India's concerns at WTO. The committee aimed to constantly keep
eye on the recent development on the field of global trade and take action
accordingly to promote India's foreign trade.
⚫ Cabinet integrates issues such as trade and commerce, security into a coherent
foreign policy strategy
The Administrative Reform Commission (ARC) had put forth a recommendation to

establish a Cabinet Committee of Foreign Affairs. The proposed Cabinet Committee of

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Foreign Affairs would have served as a specialized body within the government,
focusing
exclusively on foreign policy matters and providing strategic guidance in this

domain. Shiv Shankar Menon, in his book 'CHOICES-Inside the making of foreign
policy', argues that foreign and security policymaking in India has been weak due
to a lack of institutionalization. This has begun to change in recent years with
the creation of the National Security Council and the Nuclear Command Authority.
The Cabinet Committee on Security and its predecessor, the Cabinet Committee on
Political Affairs, have had varying roles and effectiveness depending on the
government in power, and their role has decreased in recent years. However, they
were more prominent during the tenure of Manmohan Singh's collegial government.
3. Ministry of External Affairs
Nodal ministry
⚫ Roles and Responsibilities
o Allocation of Business Rules: As per the rules of GOI, MEA has been empowered
with the task of planning, formulating and managing India's external relations with
other nations to protect and promote national interests in the global stage
Channelizing inputs to leadership: In India, MEA acts like the foreign policy
secretariat in India, which receives numerous policy inputs from various sources,
and analyzes and channelizes the different options to the political leadership,
i.e., the Cabinet headed by the PM, and then implements decisions taken at this
apex level.
External Publicity Division of MEA: Is an effective recipient of foreign policy

inputs particularly from the media and is also the chief source of dissemination of
information on India's foreign policy objectives and measures.
Economic diplomacy: Since the late 1980s, MEA has been strengthening its economic
diplomacy capabilities with divisions dealing with investment and technology
promotion, now subsumed into its Economic Diplomacy Division which looks after
Multilateral Economic Relations (MER).
Diplomatic representation: The MEA is responsible for managing India's diplomatic

Suppliers Group (NSG) and related bodies.
missions abroad, including embassies, consulates, and high commissions. It appoints

Indian diplomats to serve in these missions and provides them with necessary
support. 。 Developmental assistance partnership: Development Partnership
Administration (DPA) was created in MEA to bring together all elements involved in
India's role as a preferred assistance partner to developing countries particularly
in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Global politics: The D&ISA Division under MEA
deals with nuclear proliferation, disarmament and related issues, including India's
bid for membership of the Nuclear
Functional divisions like Administration, Establishment, Finance and Legal and

Treaties, provide the tools and environment needed by Indian diplomats at home and
abroad to discharge their functions effectively.
Bilateral and multilateral negotiations: The MEA conducts negotiations on behalf of

India with other countries and international organizations. It participates in
multilateral forums such as the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and
regional organizations to represent India's interests.
Crisis management: The MEA plays a key role in managing crises involving Indian
citizens or interests abroad. It coordinates with other ministries, such as the
Ministry Home Affairs and the Ministry of Defence, to respond to emergencies and
provide assistance to Indian nationals.

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Cultural and public diplomacy: The MEA promotes India's culture and heritage abroad
through initiatives such as the Indian Council for Cultural Relations and public
diplomacy activities. It also manages India's image abroad and seeks to enhance
India's soft power.
⚫ Scholar view: Kishore Mahbubani, former Singaporean diplomat and academic,

argues that India's MEA is one of the most professional and effective foreign
service bureaucracies in the world. He praises the MEA for its ability to maintain
continuity in foreign policy despite changes in government.
⚫ Issues/Challenges
o Smaller role: India has one of the smallest diplomatic corps, almost equivalent
to Singapore. In the words of Shashi Tharoor, India is punching below its weight.
Also he has criticized the MEA for being too bureaucratic and inward-looking.
。 Losing its relevance due to PMO: MEA is losing its importance in the making of
India's foreign policy with the parallel rise of the P.M.O. During PM Nehru's time,
since he was both PM and EAM, the PM's Secretariat (as PMO was known then), became
the centre of foreign policy decision making. This trend has continued with each
PMO assuming the central role in all foreign policy decision making.
• Suggestions
o Play more proactive role: Harsh V. Pant, argues that the MEA needs to play a more
proactive role in shaping India's foreign policy. He suggests that the MEA should
focus more on developing India's strategic partnerships with other countries and on
promoting India's economic interests abroad.
Be more assertive: Kanwal Sibal, argues that the MEA needs to be more assertive in
advocating India's interests on the global stage. He suggests that the MEA should
be more willing to take risks and to challenge established global norms and
practices. • More transparent: Manoj Joshi, argues that the MEA needs to be more
transparent and accountable in its decision-making processes. He suggests that the
MEA should be more open to public scrutiny and should engage more with civil
society and the media.
o Pillai committee recommendation
Increasing size of diplomatic corps
Coordination of MEA with other ministries must be enhanced
Professional training inadequate
Lateral entry for highly specialised fields like climate change, nuclear
disarmament 4. Ministry of Defence
⚫ Defence Minister is a member of the Cabinet Committee on Security and of the

National Security Council.
The Secretary, Department of Defence, Secretary (Defence Production) and the three
service chiefs (Army, Navy and Air Force) are members of the Strategic Planning
Group. In recent years, a joint secretary level officer from MEA is seconded to the
MOD to handle Planning and International Cooperation tasks of the Ministry.
Roles and Responsibilities
o Defence and national policy: The Government/PMO seeks the Ministry of Defence's
views on matters related to defense policy and national security.
o Defense diplomacy: The Ministry plays a role in defense diplomacy, which involves
establishing and maintaining relationships with other countries to promote defense
and security cooperation. This includes exchanging military personnel, conducting
joint exercises, and providing defense-related training and equipment.

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o Arms control and disarmament: The Ministry is responsible for negotiating and
implementing arms control and disarmament agreements with other countries. This
includes treaties on nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, as well as
conventional arms control agreements.
Military aid: The Ministry provides military aid and assistance to other countries,
especially to those that are friendly to India. This includes providing training
and equipment to foreign militaries, as well as participating in peacekeeping
operations. o International military cooperation: The Ministry of Defence works
closely with other countries to promote international military cooperation,
especially in the areas of counterterrorism, maritime security, and cyber security.
Scholars view:
o According to Stephen Cohen, a South Asia expert at the Brookings Institution, the
Ministry of Defence has traditionally played a more prominent role in India's
foreign policy making than in most other democracies. This is because India faces a
number of security challenges, including border disputes with China and Pakistan, a
long-standing insurgency in Kashmir, and the threat of terrorism.
In the view of C. Raja Mohan, the Ministry of Defence has become more integrated
into India's foreign policy establishment in recent years, particularly under the
Narendra Modi government. Mohan argues that the Defence Ministry has taken a more
proactive role in shaping India's regional security policies, including its
relations with China and the United States.
Shashi Tharoor, has argued that the Ministry of Defence often operates
independently of the Ministry of External Affairs and other government bodies,
which can lead to a fragmented and inconsistent foreign policy.
In the view of Manohar Parrikar, a former Defence Minister, the Ministry of Defence
has a unique perspective on India's foreign policy challenges and should be more
involved in shaping the country's strategic vision.
5. Ministry of Commerce and Industry
The Department of Commerce (DoC) together with the MEA and the Ministry of Finance
is largely responsible for conducting India's economic diplomacy. • On trade issues
at the WTO, bilateral and multilateral FTAs, etc, policy is largely initiated and
formalised at the DoC.
Investment and taxation issues are coordinated by the MoF in consultation with MoC,
MEA, CBDT, Customs, etc,.
In a parliamentary committee report on India's foreign policy challenges, the role

of the MoC&I in enhancing trade and economic relations was highlighted. The
committee emphasized the need to increase the ministry's capacity to support Indian
businesses and promote exports to global markets.
According to former Indian Ambassador to the US, Naresh Chandra, the MoC&I is
instrumental in shaping India's foreign policy in the post-Cold War era. He
believes that trade has become an essential aspect of India's foreign policy, and
the MoC&I plays a critical role in achieving economic diplomacy.
Former Commerce and Industry Minister, Anand Sharma, has emphasized the importance
of trade in foreign policy-making. He has stated that the MoC&I plays a crucial
role in identifying new markets, formulating trade policies, and negotiating trade
agreements to promote India's economic interests.

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6. Role of Diaspora - There has been a shift in diaspora policy reflecting a

greater recognition of the importance of engaging with and harnessing the potential
of the Indian diaspora. Political Influence: The diaspora serves as representatives
of Indian views and interests at the international level, acting as ambassadors and
advocates for India in various forums and countries.
• Economic Contributions: The diaspora plays a crucial role in India's economy by

sending significant remittances. NRIs (Non-Resident Indians) send largest
remittances to India annually, contributing to economic growth and development.
Strategic Engagement: Overseas Indians have the ability to shape foreign policy
through their influence and networks. Organizations like the United States India
Political Action Committee (USINPAC) actively work to strengthen Indo-US
relationships and influence policy decisions.
Security Implications: The diaspora also has security implications as they can
provide valuable support in areas such as intelligence sharing, counter-terrorism
efforts, and diplomatic engagement.
7. National Security Council and National Security Advisor
The National Security Council (NSC) was created in 1999 as a statutory body to
advise the Prime Minister on matters related to national security and foreign
policy. It comprises the Prime Minister, the Ministers of Defence, Home Affairs,
External Affairs and Finance, and the National Security Adviser.
• Currently two Deputy NSAs, at least a couple of Foreign Service officers in the
Prime Minister's Office, as well as a full-fledged dedicated National Security
Council Secretariat assist him in this task.
The NSC is a three-tier organization consisting of the Strategic Planning Group,

the National Security Advisory Board and the Joint Intelligence Committee.
。 Strategic policy group: Main advisor to government of India and it is headed by

national security advisor
o National Security Advisory Board (NSAB): Its membership includes eminent

professionals, academics, scientists, administrative experts and retired
bureaucrats.
Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC): It is Headed by a Chairman who is usually an

Additional Secretary from the Cabinet Secretariat. It also has representatives from
MEA, MOD, MHA, IB, R&AW etc.
•Importance: NSC has taken over the decision-making role of the Cabinet Committee
on Security (CCS), which was earlier the primary body for making foreign policy
decisions. NSC performs similar functions like MEA. It assists the government to
formulate other significant policies that directly or indirectly affects India's
national Interest, such as policies on economic and energy security.
o Example: The NSC's role in the recent surgical strikes against Pakistan and the
Balakot air strikes is an example of this.
o Example: In recent times, NSA Ajit Doval has been chief architect of India's
Pakistan and China policy.India's policy of Offensive-Defense with respect to
Pakistan is also known as Doval Doctrine.
As per Shiv shankar Menon, it is MINIMAXING i.e. minimizing risks and maximizing
benefits. In this context the role of NSC is critical in protecting India's
security and strategic interests
• Issues:
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o Absence of National Security Doctrine: National Security Advisory Board (NSAB)

had formulated draft national security strategy documents on four different
occasions and presented them to successive governments, but the lingering worry in
the minds of the politicians about a potential commitment trap has led to delay in
its publication. 。 Lack of meetings: National Security Council (NSC) almost never
meets, primarily
because it is an advisory body, with the Cabinet Committee on Security being the
executive body.
Former prime minister, P. V. Narasimha Rao, made it clear that he found it

pointless to have a NSC in India, because the concept of a NSC was more appropriate
for a presidential " form of government as opposed to the Indian parliamentary
system, where the cabinet was the supreme decision-making body
NSA: He has the advantage that he is not accountable to either the Parliament or
the public- in fact to no one except his political bosses. Thus, there is an
inbuilt conflict of interest between the NSA and the External Affairs Minister,
which has frequently come out in the open since the setting up of the office of the
NSA in 1998. 8. Think Tanks
• Think tanks are organizations that conduct research and provide advice and
analysis on various issues, including foreign policy.
James G. McGann: In his article "Think Tanks and Policy Advice in Countries in
Transition," argues that think tanks can serve as a bridge between policymakers and
the public, providing expertise and information to inform policy decisions. He also
notes that think tanks can help shape the public debate by generating new ideas and
perspectives.
John J. Hamre: In his book "Making Defense Reform Work," he discusses the role of
think tanks in shaping defense policy. He notes that think tanks can provide
innovative and practical solutions to complex policy problems, and can help bridge
the gap between the academic and policymaking communities.
Shashi Tharoor: In an article for The Hindu, Tharoor argues that think tanks can
play an important role in shaping foreign policy by providing policymakers with
"unbiased and informed" analysis. He notes that think tanks can also help build
public support for foreign policy initiatives by engaging with civil society and
the media.
⚫ Rakesh Sinha: In an article for The Indian Express, Sinha discusses the role of
think tanks in India's foreign policy-making. He argues that think tanks can
provide valuable insights into the political, economic, and social dynamics of
other countries, and can help Indian policymakers develop a more nuanced
understanding of the global landscape.
This is quite a recent phenomenon in Indian strategic culture, where they Act as
pressure groups to try to influence government policy.
o Example: The number of think tanks in India has more than tripled from 121 in
2008 to 444 in 2017. According to the data collected by McGann and his
collaborators, in 2017 India had the third-largest number of think tanks after the
United States (1,872) and China (512). In terms of quality of research and other
activities, in McGann's recent 2018 report the Institute for Defence Studies and
Analyses (IDSA) was ranked 28th among top non- US think tanks worldwide, while
Observer Research Foundation (ORF) was ranked 35th.
Analysis of their role and nature in India
1. Help to achieve diplomatic objective: By developing networks and setting up new

platforms to promote dialogue, including high-profile international conferences,
bilateral and multilateral exchanges, and closed-door networking events

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2. Informal diplomacy: Some think tanks have utilised and further expanded their
networks for engaging in informal diplomacy. ORF, in particular, is greatly
involved in Tracks 2 and 1.5 diplomacy, with the latter also involving government
officials.
3. According to Jyoti Malhotra, in the matters of foreign policy, as the government

carefully manages information, a few think tanks have become "platforms for the
dissemination of information" by the government.
4. However, the growth of foreign policy think tanks in India has been mostly
constrained to two distinct types: those which are close to Indian businesses
and/or connected to foreign think tanks which tend to promote a liberal worldview
and those which are close to the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in ideological
and personnel terms.
5. Tilt towards vested interest: According to Oueen Mary University of London's

Stella Ladi, despite their often-professed public purpose orientation, think tanks
are guided by interests of particular section and depend on particular sources of
funding.
6. According to Diane Stone, although often presented as bridges between power and
knowledge, think tanks are arguably a "manifestation of the knowledge/power nexus"
and may help to serve the interests of dominant elites.
7. Weakness
⚫ Lack of reliable information: The official secrets act, lack of systematic

timeline for the classifying diplomatic archives and every day reluctance of
bureaucrats to talk candidly to researchers leads to lack of reliable information
about policy
This naturally affects the accuracy and quality of policy research that these think
tanks undertake even when equipped with quality researchers
Lack of adequate funding
• Prejudice: Since the leadership is primarily comprised of former bureaucrats with

a reputational speak in existing policy, their conclusions will tend to be
prejudiced in the favour of status quo
o Example: ORF, IDSA, Gateway house
Evolution of Think Tanks in India
Think tanks in India have a long history, dating back to the pre-independence era.
However, their evolution and growth have been influenced by various factors such as
political changes, economic developments, technological advancements, and
globalization. Here is a brief overview of the evolution of think tanks in India:
• Pre-independence era (1857-1947): The first think tank in India was the Indian
National Congress, founded in 1885. It played a vital role in the freedom struggle
and provided a platform for intellectuals to discuss and debate various issues
related to India's independence. Other think tanks that emerged during this period
were the Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, and the All India Trade Union
Congress.
⚫ Post-independence era (1947-1990): After independence, India's focus shifted to

nation- building and economic development. Several think tanks were established
during this period to address these issues. The Planning Commission, founded in
1950, was the most prominent think tank of this era, responsible for formulating
India's Five-Year Plans. Other notable think tanks that emerged during this period
were the Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA), the Institute of Defence Studies
and Analyses (IDSA), and the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER).
o According to Amitabh Mattoo and Rory Medcalf, since Nehru's reign foreign-policy
making has largely remained the preserve of the prime minister, while the MEA has

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traditionally been in charge of policy implementation. Thus, with the exception of

a very few high-profile think tank leaders and public intellectuals, think tanks
and other external providers of policy advice have not been influential in shaping
Indian foreign policy Liberalization era (1991-2000): In the 1990s, India underwent
economic liberalization,
which led to the emergence of new think tanks focused on economic and business
issues.
o Example: The Centre for Policy Research (CPR), founded in 1973, gained prominence
during this period, with a focus on economic policy reform. Other think tanks that
emerged during this period were the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy
(NIPFP), the National Centre for Trade Information (NCTI), and the National Council
of Applied Economic Research (NCAER).
Globalization era (2000-present): With the advent of globalization, think tanks in

India have become more diverse and specialized, covering a wide range of issues
such as foreign policy, security, energy, environment, and social policy.
o Example: Some of prominent think tanks in India today are the Observer Research
Foundation (ORF), Centre for Policy Research (CPR), Indian Council of World Affairs
(ICWA), Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA), and the Brookings India.
In 2005 then defence minister Pranab Mukherjee launched the National Maritime
Foundation (NMF), which seeks to enhance dialogue on maritime issues, formulate
policy advice, mould public opinion, and influence the national security elite on
issues involving India's maritime security interests.
Today, there are dozens of think tanks in India, covering a wide range of policy
issues, from foreign policy and security to economic and social policy. Some of the
most influential think tanks in India today include the IDSA, the Observer Research
Foundation (ORF), the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP) India, and
the Brookings Institution India Center.
8. Pressure groups and NGO's
Voices of non-political groups, associations and organizations are important

sources of influence in shaping government policies, including in foreign and
security issues. Joseph Nye has described present world order as 3D chess board
model.
o At top level- military level- unipolar world order
o Middle level- Economic power- Multipolar
o At the third level involving transnational actors with respect to issues such as
Climate Change, drugs, terrorism etc, the power is distributed between state and
non-state actors like NGOs, MNCs, pressure groups etc
Realist view: They doesn't give importance to NGOs and pressure groups in foreign
policy making,
Liberals view: Liberals assign positive role to NGOs as agent of modernization and
development.
⚫ Feminist and critical view: Feminist and critical school theorists also give
positive role to civil society.
Influence of NGOs: NGOs are growing in stature not only for their work among the
masses in India, but also in significantly influencing policy decisions, some of
which have a bearing on India's external relations.
o Example: NGOs such as Greenpeace, Amnesty International and Red Cross have
impacted India's foreign policy decisions in environment and human rights issues.
Role of NGOs in Post LPG era: Post LPG reforms role of pressure groups has also
increased
in the field of foreign affairs. The pressure groups formed by business groups,
farmers associations, traders etc have affected the government's policy in
international politics.

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o Example: India's insistence on Agreement on agriculture in WTO is due to pressure

from farmer organizations, similarly India's recent decision to pull out of RCEP is
due to opposition from trader's lobby.
Analysis of their role: Though PG and NGOs help in making foreign policy more
representative and inclusive and provide essential inputs for policy making, they
are guided by narrow self-interest which can be detrimental to broader foreign
policy objectives. o Example: India has been termed as 'obstructionist' in WTO by
western countries. Similarly, as per IB report, negative activism by foreign funded
NGOs has cost India 2% of GDP.
9. Role of Media
• In India, the role of media can be classified in 2 phases:
。 State controlled: The first phase lasted from 1947 to 1990, during which almost
all media outlets in the country were owned by the government and thus the
dissemination of information was largely state controlled.
。 Freedom to publications: The second phase began from 1991, when ownership truly
diversified. This also coincided with the government's LPG policy. Over the years,
media companies that were entirely private became more commonplace, and now there
is greater freedom of publication, and the media can openly criticize the
government's policies. • Ideological view
o Realist: Non-state actors do not hold much power over formulation of foreign
policies and the development of bilateral relations.
o Liberalism and Postmodernist: Their approaches like Constructivism offer valuable

insight into the importance of non-state actors like media and individual citizens
and the role of the former plays in constructing perceptions of the latter.
Media role: Media plays two-fold role in foreign policy making: Firstly as an input
source for decision-making and
o Secondly, as an environment, which actors have to take into account during the
policy formation.
。 Gaining prominence: While the old ways of conducting international diplomacy

lacked transparency and involvement of the masses and media was in the middle of a
top-bottom communication hierarchy, today, due to the advent of new communication
technologies, global politics has witnessed a growing role being played by media.
This role has only gained further importance due to the spread of the internet and
social media.
Using to gain support: Executives themselves tend to utilize media as loudspeakers

Example: The role of Media was instrumental to achieve India's objectives through
Indo-US civil nuclear deal.
. • The role of media in foreign policy can be explained through the so called "CNN
effect". Accelerant effect: Under this scope, the existence of a 24-hour media
environment leads to a constant flow of news and information, which acts as a
pressing factor upon governmental decision-making. On that account, the accelerant
effect impairs the quality of both the gathering of intelligence and of the actual
response formation. It can also be seen as an impediment to operational/national
security, since news coverage on certain topics may lead to disclosure of
classified information.
Example: WikiLeaks uses media in a way that compromises many countries' security
protocols and foreign relations by making classified information public Scholars
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According to scholar Stephen Krasner, the media has the power to frame issues and
influence public opinion, which in turn can influence the foreign policy-making
process. o Parliamentarian Shashi Tharoor has argued that the media has the ability
to raise public awareness and create pressure on policymakers to take certain
actions on foreign policy issues.
Scholar Harsh Pant has suggested that the media can act as a watchdog and hold the
government accountable for its foreign policy decisions. • Criticism
o Sensationalizing and oversimplifying: Some scholars have criticized the media for
sensationalizing and oversimplifying foreign policy issues, which can lead to a
superficial understanding of complex geopolitical realities.
。 Agenda setters: Examining media through an input perspective, media potentially

can act as agenda setters. In words of Bernard Cohen, "in each major power, one
newspaper stands out as an organ of elite opinion"
Manipulation: Stephen Farnsworth in his book "Media, War, and Politics", media can
influence public opinion on foreign policy decisions, which can in turn put
pressure on policymakers to act in a certain way.
Example: According to Noam Chomsky We live in webs of deceit, in an indoctrinated

society, where elementary truths can be buried with ease. Thus, for them, the
governmental elites use the media in order to steer public opinion through
controlling access to information and by choosing the levels of salience that
certain topics will receive.

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UNIT 2: INDIA'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE NON-ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT DIFFERENT PHASES;

CURRENT ROLE.
Explain and elucidate the implication of the statement: "India's policy of non-
alignment was based on both idealist and realism calculations." (2011)
• "India's policy of non-alignment has been guided by the genius of the Indian
people and their interests." Explain. (2014)
'Non-alignment' has been the basic principle of India's foreign policy since
independence. Discuss its relevance in the contemporary context. (2015)
Comment on India's contribution to Non-Alignment Movement and its contemporary

relevance. (2016)
Compare and contrast Non-alignment 1.0 with Non-alignment 2.0. (2019)
"Non-alignment was little more than a rational strategy on the part of a materially
weak India to maximise its interests with a bipolar distribution of global power."
Comment. (2021) ⚫ Discuss the relevance of the demand for New International
Economic Order (NIEO) in the present era of globalisation.(2022)
Non-Alignment Movement
⚫ India's Contribution to the Non-Alignment Movement: Different phases;
⚫ Current Relevance and India's Role.
According to Shashi Tharoor, the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was a product of the
decolonization process that swept the world in the mid-20th century. It emerged as
a coalition of newly independent countries that sought to remain outside the power
blocs of the Cold War and maintain their sovereignty and freedom of action.
⚫ The historian Vijay Prashad characterizes NAM as a "third way" that emerged as
an alternative to the binary options of East and West during the Cold War. It was
an attempt by newly independent countries to carve out a space for themselves in
international affairs, one that was not dictated by the interests of the
superpowers.
• In the view of K. Shankar Bajpai, NAM was a strategy of "positive neutrality"

that aimed to avoid taking sides in the Cold War and instead promote cooperation
and dialogue among nations. He argues that NAM was successful in promoting this
approach in international affairs, as evidenced by its role in mediating conflicts
and promoting disarmament.
• The scholar and former Indian ambassador, Talmiz Ahmad, characterizes NAM as a
response to the challenges of globalization and the changing international order.
He argues that NAM has remained relevant in the post-Cold War era by focusing on
issues such as economic development, environmental protection, and the promotion of
democracy and human rights.
What is NAM?
The term nonalignment was first coined by George Liska to describe the policies of
the states which decided not to join either of the two power blocs. They sought a
level playing field in global geopolitics that emerged in post war period
• According to Noam Chomsky, NAM is "an alliance of third world countries that
sought to maintain independence from both the Western and Eastern blocs during the
Cold War."

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Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru at the first NAM Conference in 1961 highlighted the
principles and objectives of NAM. In his words, "The power of nations assembled
here is not military power or economic power, nevertheless it is power. Call it
moral force". He further added, "We shall take full part in international
conferences as a free nation with our own policy and not merely as a satellite of
another nation." Nehru proposed that India should avoid entering into "other
people's quarrels", unless, and this is important and "our interest is involved."
According to Selig S. Harrison, NAM is "a group of states united in their
opposition to
colonialism, racism, and imperialism."
According to Sukh Deo Muni, NAM is "an effort to ensure the right of every country
to determine its own political and economic system and to pursue its own
development path."
Factors that led to the Development of NAM
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) emerged in the context of the Cold War as a response
to the hegemony and power politics of the two superpowers, the United States and
the Soviet Union. The following are some of the key factors that helped in the
formation of NAM:
Decolonization: The end of colonialism in Asia, Africa, and Latin America created a
new bloc of independent nations, which sought to assert their sovereignty and
independence. These countries faced the challenge of navigating the complex world
of international politics and forming alliances that could protect their interests.
Cold War: The global power struggle between the US and the USSR polarized the world
into two ideological camps. Many newly independent nations were caught in the
middle and sought to avoid being drawn into the conflict. NAM emerged as a platform
for these nations to assert their independence and pursue a non-aligned foreign
policy.
Bandung Conference: The Asian-African Conference held in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955
was a landmark event that brought together leaders from newly independent nations.
The conference called for the promotion of economic and cultural cooperation among
non-aligned nations, and laid the foundations for the formation of NAM.
Nuclear disarmament: The growing threat of nuclear war and the arms race between
the US and the Soviet Union created a sense of urgency among many nations to pursue
a policy of nuclear disarmament. NAM emerged as a vocal advocate of disarmament and
played a key role in shaping the global debate on this issue.
Economic development: Many newly independent nations faced the challenge of

achieving economic development and addressing poverty and inequality. NAM emerged
as a platform for these nations to promote economic cooperation, trade, and
investment. Overall, NAM emerged as a response to the challenges faced by newly
independent nations in navigating the complex world of international politics and
pursuing a foreign policy that reflected their interests and values.
History and Evolution
1. Bandung Conference
Bandung Asian-African conference in 1955 is considered as most immediate antecedent

to the creation of NAM. Meeting was attended by 29 Heads of states. These belonged
to first postcolonial generation.
The objective was to identify and assess world issues and pursuing joint policies
in international relations. There was also another important reason. These
countries had newly attained independence. Development and increasing standard of
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them. And therefore they did not wanted to be part of either Western or Eastern
block and become part of cold war.
⚫ 'Ten Principles of Bandung' were proclaimed at the conference. And such

principles were later adopted as the main goals and objectives of NAM.
Ten Principles of Bandung Conference
Respect for fundamental human rights and for the purposes and the principles of the
Charter of the United Nations.
• Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations. Recognition
of the equality of all races and of the equality of all nations large and small.
• Abstention from intervention or interference in the internal affairs of another

country. Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself singly or
collectively, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations.
Abstention from the use of arrangements of collective defense to serve the
particular interests of any of the big powers, abstention by any country from
exerting pressures on other countries.
• Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use of force against the
territorial integrity or political independence of any country.
Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means, such as negotiation,

conciliation, arbitration or judicial settlement as well as other peaceful means of
the parties' own choice, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations.
Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation.
Respect for justice and international obligation.
2. Belgrade Summit
Six year after Bandung the Movement of Non-Aligned countries was founded at the
First Summit Conference of Belgrade. On Sep 1-6 1961. The conference was attended
by members of 25 countries from Asia, Africa and Europe, and Latin America (Cuba).
The NAM was declared as 'movement' and not organization to avoid the bureaucratic
implications of the latter.
It was conceived to play an active role in international politics, to have its own
stand on international matters. Which will reflect the interest of its members.
For Nehru, NAM did not mean isolation or neutrality. He held that NAM stands for:
An active role in world affairs (like India's mediation in drafting an armistice in
the Korean war)
o Friendship and cooperation with all countries
o Taking independent position based on merit of each issue and requirements of

national interest.
NAM provided a platform for the vision of an alternative world order. Early
Objectives and Achievements
Primary objective of NAM focused on the support of self-determination, national

independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of states, opposition to
apartheid, non- adherence to multilateral military pacts, struggle against
imperialism and colonialism, racism, foreign occupation etc. Strengthening of
United Nations, democratization of International Relations, socio-economic
development as well as international cooperation on
equal footing.

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Achievement: In 1950s, the movement played important role in support of nations

struggling of independence and against colonization. Third world showed great
solidarity under leadership of NAM and. The movement gained considerable diplomatic
prestige.
3. Further Evolution and Expansion In 1960s and 1970s, the movement expanded to
include nearly all Asian and African countries. The issues raised by movement also
evolved. It now included struggle for the respect of economic and political rights
of third world countries. Algiers conference in 1973 launched the concept of 'New
International Economic Order'.
New International Economic Order: It was proposed in context of neo-colonialism,

the drain of wealth from peripheries to core.
o Theoretical basis: Dependency theory. The agenda was to:
Impose responsibilities on MNCs.
Better valuation of the goods exported by developing countries. Pressurizing

western countries to transfer fund and technology.
Outcomes: No outcome.
Reasons:
There was lack of solidarity among third world countries.
Western countries were successful in creating geopolitical conflicts among third

world countries.
Further, the proposal was also utopian. It was not possible to get equal value to
the raw materials and manufactured goods.
It was an attempt to apply socialism in international trade.
It was inspired by Oil diplomacy of OPEC countries but other countries didn't
have .
similar bargaining power
. Oil producing countries never applied the pressure on behalf of other third world
countries.
By the end of 1980s, world observed the end of Cold War and collapse of Socialist
Block. It was assumed that existence of antagonistic blocks was the prime reason
for its emergence. And therefore scholars started asking questions about relevance
of NAM.
During 90s: NAM was in search of agenda. The end of cold war put question mark on
the very reason of existence of NAM.
Some of the member countries proposed like Egypt proposed dissolution of NAM.
Yugoslavia, one of the founding member disintegrated and NAM countries played no
role in handling the crisis.
NAM countries had no position on the issue of the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq, both
were NAM members.
Nevertheless, the principles and objectives of NAM are still relevant at present
international juncture. The end of one block has not done away with the problems of
the world. On the contrary new issues like terrorism and climate change have
emerged which necessitate global coordination.
During 14th NAM summit in Havana, Cuba in Sept. 2006, Heads of States and
Governments of member countries reaffirmed their commitments to the ideals,
principles and purposes of NAM. The leaders stated their firm belief that absence
of two conflicting blocs is no way reduced the need to strengthen the movement. It
also adopted renewed Purposes and Principles of the movement in present
international scenario.

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One of the new additional goal includes: Facilitating a restructuring of the

international economic order.
India's Contribution in the Evolution of NAM
The golden age in India's foreign policy was in the first 15 years after
Independence, when NAM provided a constituency for India because of our non-violent
victory over the British and the leadership it provided to the newly independent
countries. Our problems were different from the small and impoverished nations that
thronged the movement, but Jawaharlal Nehru's vision and statesmanship inspired
them. We did not seek to resolve our problems through the machinery of dispute
resolution in NAM, but actively assisted those who sought such assistance. India
led the NAM effort to resolve the Iran-Iraq dispute. 1. General
India was one of the Founding members of NAM. Also, the driving force behind it. In
fact, 'non-Alignment' itself was a phrase coined by India's Ambassador to the
United Nations, V. K Menon.
•Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru is seen as the architect of NAM as his
concept of Panchsheel became the basis of the movement.
⚫ India's role through NAM was not only limited to the attainment of its foreign
policy goals, but also to achieve a long-term objective of global peace and
security. Since independence in 1947, India has been in pursuit of strategic
autonomy through non-alignment. 2. Scholar view
⚫ Sabyasachi Bhattacharya: According to Bhattacharya, India's contributions to NAM

were mainly in three areas - ideological, diplomatic and humanitarian.
Ideologically, India was committed to the principles of non-alignment and advocated
for a
new international economic order.
o Diplomatically, India played a key role in bringing together the diverse

countries of NAM and ensuring their unity.
o Humanitarian contributions include India's leadership in peacekeeping operations

and its advocacy for disarmament.
• Tariq Ali: Ali argues that India's contributions to NAM were primarily in the
form of Jawaharlal Nehru's leadership and his advocacy for the principles of non-
alignment. ⚫ Ashok Kapur: Kapur suggests that India's contributions to NAM were
driven by its own interests. India saw non-alignment as a means of preserving its
own independence and security in the face of Cold War rivalries. India's leadership
in NAM was also driven by its desire to play a greater role in international
affairs and promote its own economic development.
Achievements of NAM
1. Promoting Peace and Security: NAM has played a vital role in promoting peace and
security by encouraging dialogue and diplomacy over the use of force. The movement
has consistently opposed the use of violence, aggression, and interference in the
internal affairs of other countries. 2. Decolonization: NAM played a critical role
in the decolonization of many countries in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East during
the 1960s and 1970s. NAM's support helped these newly
independent nations gain recognition and legitimacy on the international stage.
3. Global South Solidarity: NAM has played a significant role in promoting

solidarity and cooperation among developing countries of the Global South. It has
provided a platform for these countries to come together and discuss common
challenges and issues, such as poverty reduction, sustainable development, and
trade and investment.

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4. Nuclear Disarmament: NAM has been a strong advocate of nuclear disarmament and
nonproliferation.
Example: It played a crucial role in the negotiations leading to the Treaty on the
NonProliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in 1968.
Example: NAM was able to get the decade of 1970 declared as 'Decade of Disarmament'
by
the UN.
5. Human Rights: NAM has been a strong advocate of human rights, including the
right to self- determination, national sovereignty, and non-interference in the
internal affairs of other countries. The movement has been instrumental in
promoting the concept of "positive neutrality" in international relations, which
emphasizes impartiality and non-alignment.
6. Climate Change: NAM has been actively involved in the global debate on climate
change and sustainable development. The movement has advocated for greater
cooperation and support for developing countries to address the challenges of
climate change and ensure sustainable development.
New International Economic Order (NIEO)
Unequal international economic order has been present since historical times. This
was pointed out by Dadabhai Naoroji in his "Poverty and Unbritish rule in India"
through his drain of wealth as theory
• To eliminate the widening gap between the developed and the developing countries
and ensure steadily accelerating economic and social development and peace and
justice for present and future generations.
The present international economic order is found to be asymmetrical in its

working. It is biased. It is favouring the rich-advanced countries. There has been
over dependence of the South on the North. Rich countries tend to have major
control over vital decision making in the matter of international trade, terms of
trade, international finance, aids, and technological flows.
The developing nations are now asserting their right to participate in the decision
making processes of the international institutions like the IMF, World Bank, GATT,
UNCTAD, etc.
This unequal relationship further increased after globalisation. Hence Joseph

Stiglitz in his globalisation and its discontents calls for democratisation of
international organisations. The formal idea of the NIEO was put forward in the
Algiers Conference of non-aligned countries in 1973. In 1975, a declaration for the
establishment of NIEO was adopted along with a programme of action in the Sixth
Special Session of the UNCTAD.
Inspired from Marxist concept of core and periphery (World systems theory of I
Wallerstein) Samir Amin argued that wealth from developing to developed world was
continuing through imperialist rent.
In the post-cold war era this became all the more ardent to achieve because of
process of globalization and weakening of NAM itself. However, India is still
making efforts through the 'New Regionalism' approach and joining new permutation
and combinations through IOR-ARC, SAFTA, ASEAN, EAS and other such forms.
The crucial aim of the NIEO is to promote economic development among the poor
countries through self-help and South-South co-operation.
The success of OPEC after 1973 crisis acted as a catalyst to pull together
developing countries in support of a call for NIEO but it did not see any success
due to the internal divisions within the
developing world.

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NAM as Foreign Policy

PSIR
The concept of non-alignment has played a significant role in India's foreign

policy, driven by the belief in Indian exceptionalism and the pursuit of national
interests. However, the term itself has remained ambiguous, lacking a clear and
definitive explanation by Indian elites. Features and Characteristics of Non-
Alignment:
⚫ Principled Distance: Non-alignment allowed India to maintain independence and

avoid aligning closely with any major power, maintaining a degree of autonomy in
its decision-making. Indian Opportunism: India aimed to maximize its interests by
seeking advantages from both sides, without making substantial concessions in
return.
Reflexive Anti-Americanism: During the Cold War, non-alignment became associated

with a certain level of skepticism and opposition towards perceived American
dominance.
Non-alignment emerged as a strategic choice for India due to the following reasons:
Safeguarding Independence: Given India's military and economic weaknesses, non-
alignment provided a means to engage with major powers on its own terms, avoiding
coercion and preserving independence.
• Navigating a Complex Global Landscape: Non-alignment offered a pragmatic approach

to navigate the complexities of a polarized world and balance relationships in a
changing global order.
⚫ Defense by Friendship: Non-alignment allowed India to form friendships and

alliances with various nations, given its democratic identity, which prevented
alignment with the Communist bloc.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Non-Alignment:
Domestic Consensus: Non-alignment provided flexibility for Nehru to manage domestic

divisions and conflicts in foreign policy decision-making, accommodating different
ideological perspectives.
⚫ Criticism from US Policymakers: Non-alignment drew criticism from US

policymakers who viewed India as aligning more closely with the USSR, which was
seen as contrary to American interests.
Autonomy and Independence: Non-alignment allowed India to maintain independence and

autonomy in its foreign policy decisions, as emphasized by K. Natwar Singh.
Critical Evaluation and Perspectives:
Flexibility and Independence: Teresita Schaffer acknowledged that non-alignment

provided India with the necessary flexibility and independence to pursue its
national interests, even though it may have caused irritation to the United States.
⚫ Departure from Strict Non-Alignment: C. Raja Mohan argued that India's foreign
policy has deviated from strict non-alignment principles over time, reflecting a
changing geopolitical landscape and India's evolving interests.
⚫ Need for Clarification: Martand Jha emphasized the importance of India defining
and articulating the essence and principles of its non-alignment policy to ensure
clarity and coherence.
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Relevance of NAM
1. Arguments in favour of relevance
⚫ Check on big power ambitions: NAM constitutes 120 developing countries and act
as a check on big power ambitions. It stood as a unifying force against the
traditional foreign policy of great power and strictly restricts imperialism,
nationalism and universalism. Support in UN agenda: NAM, along with G-77 gives
superior numerical strength
to developing countries and has helped keep many third world issues ahead of agenda
at the UN Awareness: NAM can be a useful platform to raise awareness about issues
like climate change, cross-border terrorism, human rights violations, etc
Work as a bridge: NAM encourages an equitable world order and the organisation can
act as a bridge between countries with varying political ideologies and systems.
Scholars View
o According to Prof. Rashid-ud-din khan, NAM is a 'time-less' organization. He

argues that the uniqueness or complexities of problems in developing countries
mandates a platform like NAM to bring together the developing nations to resolve
them. Prakash Nanda, a political analyst, believes that NAM is still relevant, but
needs to adapt
to the changing geopolitical landscape. He argues that NAM can play a role in
promoting the interests of the Global South, especially in the areas of trade and
development. Noam Chomsky: Views NAM as a positive force in world politics. He
argues that NAM has played a key role in promoting global peace and stability, and
that it has been a voice for the marginalized and oppressed.
2. Arguments against NAM
⚫ Question mark on relevance:
The world is no longer bipolar but lopsided multipolar For critics India has never
been non-aligned. During the cold war it was close to USSR and now there is growing
closeness to USA.
o Unable to address global problems and threats
o Alternative platforms like BRICS,SCO,G20 have emerged with overlapping agendas

Since the end of colonialism and apartheid, it seems NAM is suffering from "agenda
deprivation."
According to C Rajamohan, MOVEMENT IS IN COMA. NAM was always dysfunctional. NAM

was irrelevant even before the end of cold war. After cold war, it has been put to
coma because countries are not ready for its burial. They prefer to maintain the
triennial rituals. • Raja Mohan: Views NAM as an "ideological anachronism" and
argues that it has lost relevance in today's world. He believes that NAM was
founded during the Cold War as a
response to the bipolar world order, and that it failed to adapt to the post-Cold
War world. Harsh V. Pant: Argues that NAM has become a "toothless tiger" and that
it has failed to address the major challenges facing the world today, such as
terrorism and climate change. He
believes that NAM needs to evolve and become more proactive if it wants to remain
relevant Shashi Tharoor in his article "Is the Non-Aligned Movement relevant
today?" has also questioned relevance of NAM post-cold War. In his words, "with the
end of cold war, there are no longer two rival blocks to be nonaligned between and
many have questioned the relevance of NAM whose very name signifies the negation of
choice that is no longer on the world's geopolitical table."

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of NAM for India
• Soft power: NAM provided basis to build India's soft power.
• Third world solidarity: Even at present India needs third world solidarity.
• New cold war: India has stakes in global south, those who say the NAM is a relic
of the Cold War must also acknowledge that a new Cold War is beginning to unfold,
this time between the United States (US) and China. As the conflict between the
world's two most important powers envelops all dimensions of international society,
India has every reason to try and preserve some political space in between the two
giants.
⚫ For building cooperation: NAM provides a platform of natural leadership for

India in building bridges between North & South and South-South.
• Permanent membership in UNSC: NAM is particularly important in India's quest for

the permanent membership in UNSC. The NAM position mayn't be decisive, but in the
normal process of consultations, every grouping will get its own weight age.
Example: NAM countries form 2/3rd of the membership of the UN General Assembly, and
hence, it can form an important voting bloc for India's claim to permanent seat in
UNSC.
1. Needed
Operate individually: It is argued that India's continued involvement with NAM

limits the reach of India's engagement with major powers. However, on the contrary,
the informal nature of NAM permits members to operate individually.
• Relevance of Asian solidarity: The core values and ideas on which the NAM was
based, such as Asian solidarity, independent existence etc, remain relevant even
after the cold war has ended.
• Scholar views
OTP Srinivasan "A new NAM for new norm" NAM did benefitted India because it allowed
India to promote our national interest as per our preferences, NAM has allowed
India to manage through the situation of bipolarity.
. NAM is relevant for India and India has stakes in the integrity of NAM. India has
to
seek partnership with the countries so that India is able to exercise its freedom
of thought and action, away from the influence of great powers like US, Russia and
China. o Aparna Pandey: NAM helped India to maintain relationship with both
superpowers without coercion.
。 K. Subramaniam said that non-alignment as a policy didn't means neutrality (i.e.
abdication of choice), rather it meant opportunity (i.e. freedom of choice) •

Example: The decision to seek US assistance when the Chinese attack happened in
1962, the efforts to obtain military equipment from both the superpowers, the food
aid from the US (PL-480) and the Friendship Treaty with the Soviet Union are
notable examples of the policy initiatives that transcended the non-alignment
constraints.
。 C Raja Mohan has expressed different view about non alignment and NAM. According
to him, India's NonAlignment has always been "Tabula Rasa" with capacity to
accommodate any idea. He has used this argument to support India's economic
pragmatism and muscular geo-politics. Similarly, India can use the NAM platform to
achieve its long- standing goal of rightful place in comity of nations.
• Ideological view
o Liberal institutional view: Regional organizations do not ring a death knell for
NAMrather they need to be co-opted in NAM framework to coordinate and reconcile
their conflicting aims.
, often-

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Marxist view: We need NAM needs to Safeguard member nations from ills of neo-
liberal globalization.
2. Not Needed
Post-colonial view: NAM needs to Safeguard autonomy of post-colonial societies.
There was no support for India: NAM was never relevant for India. NAM countries
never supported India e.g. In 1962 war, countries like Indonesia, Ghana took pro-
China approach NAM countries gave Colombo proposals which were favourable to China.
In 1965 war, NAM countries like Indonesia not only supported Pakistan but even
supplied weapons to Pakistan.
。 1971 war, NAM countries of West Asia, South Asia, South East Asia fiercly
supported Pakistan. Sri Lanka provided re-fuelling to the Pakistani aircrafts.
Scholar Views
Tanvi Madan in her book -"Fateful Triangle": India was never truly non-aligned. It
aligned with the US in 50s and 60s and with the soviet after 1971 specifically to
tackle its China challenge. In both cases alignment what is designed to help India
build its own military and economic capabilities and deter malign behaviour from
Beijing
Harsh V Pant: NAM was oaky when India wasn't economic or military power, now India
has to compete with China which is increasingly taking lead over India's leadership
status. According to him, there is need to pursue new goals and policies and no
point sticking to old shibboleths
。 According to S Jaishankar Non-alignment lost its relevance, and NAM its original
raison d'être. Non-alignment movement was a concept of relevance in a specific era
and a particular context, though the independence of action enshrined in it remains
a factor of continuity in India's foreign policy.
Vijay Gokhale during Raisina Dialogue held that India has moved from its non-
aligned past. While highlighting change in Indian foreign policy he held that India
is aligned only with its interest
Restructuring of NAM's Agenda -Havana Declaration 2006
The NAM Havana Declaration of 2006 outlined the restructured objectives of the Non-
Aligned Movement (NAM) as follows:
• International Peace and Security: Commitment to peaceful dispute resolution, non-

use of force, and respect for sovereignty.
Disarmament and Non-Proliferation: Advocacy for the elimination of nuclear weapons

and strengthening non-proliferation efforts.
South-South Cooperation: Emphasis on cooperation among developing countries.

Terrorism: Condemnation of terrorism, addressing root causes while respecting human
rights and international law.
Climate Change and Environment: Recognition of climate change impacts and the need
for R international cooperation and support for developing countries.
⚫ Self-Determination and Decolonization: Support for the right to self-

determination and the decolonization of occupied territories.
Human Rights: Promotion and protection of human rights, emphasizing dialogue and
cooperation.
Poverty Eradication and Sustainable Development: Cooperation to address poverty,

inequality. and achieve sustainable development.

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Multilateralism and UN Reform: Commitment to multilateralism, UN's central role,

and comprehensive reform.
Current developments
1. Online summit of NAM was held in the wake of Covid-19 in 2020.
2. Indian PM participated:
⚫ Called for all NAM members to pool in their resources, experiences and best
practices, the humanity faces its most serious crisis. At this time, the NAM can
help promote global solidarity
Stating NAM as "world's moral voice" he called for NAM countries for a cooperative
global response in line with founding principles of the movement
Suggested to promote human welfare and not focus on economic growth alone • Said
democracy, discipline and decisiveness can come together to create a genuine
people's movement to fight COVID-19
Way Forward
1. According to TV Paul, there is a space for resurrection of the old movement as a

soft balancing mechanism against powerful states.
• As great powers are once again in the arms race, militarization of oceans,
territorial expansions, there is a need for weaker countries to come together to
de-legitimize imperial ventures. . If third world countries will not act as
cushioning forces, international order will spiral into hot
• Great powers need to be restrained, balanced. Soft balancing by smaller states

has a key role to play because military conflicts will ultimately bring sufferings
to them. There is a need to revive 'Bandung' spirit.
2. Martand Jha - NON ALINGNMENT: REDUX
• Whether NAM is relevant for India or not depends on the prism through which we
look at NAM.
• So far Modi government has not shown much inclination towards NAM, preferred to
ignore NAM. However India is rebalancing itself.
⚫ Foreign minister visited 18th mid-term ministerial council of NAM countries in

April 2018 in Baku, Azerbaijan. It would be mistake if we just see NAM as rejection
of block politics. • NAM was a policy for autonomy, to establish peace and
security, to contain superpower's hegemonic ambitions. Thus NAM needs to be
reinvented.
⚫It is a biggest platform of developing countries outside United Nations. It

provides a platform for natural leadership of India. However India needs to provide
a concrete program of action, goals and leadership.
Rethink on NAM
1. Reasons
• New Cold war: The new Cold war would be between US and China. Nehru after the
1962 conflict that "there could be no non-alignment with regard to China," and that
India had failed to understand and grasp 'neutralist realism' and had been pursuing
'neutralist idealism'.
。 C. Raja Mohan in his article titled "India rethinks the NAM" has pointed, as
India strengthens its own voice in world affairs, a more active engagement with the
Non-Aligned Movement and, more broadly, the Global South, is coming into view. The
new activism is

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expected to help India mobilise international support on issues of national concern

as well as generate greater political space amidst the unfolding rivalry between
the USA and China.
The 2 factors that highlight the importance of NAM are
International politics is a zero-sum game among the power-seeking states to

recognize one another as an independent state but never accept the principle of
non-intervention unconditionally.
The balance of order and security can be maintained by shifting alliances among
states, preventing one from being overwhelmingly powerful.
Devoting energy to BRICS and QUAD is less fruitful: As pointed out by C. Raja
Mohan, Delhi paid lip service to the NAM but devoted a lot of diplomatic energy to
forums like the BRICS and QUAD. Given the Russia and Chinese leadership of the
BRICS, Delhi inevitably began to routinely echo the international positions of
Moscow and Beijing rather than represent the voices of the 'Global South'.
Issues: The Quad is less institutionalised than the BRICS but, here again, the
focus is on great power politics rather than promoting the interests of the
developing world. In this context, NAM provides an actual platform which provides
natural leadership to India and provide opportunity for cementing southsouth
collaboration on issues of global concern.
To gather support: To achieving its long standing ambition of getting status of

'Major Power', India could do more with forums like the NAM that can help mobilise
support around issues of interest to Delhi.
• Voice for India against China: NAM can provide a platform for India to catch up
China which has penetrated deep into Global South through its BRI project. China
has observer status in NAM.
• Complex interdependence: Global threats like terrorism, pandemics, and climate

change etc. These need to be formulated in NAM agenda. A world vision, comprising
of a global village and interdependence among all nations including between North
and South needs to be pursued.
2. India multi-alignment strategy
Thiruvalluvar: Wisdom is to live in tune with the mode of the changing world. PM
Modi: According to him, there was a time when people were neutral by creating equal
distance but now we are neutral by creating equal partnership.
The present regime has redefined Non alignment from strategic autonomy to strategic
alignment. India is now going for issue based partnerships.
The meeting of JAI and RIC on the side-lines of G20 highlights that India is
engaging with different world powers at the same time.
India is following "multiple engagements" in a multi polar world.
As Jaishankar put it "Multilateralism is undoubtedly under strain today. It is

important that our Movement that represents two thirds of the world's population-
continues to work together and take the lead in building multilateral governance
structures" that are capable of meeting the 21st Century challenges.
• Use of platform during Covid: Indian diplomacy during the time of COVID-19
pandemic has been pro-active and has tried to shape the global discourse. Towards
this, existing platforms like NAM and SAARC has been used by Modi in the same way
in which he has used newer groupings like the G20.
• According to Harsh V. Pant, this is an attempt to fill the leadership vacuum in

the global order when both China and the US have exposed their vulnerabilities.
India has shown that

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a nation with limited capabilities can also emerge as a leader by outlining the
concerns of like-minded countries and working with them to build capacities in
smaller states.
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NAM2.0
1. Non-Alignment 2.0: A foreign and strategic policy for India in the 21st century"
is a policy document released by India's Ministry of External Affairs in 2012. The
document emphasizes the need for India to pursue an independent foreign policy that
reflects its national interests and takes into account the changing global power
dynamics.
2. From non-alignment to multi-alignment
3. Report highlights the importance of economic diplomacy, energy security, and

India's role in shaping regional and global security architecture. It also
acknowledges the need for India to engage more proactively in international
institutions and multilateral forums, while also seeking to strengthen ties with
like-minded countries.
4. According to Chinmay Ghare khan, the report offers a comprehensive view of

foreign policy and makes sensible suggestions to deal with geopolitical flux.
5. The report deals with India's approach towards the 'Asian theatre,' the
international order, hard power, internal security, non-conventional security
issues like energy and nuclear options, the knowledge and information foundations
of power as well as the state and democracy. 6. Critics
Former NSA Brajesh Mishra, who spoke at the launch, questioned the approach of the
report, especially its view that India not take sides in the rivalry between China
and the U.S. In his words, China's approach was that of the Middle Kingdom, it
wants to be number one, and India's priority should be to build a closer
partnership with Washington.
⚫ Bharat Karnad called it a regressive foreign policy roadmap. It Misunderstands

power, ignores the centrality of balance of power politics in inter-state
relations. This, in turn, leads to questionable analysis and doubtful policy
prescriptions.
The movement has succeeded to create a strong front representing countries of third
world. Current challenges for NAM include protecting international law, eliminating
weapons of mass destruction, making United Nations more effective, defending Human
Rights, Security and Stability and Justice in international economic system. Long
standing goals of peace, development, economic cooperation, remain to be realized.
Thus we can expect the movement to play a even bigger role in coming times.
According to MK Narayan, while non-alignment giving way to strategic alignment,

organization such as NAM may seem anachronistic. But it still resonates with many
third world countries. It also offers alternative platform for putting forward a
different viewpoint. It would hence be premature to announce death of NAM.
According to Fidel Castro, NAM is "the greatest political movement in history."

According to Indira Gandhi, NAM is the biggest peace movement in the world.

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UNIT 3: INDIA AND SOUTH ASIA
REGIONAL COOPERATION: SAARC-PAST PERFORMANCE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Identify the constraints/challenges to regional cooperation in South Asia. (2015)

Sometimes we visualize that SAARC's efforts come to a halt because of various
impediments to regional cooperation." Elaborate with reasonable examples of
impediments. (2016)
Evaluate India's stand on the recent Rohingya refugee issue. (2018)
Outline the reasons for the low volume of trade in the SAARC region. (2020) Why is
South Asia considered as the world's politically and economically least integrated
region? Explain. (2021)
Discuss the ways and means to realise greater economic co-operation among the
Member States of South Asia.(2022)
South Asia as a Geopolitical Region
1. Colonial Era: During the colonial period, South Asia was under the control of
European powersprimarily the British Empire. The region was fragmented into various
administrative unitsincluding British India, Portuguese India, French India, and
Dutch India.
2. Partition of India: In 1947, British India was divided into two separate
nations: India and Pakistan. The partition led to massive population exchanges and
resulted in communal violence and displacement. The formation of Pakistan,
comprising East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (now Pakistan), marked
a significant geopolitical shift in the region. Tensions between India and Pakistan
have been a defining feature of South Asian geopolitics
. The two countries have engaged in several conflicts, including the Indo-Pakistani
wars of 1947,
1965, 1971, and 1999, primarily over the disputed region of Jammu and Kashmir. 3.
Cold War Era: The Cold War period saw South Asia becoming a battleground for
geopolitical influence between the United States and the Soviet Union. India, under
the leadership of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, pursued a non-aligned foreign
policy, striving to maintain independence from both power blocs.
During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union competed for influence
in South Asia. The United States supported Pakistan, especially during the Soviet-
Afghan War, while the Soviet Union had close ties with India.
4. Nuclearization: Both India and Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in 1998,

becoming nuclear- armed states. The acquisition of nuclear weapons has added
another layer of complexity to the regional dynamics and has raised concerns about
the potential escalation of conflicts.
5. Regional Organizations: South Asia has witnessed the emergence of regional

organizations aimed at enhancing cooperation and addressing common challenges. The
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), founded in 1985, includes
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
However, SAARC has faced challenges in achieving substantial regional integration
due to bilateral conflicts. 6. Rise of China: China's increasing influence in South
Asia is exemplified by its infrastructure
projects under the Belt and Road Initiative.
For instance, the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a significant project,

including the development of ports, roads, and energy infrastructure in Pakistan.

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Factors shaping South Asia today
1. India-Pakistan Rivalry: The rivalry also hampers regional cooperation and

economic integration efforts, limiting the potential for collective growth and
development. Additionally, the presence of nuclear weapons in both countries adds
an element of unpredictability and increases the risks of escalation.
Example: The rivalry has been the major cause of suspension of the SAARC summits
since 2016
2. Chinese Influence: China has pulled smaller nations such as Nepal, Bangladesh,
and Maldives into its orbit of influence as well, targeting their fear and
insecurities regarding India and a lack of international funding to enable and
support their economic growth.
3. Indian Hegemony: India's neighbors often navigate a delicate balance in their

relationships with India, seeking to maintain their own sovereignty and interests
while managing India's regional dominance. India's strategic considerations, such
as its approach to border disputes, security concerns, and pursuit of regional
alliances, can impact its relationships with neighbouring countries.
4. Great Power Rivalry: India's relationship with the United States has witnessed
significant advancements in recent years. The two countries have strengthened their
defence ties, engaged in joint military exercises, and increased cooperation in
areas such as counterterrorism and maritime security.
The United States sees India as a counterbalance to China's influence in the region
and a key partner in maintaining a free and open Indo-Pacific.
5. Demographic Dividends and Urbanization: South Asia has a young and growing
population, presenting both opportunities and challenges. Harnessing demographic
dividends through education, skill development, and job creation is vital for the
region's economic progress. Urbanization is also on the rise, putting pressure on
infrastructure, services, and governance.
6. Terrorism and Extremism: South Asia has faced persistent challenges related to
terrorism and extremism. Groups such as the Taliban, Al-Qaeda, and the Islamic
State (ISIS) have been active in the region, posing security threats to individual
countries and the broader stability of South Asia. Counterterrorism efforts and
regional cooperation remain crucial in addressing this issue.
Challenges to Integration in South Asia
1. Legacy of Colonial Rule: Many of the long standing issues in the region are a
result of colonial divide and rule policies instilled by the Colonial powers. Many
ethnic and social issues have long been contesting points that have prevented the
integration of the region. • Example: The legacy of Communal violence during the
partition has often been the cause for
all major issues between India and Pakistan.
2. Border Disputes: The arbitrary drawing of borders by colonial powers, such as

the British Raj, during the partition of British India in 1947, created separate
nation-states, leading to the formation of India, Pakistan, and later Bangladesh.
These borders were often drawn without considering cultural, linguistic, or
historical realities, resulting in the division of communities and territorial
disputes. This has contributed to ongoing tensions and conflicts in the region,
hindering efforts towards integration.
3. Nuclearisation: Both countries have invested significant resources in developing

and modernizing their nuclear arsenals, diverting funds that could have been
allocated for socio-economic development. This arms race has contributed to a lack
of trust and increased tensions, making it difficult to build a foundation for
regional cooperation and integration.

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4. Terrorism: The proliferation of terrorism, particularly Pakistan-based, has also

significantly dented the chances of forwarding economic discussions
5. Poor Cross Border Infrastructure: Transportation is a crucial element of

regional cooperation Without efficient and effective physical links between
countries, trade becomes an arduous and expensive process. Physical connectivity
remains a big obstacle for South Asian regional cooperation despite existing
railroad and road networks.
Example: It would take approximately 45 days to transport a container from Delhi

(India) to Dhaka (Bangladesh) as the container had to move via Singapore.
Fortunately, Bangladesh and India flagged off a trial run for the first container
train to run between the two countries in 2018 Bhutan's roads are of good quality,
but the width and the structure of the roads do not allow high speed travels or
axle loads.
6. Power Asymmetry: One major challenge to regional cooperation is power asymmetry

existing within a region. There is a significant power imbalance in South Asia.
This has been the cause of tension, mistrust, and a lack of openness among states.
India possesses 75 percent of SAARC's population and accounts for an estimate of 80
percent of its GDP
7. Trade Barriers: Despite the attempts to liberalize their economies, South Asian
states maintain rigid and tight trade barriers among themselves be it tariff or
non-tariff. Through the liberalization under SAFTA the direction of tariff
negotiations shifted from product-based to negative lists and other procedures such
as rules of origin. The outcome, however, was not parallel to what was expected.
Data: As of 2016, South Asia's average tariffs were at 13.6 per cent, which are
significantly higher than the world average (6.3 per cent)
8. Lack of institutional mechanisms: South Asia lacks robust institutional

mechanisms for regional cooperation and integration. While organizations like SAARC
(South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) exist, progress has been slow
due to divergent interests, limited political will, and bilateral disputes
India and South Asia - Evolution of relationship
Phase 1: Bilateral Approach and Realism (Pre-1990s)
Bilateral Approach: India's foreign policy towards South Asia was primarily
bilateral, focusing on individual relationships with neighboring countries.
Realism Paradigm: The approach was guided by realism, emphasizing self-interest and
dominance in the region. India aimed to maintain control and hinder the influence
of external powers.
Phase 2: Suspicions among smaller nations towards integration
Smaller nations were Suspicious towards Regional Platforms: There were suspicions
about signing regional platforms like SAARC, fearing domination and unresolved
historical conflicts.
Phase 3: Shift to Social Constructivism (1990s)
Paradigm Shift: India's foreign policy approach shifted from realism to social
constructivism. Gujral Doctrine: The Gujral Doctrine emerged, emphasizing
accommodation, conflict resolution, and cooperation with neighbouring countries.
Phase 4: Conflict Resolution and Accommodation
Resolving Historical Conflicts: India actively worked towards resolving historical

conflicts with neighbouring countries.
Accommodation in the South Asian System: Efforts were made to accommodate

neighboring countries in the Indian or South Asian system.

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• Examples: Resolution of the Bangladesh land boundary issue and granting Most
Favored Nation (MFN) status to Pakistan.
Phase 5: Perceptions and Realism
• Persistent Realist Perceptions: Some neighbouring countries, particularly

Pakistan, continued to have perceptions guided by realism.
⚫ Limited Acceptance of Aid: Pakistan's approach towards India included limited
acceptance of aid.
Absence of MFN Status: Pakistan did not grant India Most Favored Nation (MFN)
status. Thus Indian foreign policy towards South Asia has witnessed a shift from a
primarily bilateral and realist approach to one characterized by social
constructivism, accommodation, and regional cooperation with the policies like
neighbourhood first and policy of non reciprocity.
INDIA AND SAARC
India is aware of its central position in SAARC and that any wrong move on its part
might affect the progress of SAARC. So initially India adopted a cautious approach
and let the smaller countries accept and digest the idea of SAARC. It is in India's
interest that her neighbours cooperate for joint benefits rather than individually
suffer due to political mistrust. India has taken soft or magnanimous stands on
various occasions for the sake of SAARC. Indo-Pak relations has been the greatest
stumbling block, but it has not let it affect SAARC. Since birth SAARC has
progressed steadily and cautiously.
NEPAL
AFGHANISTAN,
PAKISTAN
BHUTAN
INDIA
BANGLADESH
MALDIVES
SRI LANKA
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation-Data
• Population: The combined population of the SAARC member countries is

approximately 1.8 billion people, making it one of the most populous regions in the
world. • GDP: The total GDP of SAARC member countries in 2020 was around $3.2
trillion (in nominal
terms), accounting for about 3.6% of the global GDP.
Intra-Regional Trade: Intra-regional trade among SAARC member countries remains

relatively low. According to data from 2019, intra-SAARC trade accounted for only
about 5% of the total trade of member countries.
Human Development Index (HDI): SAARC member countries show varying levels of human
development. As of the latest available data, Sri Lanka ranks highest among SAARC
countries on the HDI, while Afghanistan ranks lowest.
India's history with SAARC
India's history with the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
has witnessed various phases and shifts in attitude
• Initial Skepticism: India's initial attitude towards SAARC was characterized by

skepticism and reluctance to be tied down by the organization. It was compared to
the attempt by the Lilliputs tie down Gulliver, as mentioned by Pratap Bhanu Mehta
in his book.

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⚫ Growing Regional Leadership: As India's economic clout increased in the mid-

1990s, it began to assume a greater role as a regional leader within SAARC. This
shift was precipitated, in large part, by the so-called Gujral Doctrine.
Continued Engagement: Subsequent governments, notably those led by Prime Ministers

Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh, continued to engage with India's neighbors
within the framework of SAARC. This was done with the spirit of regional
cooperation and advancing friendship.
Modi Government's Approach: Under the Modi government, relations with SAARC
initially started with a sense of bonhomie. In his address to the United Nations
General Assembly, Prime Minister Modi emphasized the importance of a nation's
destiny being linked to its neighbourhood and pledged to give the highest priority
to advancing friendship and cooperation with neighboring countries.
⚫ Shifting Focus: However, due to deteriorating relations with Pakistan, SAARC's

future has become uncertain. India has shifted its focus to other regional
groupings such as BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical
and Economic Cooperation) and IOR-A (Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional
Cooperation) as a means to isolate Pakistan.
India and SAARC during COVID
At the initiative of the Prime Minister, a Video Conference of SAARC Leaders on

combating COVID-19 was held on 15 March 2020. It demonstrated the shared resolve of
countries in the SAARC region to fight together the unprecedented challenge of the
coronavirus pandemic. India created a COVID-19 Emergency Fund with an initial offer
of USD 10 million to meet the costs of immediate actions.
India's humanitarian relief in the region includes supply of essential drugs,

antibiotics, medical consumables, COVID protection and testing kits, and other
laboratory and hospital equipment SAARC Disaster Management Centre (Interim Unit)
in Gandhinagar, with the assistance of MEA, MOHFW and our Missions, have set up a
dedicated website on Covid-19 for use by SAARC countries. A video conference of
health professionals representing all SAARC countries at the level of Director
General of Health Services (DGHS) was held in March 2020.
A video conference of trade officials of SAARC countries was held in April 2020 to
discuss the impact of travel restrictions and the larger COVID-19 situation on
intra-regional trade. India has developed a 'SAARC COVID19 Information Exchange
Platform (COINEX)' platform for use by all SAARC countries to facilitate exchange
of specialized information and tools on COVID- 19 among designated health
professionals.
Among tangible deliverables, the meeting saw India's proposal of a COVID-19

emergency fund for SAARC countries to fight the pandemic, extending $10 million as
India's contribution for the fund
Under India's e-ITEC network, training of healthcare personnel in our neighbourhood

has been conducted with content delivery by super specialty medical institutes like
AIIMS and PGI Chandigarh. AIIMS New Delhi has also separately held a series of 3
video-conferencing sessions in May 2020 on COVID-19 for practising medical
professionals in SAARC countries.
India's changing perception on SAARC
Isolating Pakistan: Since 2016 Uri Attacks, India has consistently taken up the
policy of isolating Pakistan at multilateral forums and also exposing it as a
sponsor of cross border terrorism. This has had its impact on SAARC whose annual
summit has been suspended due to India's boycott and refusal to engage with
Pakistan as long as it engages in sponsorship of terrorism.

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Emphasis on Bilateral Initiatives: In recent years, India has increasingly

prioritized bilateral initiatives and sub-regional cooperation within the SAARC
framework. Frustrated with the lack of progress and challenges faced within the
SAARC platform, India has sought alternative avenues for regional cooperation, such
as the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation (BIMSTEC) and the Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) sub- regional
grouping.
• Limited Engagement: India's engagement with SAARC has been limited since 2016.
Regular meetings of SAARC member states, including the Council of Ministers and
Standing Committee, have not taken place, affecting decision-making and impeding
the implementation of regional initiatives.
BIMSTEC: India has increasingly prioritized the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-
Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) over SAARC as a platform for
regional cooperation. With SAARC hindered by challenges and limited progress, India
sees BIMSTEC as a more pragmatic and effective alternative. Further BIMSTEC also
removes the India-Pakistan animosity and thus makes arriving at consensus more
easily.
Quotes
Rajen Harshe:He argues that South Asia is an "Indo-centric region" where every
other country shares social, cultural and religious similarities with no other
country, except India. Hence, he advocates Gujral doctrine of foreign policy, which
is based upon the principle of 'non reciprocity', in order to achieve better
relations with neighbours and to secure peace in South Asia.
C. Rajamohan: He suggests that India has finally moved on from the SAARC project
which he felt has lost all steam.
"SAARC has struggled to make meaningful progress due to political tensions and
bilateral disputes among member countries. Its effectiveness and relevance have
been undermined by the inability to transcend these challenges and achieve
substantial regional cooperation." ⚫S.D Muni: "SAARC remains relevant as a forum
for South Asian countries to come together, promote mutual understanding, and
engage in dialogue on regional issues. It can play a vital role in fostering peace,
stability, and cooperation, provided there is a sincere commitment from all member
states."
Issues with SAARC co-operation
• Protectionism and Limited Intra-regional Trade: The prevalence of protectionist

measures, such as high tariffs, hampers intra-regional trade within SAARC, with
India being the most protectionist country in the region.
⚫ Security Dilemma: The enduring security dilemma between India and Pakistan
influences SAARC, as both countries prioritize their narrow national interests
within the platform. • Lack of External Balancer: The absence of an external
balancing power like China exacerbates the security dilemma and asymmetry between
India and other SAARC nations.
• Realist Perspective: Realists argue that expecting nation-states to prioritize

regional interests over their own national interests is unrealistic, which
complicates regional cooperation efforts within SAARC.

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Scholars:
C. Rajamohan: According to Rajamohan, Pakistan acts as a hindrance to progress

within SAARC, often impeding new initiatives and connectivity projects. Shyam
Saran: Saran highlights the artificiality of South Asia's political borders, which
contributes to the lack of a strong South-Asian identity within SAARC.
Future Prospects of SAARC
Many scholars argue that SAARC is a dead entity, or even a 'Zombie'. It signifies
that though SAARC is alive in the papers but its existence serves no purpose as an
organization. The Eighteenth SAARC Summit was held in Kathmandu seven years ago.
The Nineteenth SAARC Summit (2016) was to be organized in Islamabad, but following
the Pathankot airbase attack and Uri terror attack (2016) by Pakistan based
Islamist terror outfits, India along with other members decided to not attend the
Summit. There has been no SAARC summit since 2014.
Does SAARC have a future?

Common Challenges: SAARC provides a platform for member countries to collectively
address common challenges such as poverty, climate change, terrorism, and natural
disasters. Cooperation in these areas can lead to joint solutions and mutual
benefits.
Cultural and Social Exchanges: SAARC fosters cultural and social exchanges among
member countries, promoting understanding, tolerance, and a sense of shared
heritage. This can contribute to stronger regional bonds and a sense of belonging.
Economic Potential: South Asia is home to a large population and offers significant
economic potential. SAARC can facilitate increased regional trade, investment, and
economic integration, leading to shared prosperity and development.
Solutions?
No
Lack of Political Will: The success of SAARC requires strong political will and
commitment from member countries. Differences in priorities, conflicting interests,
and a lack of sustained engagement have hampered the organization's effectiveness.
Sub-regional Alternatives: Some member countries have increasingly pursued sub-

regional initiatives, such as BIMSTEC and the BBIN grouping, as alternative
mechanisms for regional cooperation. This may divert attention and resources away
from SAARC.
Geopolitical developments: India-Pakistan relation still dominates the fate of

SAARC, while the other members are too weak to push for a renewed approach to
SAARC. Further Afghanistan under Taliban and Political crisis in Pakistan makes
SAARC even more difficult.
Functionalism: SAARC can begin with a functional approach by addressing less

conflictual areas between them like climate change, bilateral trade and joint
health care policies against future pandemics.
⚫ SAARC minus Pakistan: Some scholars argue that SAARC minus Pakistan can be an
alternative, as its provocations towards India bogs down SAARC.vii But we cannot
forget that the most crucial issue of the region is terrorism and being its
perpetrator Pakistan is at the core of the problem. Engaging with Pakistan is
necessary for tackling the demon of terrorism.
PM Modi calls for two-speed SAARC, suggesting that member countries should have the
flexibility to move forward at different paces based on their readiness for
cooperation. This approach acknowledges the varying levels of commitment and
capacity among the member nations.
APER 2 - PSIR Optional | Subscribe from: www.sunyaias.com | Telegram Channel:

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Shashi Tharoor proposes a shift from unanimity to "consensus minus one" within
SAARC. This means that progress can be made even if all member countries do not
fully agree. It allows for initiatives to move forward as long as there is a
majority consensus, excluding only one dissenting member.
• Pramit Pal Chaudhary advocates for exploring alternative channels of regional

cooperation like BIMSTEC and BBIN. With Pakistan's resistance and the challenges it
poses to regional connectivity, Chaudhary suggests that seeking cooperation through
these sub-regional groupings can provide a more practical and feasible option for
advancing regional integration and connectivity.
⚫ C. Rajamohan puts forward two suggestions to strengthen SAARC. Firstly, he

recommends involving the South-Asian diaspora in PM Modi's overseas Indian policy
to foster stronger ties and engagement with the region. Secondly, he suggests
engaging other regional players such as China, Japan, and Australia in SAARC. This
broader engagement can help address the concerns and interests of smaller member
states while enhancing cooperation and regional stability.
• Kishore Mahbubani draws lessons from the experience of ASEAN. He proposes that
SAARC should meet more frequently to bridge the trust deficit and foster greater
understanding among member countries. Mahbubani also suggests a more pragmatic
approach towards Pakistan, where regional prosperity is prioritized over bilateral
differences. Additionally, he recommends giving smaller countries leadership roles
within SAARC, similar to the model adopted by ASEAN with Singapore.
• Suhasini Haider emphasizes India's role as a leading force behind SAARC. With its
size, economic potential, and geopolitical significance, India has the capacity to
drive regional cooperation and integration within SAARC. India's active
participation and constructive engagement can help shape the future of the
organization.
• Shyam Saran highlights the importance of regional connectivity within SAARC.

Strengthening physical and economic linkages among member countries can promote
greater cooperation, trade, and people-to-people exchanges. Enhancing regional
connectivity is seen as a key factor in realizing the full potential of SAARC and
fostering closer regional integration.
INDIA'S LOOK EAST POLICY
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS Explain the major flaws in India's 'Look East Policy'. Is
it possible successfully in view of China's emergence as a high-tech power in Asia-
Pacific? (2011) "Despite potentialities, India's 'Look East Policy' requires a
major course correction." Discuss.(2012)
What are the hope aspirations of the Look East Policy of India? Explain. (2016)
Analyse the significance of India's Look East Policy in the light of concerns of
the indigenous peoples of North-east India. (2018)
Discuss the strategic implications of India's 'Look East Policy' transforming into
'Act East Policy'. (150 words) (2021)
What are the implications of 'Look-East' Policy on the north-eastern region of

India?(2022) Discuss the consequences of illegal cross-border migration in India's
north-eastern region.(2022)
Look East policy has emerged as an important foreign policy initiative of India in
the post-Cold War period. It was launched in 1991 by Narasimha Rao govt with the
aim of developing political contacts, increasing economic integration and forging
security cooperation with countries of Southeast Asia. Policy
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marked shift in India's perspective of world, with strategic and economic

importance of Southeast Asia to India's national interests being recognised. Second
phase, began in 2003, extends coverage of Look East policy from Australia to East
Asia, with Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) as its core. New phase
thus marks a shift in focus from trade to wider economic and security cooperation,
political partnerships, physical connectivity through road and rail links.
Causes for focus on the East
Economic Reforms: In the early 1990s, India embarked on a path of economic

liberalization and market-oriented reforms. Opening up the Indian economy created a
need to explore new markets and investment opportunities. The countries in
Southeast Asia and East Asia, known collectively as ASEAN (Association of Southeast
Asian Nations), presented a dynamic and rapidly growing economic region that India
sought to engage with.
• Post-Cold War Realignment: The end of the Cold War brought about significant
geopolitical changes, including the rise of Asia as an economic powerhouse and the
emergence of new regional organizations. India recognized the importance of
integrating with this dynamic region and diversifying its economic and strategic
partnerships beyond its traditional focus on the West. Strategic Considerations:
India's Look East Policy was also driven by strategic considerations.
It aimed to counterbalance China's growing influence in region and maintain a

strategic foothold . ,
in Southeast Asia. Strengthening ties with countries like Vietnam, Singapore, and
Indonesia was seen as a means to promote stability, security, and influence in
India's extended neighborhood. ⚫ Connectivity and Trade: Enhancing connectivity
and promoting trade were key objectives of India's Look East Policy. Improving
physical infrastructure, such as transport networks and maritime links, aimed to
facilitate greater economic integration between India and Southeast AsiaTrade
agreements and economic partnerships, such as the ASEAN-India Free Trade
Agreementwere pursued to expand market access and boost bilateral trade.
East and Southeast Asia are home to some of the world's fastest-growing economies
and emerging markets. Imperatives for India to pursue engagement with the East The
Act East Policy recognizes the importance of maritime security and stability in the
region. India seeks to protect its own maritime interests, ensure the safety of sea
lanes of communication, and contribute to a rules-based order. The At East Policy
enables India to expand its diplomatic footprint and influence in the region.
Actively participating in regional organizations like ASEAN, the East Asia Summit,
and the Mekong Ganga Cooperation allows India to shape regional norms
The rise of China and its increasing influence in the region have led to a power
shift, prompting India to actively engage and maintain its strategic presence in
the Indo-Pacific The Act East Policy enables India to strengthen its partnerships,
counterbalance China's influence and protect its con strategic interests

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Shift from "Look East" towards 'Act East" While Look East Policy focused primarily
on economic cooperation and trade, Act East Policy expands scope to encompass
broader strategic, security, and cultural dimensions. It reflects more proactive
and comprehensive approach towards engagement with countries in East and Southeast
Asia.
The Act East Policy builds upon the foundation of the Look East Policy but goes
beyond economic ties to include elements such as strategic partnerships, defense
cooperation, maritime security, connectivity initiatives, people-to-people
exchanges, and cultural diplomacy. It recognizes the growing importance of the
region and aims to strengthen India's presence, influence, and engagement in East
and Southeast Asia.
Points highlighting the transition
C. Raja Mohan emphasizes that the transformation of India's neighborhood policy

goes beyond mere rebranding. He emphasizes the speed at which the government is
engaging with neighboring countries, indicating a greater sense of urgency and
commitment compared to previous approaches. 1. Strategic Engagement: Under the Act
East Policy, India has deepened its strategic engagement with countries in East and
Southeast Asia.
• Example: India has strengthened defense cooperation with countries like Vietnam,
Japan, and Singapore. Joint military exercises such as the India-Singapore joint
naval exercise and the India-Vietnam joint air force exercise signify the increased
strategic partnership. 2. Maritime Security and Connectivity: The Act East Policy
places a strong emphasis on maritime security and connectivity. India has
collaborated with regional partners to enhance maritime security cooperation, such
as coordinating patrols and joint naval exercises with countries like Indonesia,
Singapore, and Thailand. Additionally, India has focused on maritime connectivity
initiatives, including the development of the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport
Project linking India's northeast with Myanmar and the development of the India-
Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway.
3. Focus on Northeast India: The Act East Policy recognizes the strategic
importance of India's northeastern states as a gateway to Southeast Asia.
Initiatives like the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway and the India-
Myanmar-Kaladan-Mizoram connectivity project aim to improve connectivity between
India's northeast and Southeast Asian countries. This facilitates trade, cultural
exchanges, and economic integration between the regions. 4. People-to-People
Exchanges and Cultural Diplomacy: The Act East Policy emphasizes people-
to-people exchanges and cultural diplomacy.
Example: the Festival of India has been organized in multiple countries in the
region to showcase Indian art, culture, and traditions. Furthermore, initiatives
like the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program promote capacity
building, training, and education for professionals from East and Southeast Asian
countries.
5. Enhanced Engagement with Regional Organizations: Under the Act East Policy,
India has increased its engagement with regional organizations such as the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the East Asia Summit. India
became a full dialogue partner of ASEAN in 1995 and has actively participated in
ASEAN-led mechanisms. India has also been involved in the Mekong-Ganga Cooperation,
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC), and other regional platforms.
6. Broader Scope of Cooperation: The Act East Policy expands the scope of
cooperation beyond economics. While trade and investment remain important, areas
like defense, technology, healthcare, and education have gained prominence.

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• Example: India has partnered with countries like Singapore in defense technology
initiativescollaborated with Japan in infrastructure projects, and increased
academic exchanges universities in East and Southeast Asia.
Ambassador Rajiv Bhatia has identified the following new features of Act east
policy • Tangible actions and concrete results focus. Cooperation extended from
Bangladesh to the East Pacific. Boldness in security and defence. More confidence
in protecting India's rights in RCEP negotiations. High priority for the North East
Region in the Act East Policy.
Challenges to India's Act East Policy
1. Connectivity Challenges: One of the key challenges is the slow progress in

implementing connectivity projects.
Example: The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, aimed at enhancing road

connectivity, has faced delays and logistical hurdles. The Kaladan Multi-Modal
Transit Transport Project, which aims to improve connectivity through Myanmar's
Sittwe port, has also experienced delays in completion.
2. Economic Disparities: Despite efforts to deepen economic engagement, there are

disparities in trade and investment between India and Southeast Asian countries.
• Example, India's trade with ASEAN countries, while growing, still lags behind
that of China. Enhancing economic integration and addressing trade barriers remain
critical challenges. 3. Geopolitical Complexities: The Act East Policy operates in
a region with complex geopolitical dynamics. For instance, India's engagement with
ASEAN countries may be influenced by China's
growing influence and its assertive actions in the South China Sea. Navigating
these complexities and building partnerships while safeguarding national interests
is a significant challenge." 4. Chinese Presence: Chinese investments in
infrastructure projects, trade agreements, and economic partnerships have enabled
China to establish strong ties in the region, potentially overshadowing India's
efforts. China's assertive actions in the South China Sea and its Belt and Road
Initiative have also raised geopolitical tensions. India needs to navigate this
challenge by strengthening its partnerships, enhancing economic engagement, and
promoting regional security cooperation.
Quotes by Experts
Shyam Saran: India's Act East Policy is driven by the need to promote regional
economic integration and security cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region. It is an
important step towards India's strategic reorientation in response to the changing
dynamics in Asia.
Manoj Joshi: The Act East Policy reflects India's aspirations to play a more
prominent role in the evolving regional architecture of the Indo-Pacific... It is
an acknowledgment of the growing economic and strategic importance of Southeast
Asia and East Asia for India

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INDIA AND ASEAN
Bilateral Data
Trade: The value of trade between India and the ASEAN region amounted to over 110
billion U.S. dollars in fiscal year 2022. The largest portion of this trade came
from Singapore, valued at over 30 billion dollars that year. Of the trade between
India and Singapore, imports into India had a higher value than its exports.
While India's exports to ASEAN increased from US $ 23 billion in 2010 to US $ 37.47

billion in 2018-19, its imports increased from US $ 30 billion to US $ 59.32
billion in the same period. ASEAN as a Trading Partner: ASEAN is an important
trading partner for India. It is one of the largest regional trading blocs in the
world, and India has been actively engaging with ASEAN countries to promote
economic cooperation and enhance trade and investment flows.
• Trade Balance: Trade balance between India and ASEAN has generally been in favor
of ASEAN, with India importing more goods from ASEAN countries than it exports to
them. Efforts have been made to address the trade imbalance and promote more
balanced trade between the two regions.
India and ASEAN have a free trade agreement called the ASEAN-India Free Trade
Agreement (AIFTA), which came into effect in 2010.History of Indian-ASEAN
Relationship: Prior to independence, India had trade and cultural links with ASEAN
countries through Hinduism and Buddhism.
⚫ India supported the decolonization process, including Indonesia's struggle for

independence. Migration between India and ASEAN countries fostered people-to-people
connections. The presence of the Indian diaspora further strengthened ties between
India and the ASEAN region.
During the Cold War era:
Relations between India and ASEAN were dominated by tension and mutual suspicion.
Despite opportunities, political mistrust and economic insignificance hindered
closer cooperation.
India's non-alignment policy
India's support for the Soviet Union during the Vietnam War and the Indo-Soviet
treaty highlighted its pro-USSR stance.
. However, India's silence on the Russian invasion of Afghanistan strained

relations.
⚫ The peaceful nuclear explosion conducted by India affected regional dynamics.

•India gradually transitioned to an open economy, focusing on export-oriented
growth.
Post-Cold War and the "Look East" Policy:
With strained relations in South Asia, India turned its attention towards its
extended neighbourhood, including ASEAN.
The liberalization, privatization, and globalization (LPG) reforms opened up

opportunities for engagement with Southeast Asian countries.
In 1992, Prime Minister Narsimha Rao introduced the "Look East" policy, emphasizing
enhanced cooperation with ASEAN.
This policy aimed to strengthen economic ties, promote regional integration, and
increase people- to-people exchanges.

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Why is ASEAN crucial for India? 1. Geopolitically
Counterbalance to China: ASEAN provides India with a platform for strategic

engagement in the Indo-Pacific region. As major powers, such as China, assert their
influence, India sees ASEAN as a crucial partner in maintaining a balance of power
and preventing the dominance of any single country. Strengthening partnerships with
ASEAN member states allows India to enhance its strategic presence and influence in
the region.
Regional Stability and Security: ASEAN plays a pivotal role in maintaining regional
stability and security in Southeast Asia. As a non-claimant country in the South
China Sea dispute, India supports ASEAN's efforts to uphold the principles of
freedom of navigation, peaceful resolution of disputes, and adherence to
international law.
2. Economic
• Large Consumer Market: ASEAN represents a population of over 650 million people,
making it one of the largest consumer markets in the world. Strengthening economic
ties with ASEAN countries provides India with access to a vast consumer base,
allowing Indian businesses to expand their market reach and tap into new
opportunities for trade and investment.
• Trade and Investment Flows: ASEAN is one of India's top trading partners.
Bilateral trade between India and ASEAN has been steadily growing, reaching
billions of dollars annually. The ASEAN-India Free Trade Agreement (AIFTA), which
came into effect in 2010, has played a significant role in facilitating trade by
reducing or eliminating tariffs on a wide range of goods. Increasing trade and
investment flows with ASEAN countries contribute to India's economic growth and
development.
⚫ Supply Chain Integration: ASEAN countries are major players in global supply
chains, with well-developed manufacturing capabilities and a network of production
hubs. Strengthening economic ties with ASEAN provides India with opportunities for
integration into regional and global value chains. This integration allows for
increased efficiency, competitiveness, and access to intermediate goods and
services, benefiting Indian industries.
Challenges
1. Trade Deficit: There is a persistent trade imbalance between India and ASEAN,
with India importing more goods from ASEAN countries than it exports to them.
Efforts should be made to diversify trade and promote Indian exports to ASEAN
markets, addressing the trade deficit.
2. High Chinese Dominance: China's economic prowess and its aggressive pursuit of
infrastructure development projects, trade agreements, and investment opportunities
in ASEAN countries pose a challenge to India's economic engagement in the region.
Example: In 2012, when ASEAN failed to issue a joint communiqué on the South China
Sea
dispute due to disagreements among member states, it was widely believed that China
had influenced some ASEAN countries to resist taking a unified stance against its
territorial claims. 3. India's exclusion from RCEP: RCEP is one of the world's
largest free trade agreements, comprising ASEAN and its trading partners, including
China, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand. India's decision not to join
RCEP implies limited access to the integrated market of these countries. This could
potentially marginalize India economically and affect its competitiveness in the
region.
4. Stalled Projects: Many bilateral deals with these nations are yet to be
finalised, leading to halting of various aspects of economic ties. In spite of
India's commitment to many connectivity projects, such as the India-Myanmar-
Thailand trilateral highway, they have not been completed

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Quotes by Experts
S. Jaishankar: "India's commitment to ASEAN is evident in our extensive cooperation

in various sectors, including trade, investment, infrastructure, and people-to-
people exchanges Kishore Mahbubani: He believes that India's active participation
in ASEAN region can strengthen regional stability, enhance economic cooperation,
and foster closer cultural ties. Mahbubani sees India-ASEAN relations as crucial
for the collective progress and prosperity of both sides.
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)
RCEP is a free trade agreement among 15 countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The
RCEP aims to create an integrated market covering nearly a third of the global
economy, with reduced trade barriers, streamlined rules, and increased investment
flows among member countries. Agreement was signed in November 2020 and is expected
to facilitate economic growth and cooperation in the region.
Members: Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Why did India not join RCEP?
RCEP: Nations signed up to world's largest free trade deal Thailand Singapore
Indonesia SASLANS South Korea
Concerns about Market Access: India had concerns about opening up its market to
competition from other RCEP member countries, particularly China. There were
concerns that increased imports could negatively impact certain domestic
industries, especially agriculture and manufacturing sectors.
Trade Imbalance: India had concerns about the existing trade imbalance with RCEP
member countries, particularly China. The fear was that joining the agreement could
exacerbate the trade deficit and further disadvantage Indian industries.
Non-tariff Barriers: India expressed concerns about non-tariff barriers in the RCEP
negotiations, such as technical barriers to trade and standards that could restrict
its access to other member countries' markets.
Transparency obligations: India contended that the use of subsidies and state
capitalism by China to provide an additional advantage to the Chinese industry
would be detrimental to the cause of free trade and should be addressed before
finalising the agreement.
Rules of origin: India wants strict rules of origin to prevent domestic markets
from being flooded by indirectly-exported Chinese products. Here, indirect export
refers to the export of Chinese products from a member nation having lower duty
levels.
Free trade in services: India is more interested in trade in services, as it has a

strong service base. Thus, any agreement without explicit provisions for services
would have limited utility for India. Insufficient Safeguards for Domestic
Industries: India felt that the agreement did not provide adequate safeguards to
protect its domestic industries from unfair competition or sudden surges in imports
that could harm local producers.
Should India have joined?
Access to a large market: RCEP would have provided India with access to a
significant consumer market, comprising around 30% of the global GDP. This could
have opened up new opportunities for Indian businesses to expand their exports and
increase trade with other member countries. Regional economic integration: RCEP
aims to promote economic integration and supply chain

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connectivity among member countries. By participating, India could have been part
of a regional framework that facilitates trade, investment, and the movement of
goods and services. Counterbalancing China's influence: As world's 2nd-most
populous country and major regional power, India's participation in RCEP could have
helped balance China's influence in the agreement. It could have provided India
with a platform to shape the rules and norms of regional trade.
RIVER WATER DISPUTES; ILLEGAL CROSS-BORDER MIGRATION; ETHNIC CONFLICTS

INSURGENCIES; BORDER DISPUTES
Ethnic conflicts and insurgencies in North East India can be better managed by
improving relations with the neighbouring countries. Substantiate the statement
with suitable examples. (2015) River water disputes are emerging as a major source
of irritation between India and its neighbours. Identify the sources of conflicts
and suggest remedial measures. (2015)
How does cross-border terrorism impede achievements of peace and security in South
Asia? (2020) Write a brief analysis of the ethnic conflicts and cross-border
migrations along India Myanmar and India-Bangladesh borders. (2021)
Major River Disputes
Indus River Dispute (Pakistan): The Indus River system originates in Tibet, flows
through India, and enters Pakistan. The Indus Waters Treaty of 1960 governs the
sharing of waters between India and Pakistan. However, disputes often arise over
issues such as water sharing, construction of dams, and hydroelectric projects.
Brahmaputra River Dispute (China/Bangladesh): The Brahmaputra River originates in

Tibet, flows through India, and enters Bangladesh. India and China have concerns
over China's dam construction activities on the Brahmaputra, which could impact
downstream flows. India and Bangladesh also have occasional disputes over the
sharing of Brahmaputra's waters. Teesta River Dispute (Bangladesh): The Teesta
River flows through India and Bangladesh.
There have been longstanding disputes between India and Bangladesh over the sharing
of Teesta's waters. The primary disagreement revolves around the allocation of
water during the dry season for irrigation and other purposes.
Causes of River Disputes
1. Water Sharing Disputes:
Indus River (India and Pakistan): The Indus Waters Treaty governs the sharing of
the Indus River's waters between India and Pakistan. Disputes often arise over
issues such as water distribution, construction of dams, and hydroelectric
projects.
Teesta River (India and Bangladesh): India and Bangladesh have disputes over
sharing the waters of the Teesta River, particularly during the dry season, for
irrigation and other purposes. 2. Construction of Dams and Infrastructure:
Brahmaputra River (India, China, and Bangladesh): China's dam construction

activities on the Brahmaputra River have raised concerns in India and Bangladesh
regarding downstream water flows and potential impacts on water availability.
River Kosi (India and Nepal): They have faced conflicts over the construction and
management of dams and barrages on the Kosi River, which flows through both
countries. These conflicts relate to water sharing, flood management, and the
impact on downstream areas.

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3. Environmental Concerns:
Ganga River (India and Bangladesh): Environmental concerns, including pollution and
reduced flow, have been a source of conflict between India and Bangladesh regarding
the Ganga River. Both countries have raised issues related to water quality and the
impact on downstream ecosystems.
Political and Historical Factors
4. :
• Siang River (India and China): The Siang River, which becomes the Brahmaputra in
India, has witnessed concerns and disagreements between India and China. Historical
and political factors, including border disputes, have influenced discussions
regarding river management and potential impacts on downstream areas.
Way Forward
Dialogue and Negotiation: Engage in open and constructive dialogue with the
concerned countries to understand each other's concerns, interests, and priorities.
Negotiate in good faith to find mutually acceptable solutions.
International Mediation or Arbitration: Consider involving neutral third-party

mediation or arbitration mechanisms to facilitate resolution process. International
organizations or respected individuals with expertise in water management and
dispute resolution can help in negotiations. Data Sharing and Scientific
Cooperation: Foster transparency and build trust through the
sharing of hydrological data, scientific research, and studies related to water

resources. Collaborative scientific cooperation can help in better understanding
the shared river systems and potential impacts of water usage.
Joint Management Mechanisms: Establish joint river commissions or other

collaborative platforms to manage shared rivers. These mechanisms can facilitate
ongoing cooperation, regular communication, and coordination in addressing water-
related issues.
• Bilateral or Regional Agreements: Negotiate and sign agreements or treaties that

clearly define water sharing principles, mechanisms for dispute resolution, and
cooperation frameworks. Learn from successful past agreements and apply relevant
principles to ongoing disputes.
⚫ Sustainable Development and Environmental Considerations: Take into account the

need for sustainable development, environmental preservation, and the protection of
ecosystems in the management of shared water resources. Consider the long-term
impacts of water usage on both upstream and downstream regions.
• Confidence-Building Measures: Implement confidence-building measures, such as

joint projects, knowledge exchange programs, capacity-building initiatives, and
collaborative research, to foster cooperation and build trust among the riparian
nations.
• International and Regional Cooperation: Engage with international organizations,

regional forums, and initiatives focused on water management, such as UN, World
Bank, or regional bodies like SAARC or BIMSTEC. Seek their support, guidance, and
expertise in resolving the disputes. [Border Disputes covered ahead in country
specific manner]
Previous Year Question
Q 2022 Write a brief analysis of the ethnic conflicts and cross border migrations
along India Myanmar and India - Bangladesh borders.
Introduction:
India's borders, particularly along Myanmar and Bangladesh, have experienced

various cross-border dangers, including the movement of terrorists, insurgents,
illegal immigrants, and trafficking of drugs,

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weapons, and fake currency. These threats pose a significant challenge to India's
internal security and impact bilateral negotiations with neighboring countries.
Main Body:
The massive influx of cross-border migrants from Myanmar and Bangladesh is driven
by push factors such as political instability, religious persecution, population
pressures, and environmental catastrophes.
Former Foreign Secretary Muchkund Dubey highlights the threats India faces from its
neighbors, including the spillover of domestic ethnic conflicts, large-scale
illegal migration, and providing a base for terrorism.
Bangladesh Border: Illegal migration from Bangladesh to India became a contentious

issue, especially during the Bangladesh liberation war in 1971. The Assam agitation
(1979-1985) against illegal migration led to the Assam Accord of 1985, setting a
cutoff date for citizenship. However, illegal migration from the border remains a
major concern.
Scholars like Namrata Goswami and Veena Sikri propose issuing work permits for
orderly tracking of workers from Bangladesh to India. The Indian government has
taken steps to address this issue, including increased deployment of Border
Security Force (BSF) troops, border surveillance outposts, and fencing.
Myanmar Border: Illegal migration from Myanmar has been a significant issue in
states like Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh, leading to protests
against Myanmar refugees. The Rohingya crisis, characterized by persecution, has
resulted in a large influx of refugees through the India-Myanmar border. The recent
military coup in Myanmar has further escalated displacement and migration.
Efforts have been made to manage such migration and conflicts arising from it,
including advisory by the Ministry of Home Affairs. Ethnic conflicts within Myanmar
and Bangladesh spill over to neighboring countries, particularly India.
Ethnic Conflicts across Borders:
The ethnic conflicts within Myanmar and Bangladesh are rooted in their short
history as nation-states and the artificial drawing of borders during the colonial
era, disregarding natural and ethnic identities. These conflicts have a spill-over
effect on neighboring states, with India being the most affected. The Rohingya
crisis, recognized by the UN as a major persecution, presents a dilemma for the
Indian government, as it needs to maintain good relations with both Bangladesh and
Myanmar. The crisis tests India's diplomacy and strategic priorities.
Conclusion:
The complex issues of cross-border migration, ethnic conflicts, and security

require a holistic framework that balances concerns for national security with the
need for humane and secure conditions for refugees, stateless individuals, and
undocumented migrants. Harmonizing state security and human security is essential
to address the challenges posed by cross-border movements and ensure the well-
being of affected populations.
INDIA'S NEIGHBOURHOOD RELATIONS
Overall Neighbourhood relations
Managing India's neighbourhood is indeed a complex task with various challenges to

navigate. One key factor is the inherent wariness of smaller neighboring countries
towards their larger neighbor, which is natural as they may have concerns about
India's intentions and capabilities. Building trust and addressing these concerns
becomes crucial for effective regional engagement.
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⚫ Another complicating factor is the increasing influence of China in the South

Asian region, which was traditionally seen as India's exclusive sphere of
influence. This dynamic has altered India's standing in the region and added
complexity to its relations with neighboring countries. Small powers in the region
often find themselves in a position where they have to choose
between India and China and it is natural for them to leverage one against the
other to safeguard
their interests. India needs to recognize this reality and adapt its approach
accordingly. • Instead of lamenting the choices made by smaller powers, India
should focus on fostering an environment of cooperation and addressing the concerns
of its neighbours. It is crucial for India to demonstrate that it can be a reliable
partner and address the asymmetry of power in the region. By building strong
relationships based on trust
According to Happymon Jacob - The current state of India's neighbourhood policy

reflects a significant challenge in fostering regional integration and cooperation.
India, as a major power in South Asia, has been one of the least regionally-
integrated countries globally.
India's policies towards its neighbours have often lacked a sense of belonging and
a genuine desire to work towards greater integration. The approach has been
transactional, impatient, and narrow- minded, limiting India's manoeuvrability in
the regional geopolitical landscape. As a result, India's influence and goodwill in
the region have steadily declined over time.
• At present, India's neighbourhood policy stands at a critical juncture. The past

policies have contributed to the erosion of India's influence in the region.
Without a coherent and well-planned regional policy, India risks losing its sphere
of influence altogether. It is imperative for India's foreign policy planners to
reimagine and reshape the country's neighbourhood policy before it reaches a point
of no return.
Taking proactive steps to strengthen regional cooperation, build trust, and foster
inclusive development will be essential for India to regain its influence and
enhance regional integration. By embracing a more inclusive and cooperative
approach, India can transform its neighborhood policy and establish itself as a
leading force for regional stability, prosperity, and integration. The time for
reimagining and revitalizing India's neighborhood policy is now, before it becomes
too late to reverse the declining trend.
INDIA - NEPAL RELATIONS
Comment: Distinguishing features of Indo-Nepal Relations. (2004)

Examine India's role in strategic terms with regard to the land-locked countries in
South Asia. With regard to Nepal, to what extent has the involvement of major
powers such as China, the US and the EU impacted India's strategic interests?
(2009)
Discuss the future prospects of Indo-Nepal relations in the context of the recent
publication of a new Nepalese map wrongly claiming Indian territory. (2020)
Kalapani Dispute
Since the 1962 Sino-Indian War, Kalapani has been administered by India. The claims
to Kalapani by Nepal date back to a century since the Treaty of Sugauli 1816 signed
between the then Kingdom of Nepal and British India.
Disputed Kalapani region
The Kalapani dispute between India and Nepal revolves around the conflicting claims
over the Kalapani region in the Greater Himalayas. The issue gained prominence in
November 2019 when the Home

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Ministry of India released a new political map that showed Kalapani as part of
Indian territory. Nepal immediately objected to this depiction, asserting that the
region belongs to the Darchula district of Nepal's Sudurpashchim province.
The main point of contention in the dispute is the origin of the River Kali, which
flows through the Kalapani area. Nepal argues that the river originates from either
Limpiyadhura or the nearby Lipulekh pass, both within Nepalese territory. On the
other hand, India claims that the true border lies along a smaller rivulet named
Pankhagad, making the region part of Indian territory. The river has yet to be
demarcated, and historical maps from both countries offer different
interpretations.
The Kalapani dispute is of strategic significance as it serves as a tri-junction

between India, China, and Nepal. This dispute has broader implications for the
relations between these countries, given their great- power aspirations in the
region.
Efforts to resolve the dispute have been ongoing since the 1950 Treaty of Peace and
Friendship, but a resolution has not been reached. The issue is further complicated
by the "open border" system between India and Nepal, which allows for free movement
of people and trade. While the open border has contributed to the close social and
economic ties between the two countries, it has also presented challenges in border
administration and led to occasional disputes.
To avoid escalation of the conflict, both India and Nepal need to engage in
diplomatic negotiations, assess historical documents and evidence, and potentially
involve a neutral third party for mediation. Finding a mutually acceptable solution
to the Kalapani dispute is crucial for maintaining peaceful relations between the
two countries and ensuring stability in the region.
Importance of Indo-Nepal Relations
Security and Geopolitics: Nepal acts as a buffer state between India and China, two
major regional powers. Maintaining friendly relations with Nepal helps India in
ensuring stability and security in its northern border region. It also helps India
in countering any potential influence from China in Nepal. Additionally, Nepal's
strategic location provides India with access to the
Himalayan region.
• Trade and Economic Cooperation: Nepal serves as a landlocked transit route for
India's trade with other countries. India is Nepal's largest trading partner, and
both countries have established various trade agreements and preferential trade
arrangements. The open border and close economic ties facilitate the flow of goods,
services, and investments between the two countries. ⚫ Energy Cooperation: Nepal
has significant hydropower potential, and India has been cooperating with Nepal in
the development of hydropower projects. India has invested in several hydropower
projects in Nepal and supports the export of surplus electricity to India. This
cooperation helps
Nepal in meeting its energy needs and promotes bilateral economic integration.
Cultural and People-to-People Relations: India and Nepal share deep-rooted

cultural, religious, and historical connections. There are strong people-to-people
ties, with a large number of Nepalese residing and working in India. The open
border allows for the free movement of people, fostering cultural exchanges,
tourism, and pilgrimage. India and Nepal also celebrate various festivals together,
further strengthening their cultural bonds.
• Development Assistance: India has been providing significant development

assistance to Nepal in various sectors such as infrastructure, education,
healthcare, and rural development. These assistance programs aim to support Nepal's
socio-economic development and enhance bilateral cooperation.
⚫ Regional Cooperation: India and Nepal are both members of regional organizations
like the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Bay of
Bengal Initiative for Multi- Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC).
Cooperation within these regional

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forums allows for joint efforts in addressing common challenges, promoting regional
integration, and enhancing connectivity.
Nepal's Constitutional Crisis 2015
The constitutional crisis in Nepal in 2015 refers to the political unrest and
tensions that arose following the promulgation of Nepal's new constitution. The
crisis primarily revolved around the dissatisfaction of the Madhesi ethnic group
and other marginalized communities with the provisions of the constitution,
particularly regarding their representation and rights.
In the context of India-Nepal relations, the 2015 constitutional crisis had a

significant impact. India's involvement in the crisis has been a subject of debate
and criticism. Some argue that India imposed an economic blockade on Nepal as a
means of pressuring the Nepali government to address the concerns of the Madhesi
community. This blockade caused severe shortages of essential supplies in Nepal and
strained bilateral relations.
Critics suggest that India's actions during the crisis were seen as interference in
Nepal's internal affairs, undermining Nepal's sovereignty and creating distrust
between the two countries. However, it is worth noting that India has denied
imposing an official blockade and maintains that any disruptions in the supply of
goods were due to the ongoing protests and unrest in Nepal.
The 2015 constitutional crisis strained India-Nepal relations and highlighted the
challenges of navigating sensitive political issues between the two countries. It
also underscored the need for dialogue, understanding, and mutual respect to
address such crises and strengthen bilateral ties.
Challenges to the relation
1. Chinese Influence:
• Enhanced Partnership: During Xi Jinping's visit, Nepal and China upgraded their
relationship from a "Comprehensive Partnership of Cooperation Featuring Ever-
lasting Friendship" to a "Strategic Partnership of Cooperation Featuring Ever-
lasting Friendship for Development and Prosperity."
Treaty on Extradition: China also signed a Treaty on Mutual Legal Assistance in

Criminal Matters (MLACM) and expressed optimism for the timely conclusion of the
Extradition Treaty.
Himalayan 'Quadrilateral': The recent meeting of China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and

Nepal in the Himalayan region, known as the 'Quadrilateral,' highlights China's
efforts to limit India's influence in South Asia.
• Defense Cooperation: In a significant development, the People's Liberation Army

(PLA) and the Nepali Army conducted two joint military exercises in 2017 and 2018,
marking the first- ever collaboration between the two forces.
2. Border Disputes: The main point of contention is the Kalapani area, which Nepal
claims as its own, but is currently under Indian administration. This dispute stems
from differing interpretations of historical agreements and maps. It has led to
diplomatic tensions, protests, and occasional clashes between security forces.
Efforts have been made to resolve the dispute through dialogue and negotiations,
but a mutually acceptable solution is yet to be reached.
3. Political Interference: Nepal has accused India of interfering in its internal

political affairs. There have been instances where Nepal has perceived Indian
influence in its political processes, leading to strained relations between the two
countries.
4. 2015 Nepal Blockade: The blockade had a severe impact on Nepal's economy and
daily life. It resulted in shortages of fuel, medicines, cooking gas, and other
essential commodities. Hospitals, schools, and businesses were severely affected,
leading to public outcry and widespread
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dissatisfaction. The blockade created diplomatic tensions between India and Nepal.
The Nepali government accused India of imposing an economic blockade, which India
denied. Nepal sought assistance from other countries to overcome the crisis, and
the incident strained bilateral relations. Quote: "India's blockade on Nepal in
2015 was a blatant display of its disregard for the well- being and dignity of the
Nepali people." - Sher Bahadur Deuba (Former PM of Nepal) 5. Trade Imbalance: Nepal
has expressed concerns about the trade imbalance with India, feeling that it has
not received fair access to the Indian market. This has led to calls for greater
economic cooperation and efforts to address trade barriers
Quotes by Experts
PSIR
Shyam Saran: In his book "How India Sees the World," Shyam Saran highlights that
India shares a unique and strong bond with Nepal, unlike any other neighboring
country. However, there is a prevailing belief in Nepal that India fails to respect
the sovereignty and independence of Nepal. There is a perception that India
frequently interferes in Nepal's internal matters and assumes a dominant role, akin
to an overbearing elder sibling.
PM Modi: India and Nepal are not just neighbors, but we are joined together by
history, geography, culture, and people-to-people contacts.
Kanak Mani Dixit: India and Nepal have a relationship that is not just defined by
governments but also by the people who share strong cultural and religious ties.
Amb. Muchkund Dubey:
Honest answers are needed in the Nepal-India relationship. o Despite India's

offers, the treaty between Nepal and India should be renegotiated if it is causing
discord.
The real problem lies in the short-sightedness of Nepali politicians.
Solution for Indian Nepal Relationship
1. Non-Interventionist Approach:
Shun the image of an interventionist hegemonic power.
Allow Nepal to exercise its choice based on equality, mutual respect, trust, and
benefit.
2. Caution over Grandstanding:
Prioritize caution over grandstanding in Nepal policy.
Avoid panicking or compromising ethical principles due to growing Nepal-China

relations. Adopt a calibrated coercive diplomacy approach.
Refrain from treating the situation as a game of chess.
3. Border as a Bridge:
Turn the border into a bridge, not a barrier.
Empathize with the insecurities of Nepal as a smaller neighbor.
Empower a shift from perceiving the border as a barrier to facilitating

connectivity.
4. Cultivating Positive Sentiments:
• Cultivate positive sentiments among Nepalese residing in India, including Gurkhas

and Madhesis.
Recognize the importance of cultural connectivity and trade relations separately.
5. Addressing Economic Concerns:
Work towards reducing the trade deficit and delivery deficit.
Explore opportunities for trans-Himalayan connectivity, such as a trans-Himalayan

railway.
Enhance economic growth and social justice in the border areas.
6. Collaboration and Regional Cooperation:

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⚫ Foster joint ecology management for addressing environmental challenges. Explore

the proposed 2+1 dialogue among India, China, and Nepal. • Consider the feasibility
of a trans-Himalayan railway for enhanced regional cooperation. 7. Shifting to
Sovereign Equality: Transition from a "special partner" approach to one of
"sovereign equality." Prioritize Nepal's interests and priorities in the bilateral
relationship. 8. Neighborhood 2.0:
Embrace a new approach, "Neighborhood 2.0," for redefining and strengthening

regional engagement.
Focus on mutual respect, cooperation, and shared development.
INDIA - SRI LANKA RELATIONS
1. Economic
Bilateral Data
Bilateral trade: 2020: US $ 3.6 billion
Trade Relations:
Sri Lanka is India's 2nd largest trading partner in the SAARC
o India is Sri Lanka's largest trade partner
Indian Investments: Petroleum retail, tourism & hotel, manufacturing, banking and
financial services.
o India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement (ISFTA) in 2000.
• Joint Marine Resources Management Authority between two countries. (Palk bay
fisheries conflict).
• Infrastructure development
o Indian housing project - in war affected areas.
o Assistance for Deep Sea Fishing technique
o Trincomalee port and oil tank farms development.
o Joint India-Japan agreement - Mattala Airport & East container terminal (ECT).
o Jaffna-Colombo rail track and other railway lines
• Eastern Container Terminal: Sri Lanka scrapped its $500 million agreement with
India and Japan.
Financial Aid: India confirmed a $400 million currency swap with Sri Lanka while
deferring another $500 million due for settlement to the Asian Clearing Union
(ACU), in a move aimed at helping the island nation witnessing an unprecedented
economic crisis. 2. Political
Tamil Diaspora: Cultural and family linkages between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. •
13th Amendment: India has been urging Sri Lanka to pass the 13th amendment in their
constitution to create Tamil Provincial councils.
⚫ UNHRC Resolution: India has abstained from voting on a UNHRC resolution that
flags concerns over human rights in Sri Lanka.
3. Strategic
Chinese Projects: Colombo handed over a $12 million energy project to a Chinese
firm for the joint development of three renewable power plants
Trust Issues: Sri Lanka has a mistrust for India due to the previous LTTE civil
war. Sea routes: Sri Lankan waters are Critical & busy sea routes for India.

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Strategic location: Influence Gaining Tactics by Countries backyard (China getting

successful). Debunk China's String of Pearls. / Debt trap diplomacy - China, USA @
India's
Importance of India- Sri Lanka Relations
1. Maritime Significance: Sri Lanka's strategic location in the Indian Ocean makes
it crucial for India's security and maritime interests. Both countries share
maritime boundaries, and a stable relationship is essential for maintaining
regional stability and ensuring the free flow of trade and energy resources through
the Indian Ocean.
2. Security: India and Sri Lanka cooperate closely on security issues, including
counterterrorism, maritime security, and intelligence sharing. Both countries face
common challenges such as piracy, drug trafficking, and smuggling, and
collaboration in these areas is crucial for ensuring the safety and stability of
the region.
3. Cultural and Historical Ties: Sri Lanka shares deep cultural and historical
connections with India. The influence of Buddhism, Hinduism, and shared cultural
practices creates a sense of familiarity and affinity between the peoples of both
nations. This cultural bond serves as a foundation for fostering closer relations
and enhancing mutual understanding. 4. Information fusion centre: Sri Lanka plays a
vital role in India's data gathering from the region and augmenting the capability
of the fusion centre.
5. Economic Interests: Sri Lanka's ports, particularly the Port of Colombo, play a
vital role in facilitating trade and commerce in the region. India has economic
interests in accessing Sri Lankan ports for its trade activities and to enhance
connectivity with other countries. Sri Lanka's participation in India's regional
connectivity initiatives, such as the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and the
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation
(BIMSTEC), further strengthens economic cooperation.
India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement (ISFTA): More than 60% of Sri Lanka's exports
enjoy
the benefits of the agreement, which came into effect in March 2000. 6. Regional
Influence: Sri Lanka's relationship with India holds significance in the broader
context of regional power dynamics. India's engagement with Sri Lanka allows it to
counterbalance the influence of other regional players, ensuring that its interests
are safeguarded and its voice is heard in regional forums.
Challenges
Tamil Issue: The decades-long civil war between the Sri Lankan government and the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) has strained relations between the two
countries. India's involvement in the conflict, particularly during the final
stages, has left a legacy of resentment and mistrust among sections of the Sri
Lankan population.
⚫ Fisheries Disputes: There have been longstanding disputes between Indian and Sri
Lankan fishermen over fishing rights in the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.
These disputes often lead to arrests, confiscation of boats, and tensions at the
maritime border. Finding a mutually acceptable solution that addresses the
livelihood concerns of both Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen remains a challenge.
⚫ Chinese Influence: Sri Lanka's deepening ties with China have raised concerns
for India. China has invested heavily in infrastructure projects in Sri Lanka,
including the Hambantota Port and Colombo Port City. India views these developments
as potentially encroaching on its sphere of influence and raising strategic
concerns, particularly in terms of maritime security.

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• Trade Barriers: Despite efforts to enhance connectivity and increase trade, there
are still barriers that hinder the smooth flow of goods and services between India
and Sri Lanka. These include non-tariff barriers, visa restrictions, and complex
bureaucratic procedures, which impede trade and economic cooperation.
India's SAGAR Doctrine
Background: The SAGAR doctrine was introduced by Indian Prime Minister Narendra
Modi in 2015. It aims to enhance India's engagement and cooperation with Indian
Ocean Rim countries to ensure security and sustainable development in the region.
Aim: The primary aim of the SAGAR doctrine is to promote collective action,
cooperation, and partnership among Indian Ocean littoral states to safeguard the
region's shared maritime interests. It seeks to create a climate of trust and
understanding, foster peaceful maritime cooperation, and ensure the well-being and
growth of all nations in the region.
Strategic Objectives
Security: Enhancing maritime security through collaborative efforts to counter

traditional and non- traditional threats such as piracy, terrorism, smuggling, and
illegal fishing.
Connectivity: Promoting seamless maritime connectivity and facilitating trade,

commerce, and people-to-people exchanges through initiatives such as the Indian
Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS).
Sustainable Development: Emphasizing sustainable development and blue economy

initiatives in areas such as marine resources, renewable energy, fisheries, and
tourism.
Disaster Management: Strengthening regional cooperation in disaster management and
humanitarian assistance to address natural disasters and emergencies in the Indian

Ocean region. Institutional Engagement: Encouraging active participation and
collaboration among Indian Ocean states through regional and international
organizations to address common challenges and promote regional stability.
Key Features:
Maritime Diplomacy: Utilizing India's maritime capabilities to engage in diplomatic
initiatives and build partnerships with Indian Ocean countries.
Capacity Building: Assisting partner countries in developing their maritime

capabilities, infrastructure, and human resources through training and capacity-
building programs.
Multilateral Engagement: Actively participating in multilateral forums and

initiatives such as IORA, IONS, and the Indian Ocean Commission to promote regional
cooperation and address
common concerns.
Coastal Surveillance: Strengthening maritime domain awareness and surveillance

capabilities to safeguard maritime interests and combat maritime threats.
Chinese Threat to India Vis a Vis Sri Lanka
String of Pearls: China's "String of Pearls" strategy refers to its efforts to

establish a network of military and commercial facilities in the Indian Ocean
region, including Sri Lanka. This strategy aims to encircle India and gain
strategic leverage in the region, which India sees as a potential threat to its
security.
Port Development: China's involvement in major infrastructure projects in Sri

Lanka, such as the Hambantota Port and the Colombo Port City, has raised concerns
about the potential for dual-use capabilities. These projects have sparked fears
that China could use these facilities for military purposes, potentially affecting
India's naval presence and access in the Indian Ocean. Debt Trap Diplomacy: India
has raised concerns about China's debt trap diplomacy, whereby it

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extends large loans to countries for infrastructure projects, which they may
struggle to repay. Sri Lanka's experience with the Hambantota Port, which was
leased to a Chinese state-owned company due to financial difficulties, has raised
concerns about Sri Lanka falling into a debt trap and compromising its sovereignty.
Geopolitical Rivalry: India and China have a history of geopolitical rivalry and
border disputes, which adds to India's concerns regarding China's influence in Sri
Lanka. The competition between the two powers for influence and control in the
region raises the potential for tensions and conflicts that could impact India's
strategic interests.
Sri Lanka Economic Crisis
The Sri Lankan economy has been facing a crisis owing to a serious Balance of
Payments (BOP) problem. Its foreign exchange reserves are depleting rapidly and it
is becoming increasingly difficult for the country to import essential consumption
goods.
Reasons for the Crisis
1. Dip in Foreign Exchange Reserves: In July 2021, forex reserves dropped from over
$7.5 billion in 2019 to around $2.8 billion, owing to an underperforming tourism
sector. For example: Tourism, which is the country's 3rd largest forex earner, came
to a virtual halt
after the 2019 Easter Sunday suicide bombings which killed more than 250 people.
Tourist arrivals dropped by as much as 70%.
2. COVID impact: The Covid-19 pandemic brought a severe blow to the tourism
industry. And remittances from foreign workers, which is the nation's biggest
source of dollars, slumped 22.7% to $5.5 billion in 2021.
3. Hasty Switch to Organic Farming: The Government's ban on the use of chemical
fertilizers in farming has further aggravated the crisis by dampening agricultural
production which in turn caused a steep rise in the prices of essential
commodities.
For example: A survey showed that 90% of Sri Lanka's farmers used chemical
fertilisers for cultivation.
4. Dependence on Imports: Sri Lanka's high dependency on imports for essential

items like sugar, pulses, and cereals aggravated the economic meltdown as it lacks
foreign reserves to pay for its import bills.
5. Low Industrial production: Garment factories and tea estates could not function,
as Covid-19 raged in clusters. Thousands of Sri Lankan labourers in West Asian
countries were left stranded and returned jobless.
6. Hambantota port case: The Hambantota port was another white elephant project by
the present government to shorten its economic woes. Instead it only further
increased the debt problem that Sri Lanka faced as it had taken $1 billion from
China.
7. Russia-Ukraine war-induced inflation: The ongoing Russia-Ukraine war resulted in

steep price inflation of crude oil, sunflower oil, and wheat.
• Crude oil prices hit a record high in 14 years with prices soaring over
$125/barrel at the height of the crisis.
8. Policy Failures of Government:
No strategy: The lack of a comprehensive strategy to respond to the crisis then was
coupled with certain policy decisions last year.
Populist policy: The newly led government by Gotabaya Rajapaksa in 2019 promised
lower tax rates and wide-ranging SoPs for farmers during their campaign. The quick
implementation of these ill-advised promises further exacerbated the problem.

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⚫ Economic mismanagement by successive governments: This created and sustained a

twin deficit a budget shortfall alongside a current account deficit.
• Food hoarding: The government declared emergency regulations for the distribution
of essential food items. It put wide import restrictions to save dollars which in
turn led to consequent market irregularities and reported hoarding.
• Continuous borrowing: Fears of a sovereign default rose by the end of 2021, with
the country's foreign reserves plummeting to $1.6 billion, and deadlines for
repaying external loans looming.
Debt distress: Sri Lanka's fragile liquidity situation has put it at high risk of
debt distress. Its public debt-to-GDP ratio was at 109.7% in 2020, and its gross
financing needs remain high at 18% of GDP.
Impact of the Sri-Lankan crisis
1. Transhipment nature of Sri-Lankan ports: Thousands of containers sent from India

to Sri Lanka, have been lying uncleared at Colombo port as authorities can't
economically afford to transfer containers between terminals.
⚫ For example: India also relies considerably on Colombo port for global trade
given it is a transhipment hub. 60% of India's trans-shipment cargo is handled by
the port. India-linked cargo, in turn, accounts for 70% of the port's total trans-
shipment volume. 2. Relations deterioration with Sri Lanka has impact on India's
investment:
Impact on tourism: India has traditionally been among Sri Lanka's largest trade
partners. Prior to the pandemic, India was the top tourism source for Sri Lanka.
• Import dependency: More than one-fifth of Sri Lanka's total imports come from
India.
India largest contributor of FDI: India is also one of the largest contributors to
FDI in Sri Lanka. FDI from India amounted to about $1.7 billion from 2005 to 2019.
3. Sri-Lankan geopolitical location in Indian Ocean:
⚫ Sri Lanka-China axis: A predatory bond between Sri Lanka and China will threaten
India's interest in the Indian Ocean.
• Refugee crisis: Sri-Lanka economic crisis can change into refugee crisis, if it
leads to polarisation between different communities.
• Extremism: The Food scarcity, unemployment crisis and communal politics are
breeding grounds for fundamentalism and extremism.
4. India's assistance being viewed in Sri Lanka very sceptically:
⚫ Growing skepticism against India: The leadership has thanked India for the
timely assistance, but there is growing skepticism in Sri Lankan media and some
sections, over Indian assistance "being tied" to New Delhi inking key
infrastructure projects.
For example: They mainly include the strategic Trincomalee Oil Tank Farm project,
the National Thermal Power Corporation's recent agreement with Ceylon Electricity
Board to set up a solar power plant in Sampur, with investment from India's Adani
Group. • Media accusations: Lankan media accuses New Delhi of resorting to
"diplomatic blackmail". The political opposition has accused the Adani Group of
entering Sri Lanka through the "back
door", avoiding competitive bids and due process.

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Steps taken by India to Assist Sri-Lanka Financial assistance: Beginning January

2022, India has extended assistance totalling $ 2.4 billion including a $400
million RBI currency swap, and a $500 million loan deferment. ⚫Fuel shipments: A
diesel shipment under a $500 million credit line was signed with Sri Lanka by India
in February 2022.
Food and medicines assistance: Further, Sri Lanka and India have signed a $1
billion credit line for importing essentials, including food and medicine.
Way forward
1. C. Rajamohan (Interdependence): Deepen economic and military cooperation with

Sri-Lanka; Walk the talk on its projects; India needs to correct perceptions about
ETCA 2. C. Rajamohan (Social constructivism): Past Indian governments committed
"monumental
errors" in their Sri Lanka policy. India can "rebuild" the special relationship
with Sri Lanka by "reclaiming the shared spiritual heritage.
3. G Parthasarthy (Liberal institutionalism): Utilize the platform of BIMSTEC to

deepen relations. Evolve Bay of Bengal region to security community.
4. Suhasini Haider: India-Sri-Lanka dialogue comprises of 5 different dialogues

Between New Delhi and Colombo, Delhi-Jaffna, Delhi-Chennai, Colombo-Jaffna and
Colombo-Chennai.
The only way forward is to knit them together in comprehensive relations. 5.

Collaborate with like-minded countries and leave either-or approach adopting a dual
approach of mutual development (Amb. Shashank)
6. Wipe out China from Sri-Lankan politics: Crucially, any disillusionment in Sri
Lanka with China eases India's effort to keep the Lankan archipelago out of China's
'string of pearls' game in the Indo-Pacific.
7. Help India's effort to contain China It is in India's interest to contain

Chinese presence and influence in this region.
8. Tran-shipment hub: Any disruption in Colombo port operations makes India

vulnerable to an increase in costs and congestion issues. While the work on
building a trans-shipment hub in Kerala
has begun, it is in India's interest to help Sri Lanka come out of economic crisis
in the short-term. 9. Due care is needed: To the extent India can extend low-cost
help to alleviate the hardships of Sri Lankans, it should, however it must be done
with due care keeping in mind that the optics of its aid matters too.
Quotes by Experts
PM Modi: Under neighbourhood first policy and SAGAR Doctrine, India will give
priority to
Sri Lanka
Vijay Sakhuja: Sri Lanka's significance for India lies in its role as a maritime
neighbor, with the potential to shape India's maritime security and trade interests
in the Indian Ocean."
Conclusion
Taking into account the perspectives of scholars such as C. Rajamohan, it is

evident that India's engagement with its neighbouring countries should be guided by
a careful consideration of national interest. Balancing the principles of non-
intervention and regional security is crucial for fostering positive
relations.

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INDIA BHUTAN
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION
"The Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship between India and Bhutan needs to be
revised with more pragmatic, realistic obligations and responsibilities." Comment.
(2017)
1. Economic Relations
Bilateral Data
Bilateral Trade: Border trade with Bhutan stands at $1.083 billion (2021).
• Trade Relations:
o India is the largest trading partner (Bhutan imports 88% from India)
o Trade in mutual currencies
o India has allotted Rs 4500 crore to Bhutan's current five-year plan (2018-2013)
FDI: India is the largest source of FDI in Bhutan (51%)

• Indo-Bhutan Transit Trade Agreement
Free trade regime
Mutual exception from customs and import duty
Power Imports: Bhutan is a net power exporter to India
Vaccine Diplomacy: India has helped vaccinate almost 93% of Bhutan through its
export of AstraZeneca vaccines.
2. Strategic Relations
Training: Indian Military Training Team trains Bhutan's Army
• Defence: India responsible for arms supply and air defence of Bhutan
⚫ Separatist: India and Bhutan have collaborated on flushing out Assam separatists
from Bhutan
3. Multilateral level Engagements
• SAARC
⚫ BBIN
• SACEP
• SARI
• SASP
⚫ BIMSTEC
4. Cultural/People to People:
Treaty of Friendship & Cooperation 1949 and revised in 2007
4000 Bhutanese students in India through Scholarship
Visa exemption for Indians
⚫3 Open points of Entry
Pilgrimage Tourism: Buddhist sites in Bodhgaya, Kushinagar, and Nalanda Nehru-

Wangchuck Cultural Centres in Thimpu
Importance of Indo- Bhutan Relations
1. Economic benefits
⚫ Energy Security: Hydroelectric power from Bhutan is utilized in Assam, Bihar and
West Bengal ensuring energy security in the North East. • Free Trade Regime: A key
market for Indian commodities like mineral products, machinery and mechanical
appliances, electrical equipment etc.

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Employment: About 60,000 Indian nationals live in Bhutan, employed mostly in the
hydroelectric power construction and road industry.
Investment: India has till date constructed 3 hydropower plants in Bhutan and is
also a destination for investments.
2. Strategic benefits
Strategic Location: Bhutan acts as a buffer between India and China. ⚫ Soft power:
Geographical proximity and open borders ensure the extension of Indian culture in
Bhutan.
Cultural: India and Bhutan share deep religious-cultural ties. Guru Padmasambhava,
a Buddhist saint played an influential role in spreading Buddhism and cementing
traditional links between people in both nations.
Education: A large number of Bhutanese students' study in India, the Indian

Government provides scholarships to such students.
Diplomatic: Bhutan has extended support to all of India's concerns
Concerns/Issues
1. Political
Indian Interventionism: Concerns regarding Indian influence in Bhutanese internal

issues. Unilateral interests: Bhutan has claimed that Indian projects benefit India
more than Bhutan; for example, setting up hydro power plants enables India to buy
electricity at relatively cheaper rates.
2. Economic
Renewables: Indian focus on solar and wind power has raised questions on
profitability of Bhutanese hydropower projects.
End of free entry: Bhutan ended free entry to Indians and now levies a per day
charge Bhutan's trade deficit: Bhutan is not benefiting from the liberal trade
regime 3. Strategic
⚫ China:
Land Swap: Chinese want to exchange parts of the North for Bhutan's Doklam area.
Doklam: China claims the strategic Doklam plateau of Bhutan.
⚫ Siliguri Corridor: Bhutan holds the buffer to protect the narrow strip
connecting India with the rest of North East.
Separatists: From an internal security perspective, Indian Separatists groups often

find refuge in the dense jungles of South Bhutan.
Project delays: Competition of HEP Projects by India put Bhutan in Debt. BBIN:
Bhutan's opposition to the Agreement citing environmental concerns.
Highlights of India - Bhutan Treaty 1949
Sovereign Equality: The treaty recognizes and respects the sovereignty and
territorial integrity of both India and Bhutan. It establishes the principle of
equal footing between the two nations, emphasizing mutual respect for each other's
sovereignty.
Non-aggression: The treaty ensures that neither India nor Bhutan will engage in any
aggressive action against the other. It promotes the maintenance of peace and
tranquility in the region, fostering a climate of trust and cooperation.
Consultation on Foreign Affairs: The treaty requires both India and Bhutan to
consult each other on matters related to their foreign policy. India is entrusted
with guiding Bhutan in its external

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relations, while Bhutan agrees to align its foreign policy with that of India. ⚫
Defense Cooperation: The treaty stipulates that India will provide military
assistance and defense cooperation to Bhutan. It establishes a framework for close
collaboration in matters of
defense, including the provision of military training, equipment, and advice.

Economic Cooperation: The treaty encourages economic cooperation between India and
Bhutan. It promotes the development of trade and commerce, as well as the exchange
of goods, services, and technical expertise. India pledges to provide economic
assistance to Bhutan for its socioeconomic development.
Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation between India and Bhutan (2007)
The Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation between India and Bhutan was signed in
2007. It is an updated version of the 1949 treaty and further strengthens the
bilateral relationship between the two countries. • Perpetual Peace and Friendship:
The treaty reaffirms the commitment to perpetual peace and friendship between India
and Bhutan.
Cooperation on National Interests: Both governments agree to cooperate closely on

issues relating to their national interests and not allow the use of their
territories for activities harmful to the other's national security and interests.
• Free Trade and Commerce: The treaty ensures the continuation of free trade and
commerce between the territories of Bhutan and India, with both governments
providing full cooperation and assistance to each other in trade and commerce
matters.
Arms Importation: The Government of India allows the Government of Bhutan to freely
import arms, ammunition, machinery, warlike material, or stores required for the
strength and welfare of Bhutan, as long as it is satisfied with Bhutan's friendly
intentions and no danger to India arises from such imports.
⚫ Equal Justice and Extradition: The treaty ensures that Bhutanese subjects
residing in Indian territories receive equal justice with Indian subjects, and
Indian subjects residing in Bhutan receive equal justice with the subjects of the
Government of Bhutan. It also establishes provisions for extradition of persons
wanted by either state for crimes and unlawful activities affecting their security.
⚫ Cultural Exchanges and Cooperation: The treaty promotes cultural exchanges and
cooperation between Bhutan and India, extending to areas such as education, health,
sports, science, and technology.
⚫ Economic Cooperation: Both governments agree to continue consolidating and

expanding their economic cooperation for mutual and long-term benefit.
• Dispute Settlement: Any differences and disputes arising from the interpretation
and application of the treaty are to be settled bilaterally through negotiations in
a spirit of trust and understanding.
Bhutan-China Relations
1. Border Issues
Doklam Plateau: The Doklam plateau, located at the tri-junction of Bhutan, China,
and India, has been a major point of contention. Bhutan and China have differing
claims over the territory, with Bhutan asserting its sovereignty. In 2017, a tense
standoff occurred when China attempted to construct a road in the area, leading to
a military standoff with Indian forces supporting Bhutan. The situation was
eventually resolved diplomatically, but the border issue remains unresolved.
Bhutan-China Border Demarcation: The exact demarcation of the Bhutan-China border
has
been a subject of disagreement. The border remains largely not demarcated, leading
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occasional incursions and tensions. The lack of a clear border demarcation has
resulted in both sides maintaining different perceptions of where the border lies,
leading to occasional border incidents. China has laid claim to the Sakteng
Wildlife Sanctuary, which covers an area of 650 sq km and lies in Bhutan's eastern
district of Trashigang.
2. Lack of Diplomatic Relations: China and Bhutan do not have any formal diplomatic
relations
between them.
3. Five Finger Policy: Bhutan falls within China's Five Finger policy which sees
the Himalayan States of Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, Ladakh and Arunachal as part of
China's historical empire and thus further complicates relations between them.
Conclusion
It is crucial for India to recognize the evolving dynamics in its relationship with
Bhutan. The presence of China and its efforts to establish influence in the region
necessitate a focused and independent Bhutan policy. Respecting Bhutan's
sovereignty and working towards strengthening economic ties through platforms like
BIMSTEC can contribute to Bhutan's growth and development. Additionally, supporting
Bhutan in diversifying its economy, particularly through the development of
high-end tourism infrastructure, can open new avenues for cooperation. It is

essential for India to engage not only at the government level but also foster
collaboration between the private sectors of both countries, as Bhutan continues
its economic diversification journey.
INDIA BANGLADESH
Comment: Identify persistent points of friction between India and Bangladesh at

present. (2007) Analyze the impact of hydropolitics on Indo-Bangladesh relations.
(2020) Discuss the steps required to realise "hydro-co-operation between India
andBangladesh.(2022
Bilateral Data
1. Economic relations
Bilateral trade: $13.69 Billion (2021-22)
Trade Relations:
$9bn Trade surplus for India
Various Trade Agreements: APTA, SAFTA, SAPTA
Border Haats: Tripura and Meghalaya; Total 12 in number
Border Trade: Easing of restrictions in Land port Starting from Akhaura (Tripura)
and Ghojadanga (West Bengal)
FDI: India invested over $570mn
⚫Line of Credits: Developmental assistance - at $8bn
Energy Sector:
o Cooperation in power sector Bangladesh imports 1200 MW of Electricity
o Rooppur nuclear plant- a joint collaboration of India and Russia
• Connectivity:
o Protocol on Inland water transit & trade
Intra and inter border Connectivity-Chattogram and Mongla Port
o Agartala- Akhaura Rail Project

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⚫ Vaccine Diplomacy: India gave 1.2 million free doses of the AstraZeneca
coronavirus vaccine to Bangladesh.
• Overland Goods Transit: Bangladesh granted permission last year to use its
territory for the transit of Indian goods.
Connectivity: India and Bangladesh share 4096.7 Km. of border, which touches Assam,
Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya and West Bengal. Transit and trade through inland
waterways have been governed by long standing and time-tested protocol in
Bangladesh and India. o Agartala-Akhaura Rail-Link will be first rail route between
Northeast India and Bangladesh. ⚫ Power and Energy Sector Cooperation: Energy
sector cooperation between India and
Bangladesh has also seen considerable progress in the last few years. o The India-
Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline Project, signed in 2018, will connect Siliguri in
West Bengal in India and Parbatipur in Dinajpur district of Bangladesh. 2.
Strategic relations
Defense: Defence Cooperation Framework pact involving military equipment and tech
transfer ⚫ Joint military exercises: SAMPRITI
• Operation Insaniyat: Humanitarian aid to Bangladesh for Rohingya Crisis
⚫ Boundary Dispute: Both nations resolved the boundary disputes in 2015
3. Multilateral Relations/Engagements
• SAARC
⚫ BBIN
• SAFTA
⚫ SACEP
⚫ SASEP
SARI
⚫ BIMSTEC
Importance of India Bangladesh Relations
Key Regional Partner: Bangladesh occupies a key place in India's Neighbourhood

First policy. India's links with Bangladesh are civilisational, cultural, social
and economic. There is much that unites the two countries- a shared history and
common heritage, linguistic and cultural ties, passion for music, literature and
the arts.
• Economic Cooperation: Bangladesh is an important economic partner for India.

Bilateral trade between the two countries has been growing steadily, with India
being one of Bangladesh's largest trading partners. Bangladesh offers a significant
market for Indian goods and services, while India provides various products,
including machinery, pharmaceuticals, and automobiles, to meet Bangladesh's growing
demands.
⚫ Humanitarian Cooperation: Bangladesh has provided shelter to a significant

number of Rohingya refugees fleeing Myanmar. India has supported Bangladesh in
dealing with the humanitarian crisis, providing assistance in terms of humanitarian
aid, medical supplies, and relief efforts, The two countries have engaged in
discussions and coordination to address the challenges posed by the Rohingya
crisis.
Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant: India has been actively involved in development of
Bangladesh's first nuclear power plant, the Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant. In 2016,
India's state-owned company, Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL),
signed an agreement with the Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC) to provide
technical support and consultancy services for the project. India has also supplied
critical equipment and materials for the power plant.

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Concerns/Issues
1. Strategic
Bangladesh's lack of opposition: There is no effective opposition in Bangladesh as

most have
been exiled or in custody like Khaleda Zia, this is against Indian democratic
values. ⚫ Chinese Interest: China has been involved in various infrastructure
development projects in Bangladesh, including the construction of ports, roads,
bridges, and power plants. These projects are part of China's Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI), aimed at enhancing connectivity and trade between countries.
India has expressed concerns about the strategic implications of Chinese
involvement in these projects, particularly regarding their proximity to India's
eastern borders.
• Example: China stepped in and offered $1 billion to Bangladesh for an irrigation

project on the Teesta River.
Anti-India sentiment: There has been a rise in anti-Indian sentiment especially

amongst the Islamic groups.
Example: PM Modi's 2021 visit was accompanied by violent protests in parts of

Bangladesh organized by Hefazat-e-Islam, a radical Islamist group. •CAA/NRC: Both
the mechanisms have often brought the rhetoric against Bangladesh and affected the
relations
Joint Production of Defence Equipment: Our defence cooperation has not progressed,
though India offered USD 500 mn line of credit.
2. Security
Rohingya Issue: Due to the presence of Rohingya groups in Bangladesh, their illegal
migration into India poses a threat.
Illegal Migrants: Illegal migrants have put a resource crunch and threatened
cultural assimilation in bordering states like Assam and West Bengal.
⚫ Smuggling: There are frequent incidents of cattle smuggling as well as human

tracking and drug networks along the border.
⚫ Border management: Indo-Bangladesh border is of porous nature with causes

challenges like illegal migration, smuggling, trans-border movement of insurgents,
which are serious threats to the security of the country.
⚫ Rising Radicalization: Radicalization in Bangladesh is on a rise, and the

influence of the radicals is believed to have increased in the country's politics.
3. Economic
• Teesta River Issues: The Riparian issue has not been solved and it is seen to
hurt Bangladesh's food security and farmer welfare.
• River disputes: India shares 54 trans-boundary rivers with Bangladesh. Example:

Teesta River water sharing issue, Tipaimukh Hydro-Electric Power Project on the
Barak River, Ganga river dispute etc.
⚫ Delays in Project Execution: There has been delays in the project execution on
part of India and it has hampered economic development in the region. ⚫ Chinese
Trade Deficit: Beijing is currently Dhaka's biggest trading partner, largest
supplier
of military hardware and biggest foreign investor.
⚫ Trade barriers: Cost of trading remains very high, mostly associated with lack
of appropriate trade facilitation as well as logistical difficulties and the
consequent high lead time that discourages traders.

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India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline: Enhancing Bilateral Objective and Cost

Reduction: The India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline (IBFP) aims to transport high-
speed diesel from India's Numaligarh Refinery Limited to 16 districts in northern
Bangladesh. With the support of Bangladesh Petroleum Limited, the pipeline is set
to significantly reduce transportation costs, decreasing the cost per imported
diesel barrel from $8 to $5.
Energy Cooperation
Pipeline Details: The IBFP is the first cross-border pipeline between the two
countries. Stretching from Siliguri in West Bengal, India to the oil depot in
Parbatipurupazila, Dinajpur district, Bangladesh, it covers a distance of
approximately 132 km. The pipeline predominantly lies within Bangladesh, with only
5 km situated in India.
Capacity and Expansion: Initially, the pipeline has the capacity to transport 1
million metric tonnes of diesel per year. However, it will initially provide
Bangladesh with 250,000 tonnes of diesel annually, with plans to increase it to
450,000 tonnes.
⚫ Benefits and Significance: The pipeline project marks a new chapter in bilateral
relations between India and Bangladesh. Prime Minister Narendra Modi emphasized the
importance of reliable and cost-effective diesel supply, especially for the
agriculture sector and local industries. The IBFP not only ensures sustainable and
environmentally friendly transportation of high-speed diesel but also fosters
stronger energy cooperation between the two nations.
Previous Petroleum Trade and Railway Transport: Since 2015, the Numaligarh Refinery
has been supplying petroleum products to Bangladesh. Currently, Bangladesh imports
60,000 to 80,000 metric tonnes of diesel from India through rail transportation.
The IBFP serves as the second energy pipeline connecting India with its neighboring
countries.
Teesta River Dispute
Background: The Teesta water dispute between India and Bangladesh has been ongoing
for years. The Joint River Commission was established in 1972 to address river-
related issues. In 1983, an agreement on the ad hoc distribution of Teesta water
was reached, with Bangladesh holding 36% and India holding 39% of the share.
However, disagreements persisted, and in 2011, a temporary agreement stating India
would receive 42.5% and Bangladesh 37.5% of the water was stalled due to opposition
from West Bengal. Despite meetings and negotiations, a water-sharing agreement
remains elusive, with the approval of all stakeholders required for execution.
⚫ Bangladesh's Position: The importance of the Teesta River for Bangladesh lies in
its contribution to 14% of the country's arable land and direct support to 7.3% of
its population. Currently, India has control over 55% of the Teesta River water.
Bangladesh seeks a fair distribution, particularly during the period of December to
May when water supply significantly declines, by claiming 50% of the water during
that time. Unfortunately, India's excessive withdrawal of water has led to the
inability to utilize nearly 1 lakh hectares of land in Rangpur for winter crops.
Bangladesh had hoped for a mutually beneficial agreement similar to the 1996 Ganga
Water Treaty, but no such agreement has been reached in the case of Teesta River.
⚫ West Bengal's Stand: West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee has opposed the
Teesta River agreement, citing "global warming" as a reason. She expressed concerns
about the retreating glaciers in the Teesta basin and argued that the agreement
would lead to water scarcity in the northern part of West Bengal, adversely
affecting local farmers. Banerjee believes that West Bengal has limited water
resources to offer Bangladesh due to the decreasing water levels in the Teesta over
time. Instead, she proposed negotiating the sharing of water from other rivers that
flow between the two countries. Furthermore, the Teesta barrage project in
Bangladesh, which started in 1998, has already provided three seasons of harvesting
for farmers, making them ineligible for additional water. Additionally, a
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MW of electricity and irrigate 9,22,000 hectares of land in North Bengal, would

face obstacles if water from the Teesta is shared with Bangladesh.
Illegal Migrant Issue
Assam's NRC Exercise: Assam which shares a long border with Bangladesh, conducted
the National Register of Citizens (NRC) exercise in 2019. The aim was to identify
genuine Indian citizens and detect illegal immigrants. The process resulted in the
exclusion of a significant number of people, including both Bangladeshi immigrants
and indigenous people who lacked proper documentation, leading to controversy and
debates about the handling of the issue.
Border Fence and Cross-Border Movement: India has been constructing a border fence
along its boundary with Bangladesh to curb illegal migration. However, due to the
porous nature of the border and difficult terrain, there are instances of people
managing to cross the border illegally. Smuggling networks and human trafficking
are also associated with such illegal cross-border movement.
⚫ Rohingya Refugee Crisis: The Rohingya refugee crisis in Myanmar has led to a
significant influx of Rohingya Muslims seeking refuge in neighboring countries,
including Bangladesh and India. Many Rohingyas have entered India illegally,
leading to concerns about their status and the strain it places on resources and
local communities.
⚫ Bilateral Agreements: India and Bangladesh have made efforts to address the
issue of illegal migration through bilateral agreements. The most notable agreement
is the India-Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) signed in 2015, which aimed
to resolve border disputes and provide clarity on citizenship. The LBA resulted in
the exchange of disputed territories and facilitated the identification of genuine
citizens in border regions.
Way forward for Indian Bangladesh relation
Harsh V. Pant suggests that India should be sensitive to the needs of Bangladesh.
This means understanding and addressing the specific concerns and requirements of
the Bangladeshi people and government.
. According to C. Rajamohan, India should focus on leveraging its soft power and
enhancing people-to-people ties with Bangladesh. This can help bridge the trust
deficit that may exist between the two countries and foster a more positive and
cooperative relationship.
Jaideep Mazumdar emphasizes the importance of increasing investments in Bangladesh

and accelerating its development. This can be done through various means such as
infrastructure projects, industries, and trade partnerships, which can contribute
to Bangladesh's economic growth and prosperity.
It is essential for India to walk the talk on its developmental promises to

Bangladesh and address any issues related to Line-of-Credit. By delivering on its
commitments, India can build trust and strengthen its partnership with Bangladesh.
The suggestion to revive SAARC, as advocated by Pinak Ranjan Chakraborthy, aims to

enhance regional cooperation and collaboration. By revitalizing this regional
platform, India and Bangladesh, along with other South Asian countries, can work
together on common challenges and pursue shared goals.
• Pinak Ranjan Chakraborthy also proposes the creation of an Indian Ocean region as
a security community. This implies fostering greater cooperation and coordination
among countries in the region to address security concerns and ensure stability in
the Indian Ocean
Quotes
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Sushma Swaraj: The story of India and Bangladesh is a story of a shared struggle,
shared sacrifices, and shared successes.
Vivek Katju: Unlike the past, Bangladesh under Hasina has cooperated with India on
security issues. It has also proceeded to incrementally expand connectivity. It is
combating fundamentalist Islamic forces that are reflexively pro-Pakistan.
Ashok Malik (Observer Research Foundation): "The India-Bangladesh relationship is a

key pillar of India's 'neighbourhood first' policy, highlighting the significance
of strong ties with immediate neighbors." Happymon Jacob: India's engagement with
Bangladesh has been driven by a pragmatic approach,
focusing on mutual benefit and addressing shared challenges.
INDIA - MYANMAR RELATIONS
Write a brief analysis of the ethnic conflicts and cross-border migrations along
India-Myanmar and India-Bangladesh borders. (2021) The struggle for democracy has
been marked by bitter strife and tribulations.' Examine the statement, illustrating
the cases of Pakistan, Nepal and Myanmar. (2015)
Bilateral Data
1. Economic relations
Bilateral Trade: $1.5 Billion

• Trade Relations
o Free Trade Agreement with ASEAN
• Border Haats: Enhancing border area economies, for North east development
⚫ Line of Credit facility by India for railway projects, data link,

telecommunication
⚫ Connectivity infrastructure: IMT trilateral highway, Kaladan project
• India is highest investor in Myanmar's energy sector
2. Strategic and Security relations
Sittwe port: being developed in Myanmar, is seen as counter to Coco Island by China
under its informal Strings of pearls policy
Important link to SouthEast Asia: Myanmar is seen as important country in order to

enhance Indian ties with Southeast ASEAN countries under 'Act East policy'
⚫ Joint Exercises: IMNEX, IMBEX
Stability in North East: E.g., Operation Sunshine, Joint military operation against
extremists along Indo-Myanmar border
3. Cultural Relations
⚫ Free movement Regime: for people across the border
⚫ Tourism: Buddhist monks visit India
• India Myanmar friendship project: Fabricated houses donated to refugees in

Rakhine state • Land Border Crossing Agreement,2018: To facilitate travel on both
sides 5. Multilateral Engagements
SASEC
• BIMSTEC

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East Asia Summit
IMT
India ASEAN Summit
Mekong Ganga Cooperation
Importance of India Myanmar Relations
Energy Security: Myanmar's energy resources, particularly natural gas, are of great
importance to India's energy security. India has invested in gas exploration and
production projects in Myanmar, securing a vital source of energy. Cooperation in
the energy sector contributes to energy diversification and helps meet India's
growing energy demands.
Gateway to ASEAN: Myanmar shares a long border with India and is strategically
located between South Asia and Southeast Asia. Strong bilateral ties with Myanmar
provide India with access to the Southeast Asian region, offering opportunities for
trade, investment, and regional connectivity. Myanmar serves as a crucial link for
India's Act East Policy, aimed at enhancing engagement with ASEAN countries.
Security in North East India: The northeastern states of India share a border with
Myanmar, and the security situation in the region directly impacts both countries.
Addressing insurgency, cross- border smuggling, and other security challenges is
crucial for maintaining peace, stability, and development in the northeast.
Cooperation between India and Myanmar in border management, intelligence sharing,
and counterinsurgency operations are vital for enhancing security in the region.
Strengthening security ties contributes to building trust and deepening the overall
bilateral relationship between the two countries."
Concerns
Military Coup: India has been supportive of Myanmar's democratic transition and has
cultivated close ties with its civilian government. The military coup jeopardizes
the progress made towards democracy in Myanmar, which India sees as a setback for
the region's stability and democratic values.
Insurgency and Terrorism: Myanmar's border regions have been home to several
insurgent groups that pose security threats to both countries. India and Myanmar
have cooperated in addressing these challenges through joint border patrols,
intelligence sharing, and military operations to flush out militant groups.
Rohingya Crisis: The Rohingya crisis, involving the displacement and persecution of
the Rohingya Muslim minority in Myanmar's Rakhine State, has been a significant
challenge for both countries. India's approach to the Rohingya issue, including
concerns about national security and illegal immigration, has at times created
tensions between the two countries.
India's Bilateral Challenge after the Myanmar Coup (Feb. 2021)
India has faced a significant challenge in dealing with the aftermath of the
military coup in Myanmar, as it had to navigate a delicate balance between its
strategic interests and democratic principles. The coup, which took place in
February 2021, resulted in the detention of civilian leaders and sparked widespread
protests and violence in Myanmar.
One of the key challenges for India has been to maintain its strategic engagement
with Myanmar while expressing its concerns about the coup and advocating for a
peaceful resolution. India has emphasized the importance of upholding democratic
values and has called for the release of detained leaders and a return to
democratic processes.
Indian Foreign Secretary Harsh Vardhan Shringla highlighted India's approach,

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always been steadfast in supporting the democratic transition in Myanmar. We have

always expressed our commitment to the democratic process and the rule of law."
India has also faced the challenge of addressing the humanitarian crisis resulting
from the coup, particularly the influx of refugees into neighboring Indian states.
India has provided assistance to those affected by the crisis, including medical
aid and humanitarian support.
Furthermore, India's response to the coup has been influenced by its strategic
interests in the region, including maintaining stability along its northeastern
border and countering China's influence in Myanmar. Balancing these interests with
the need to support democracy has been a complex task for India.
• Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated, "India stands for upholding the democratic
rights of the people of Myanmar. We have been calling for restraint and return to
democratic processes." India has engaged in diplomatic efforts, both bilaterally
and through regional platforms such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN), to encourage dialogue and find a peaceful resolution to the crisis.
Overall, the challenge for India after the Myanmar coup has been to strike a
balance between its strategic interests and democratic principles, while addressing
the humanitarian crisis and supporting the aspirations of the people of Myanmar.
The situation remains fluid, and India continues to navigate these challenges in
its engagement with Myanmar.
China factor in India-Myanmar Relations
Strategic Encirclement: China's increasing influence in Myanmar, particularly

through its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) projects, allows China to gain a
stronger foothold in India's immediate neighbourhood. This raises concerns for
India as it perceives China's expanding presence in Myanmar as part of its larger
strategy to encircle India and potentially limit its regional influence.
。 Example: China's infrastructure projects in Myanmar, such as the Kyaukpyu Port

and the China-Myanmar Economic Corridor, enhance connectivity between China and
Myanmar, bypassing India.
Security Challenges: The proximity of Myanmar to India's northeastern states makes

the region susceptible to security challenges, including cross-border insurgency,
drug trafficking, and illegal arms smuggling. Any instability or lack of control in
Myanmar due to China's involvement can have spill-over effects, affecting India's
security interests in the region.
Competition for Resources: Myanmar possesses abundant natural resources, including

oil, gas, minerals, and agricultural products, which are of strategic importance to
both China and India. China's economic engagement and investment in Myanmar's
resource-rich sectors can potentially limit India's access to these resources and
create competition for economic interests in the country. Chinese Presence in the
Bay of Bengal: Myanmar grants China to have a presence in Coco Island,
located in the Bay of Bengal, which poses a challenge to India's security and
regional influence. Strategically positioned near the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
it raises concerns about China's military capabilities and its "String of Pearls"
strategy.
Way forward for Improvement of relationship

⚫ Ashok Sajjanhar suggests leveraging cultural and civilisational linkages between
India and Myanmar to strengthen bilateral ties. This can be achieved through
promoting cultural exchanges, highlighting shared heritage, and fostering mutual
understanding.
• Harsh V. Pant emphasizes the importance of sharing democratic best practices,

particularly in terms of inclusiveness, with Myanmar. By showcasing India's
democratic values and principles, India can contribute to Myanmar's democratic
transition and promote stability in the region.

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• Rajiv Bhatia proposes the establishment of an India-Myanmar foundation similar to

the one with China, focusing on people-to-people exchanges and enhancing bilateral
cooperation through various initiatives and programs.
• Utilizing platforms like BIMSTEC, as advocated by Institutionalism, can serve as

a means to step up cooperation between India and Myanmar. By strengthening regional
cooperation and creating a security community, both countries can address common
challenges and promote peace and stability in the region.
Amb. Gautam Mukhopadhyay emphasizes the need to diversify trade between India and
Myanmar beyond agricultural products. Achieving the target in trade can be
facilitated by expanding energy trade, such as through the India-Myanmar pipeline.
Additionally, capacity building support for the Myanmar navy can enhance maritime
cooperation between two countries.
Quotes
C. Rajamohan: "India and Myanmar have a strategic partnership that is based on the
principles of sovereignty, equality, and mutual respect. Our collaboration in the
areas of defence, counterterrorism, and regional security contributes to the
stability and development of the Indo- Pacific region."
Shyam Saran: "India's engagement with Myanmar is driven by a 'Look East' policy,
aimed at deepening economic integration, enhancing connectivity, and strengthening
cultural exchanges between our two countries. Myanmar is important pillar in
India's Act East Policy. Brahma Chellaney: India's engagement with Myanmar is
driven by the strategic imperative of
countering China's expanding footprint in the region.
Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan: India's outreach to Myanmar is driven by its desire

to counterbalance China's assertiveness and maintain its influence in the region."
Nitin Gokhale: "The military coup in Myanmar is a reminder of the challenges that
India faces in maintaining stability in its neighbourhood and the need for a
proactive approach in addressing the
situation."
INDIA PAKISTAN RELATIONS
What are the political and environmental contexts of the Siachen Glacier conflict?
Comment on the possibility of environmental peace - keeping and collaborative
arrangements being worked out with Pakistan on this aspect. (250 words) (2012)
Discuss the shift of India's foreign policy towards Pakistan in light of the
Pathankot incident. (2016)
"Despite the differences between India and Pakistan on various issues, the Indus
Water Treaty has stood the test of time." In the light of this statement, discuss
the recent developments over this issue. (2017)
Bilateral Data
1. Economic Relations/Concerns
• Bilateral Trade: The bilateral trade between India and Pakistan has increased to
$1.35 billion during April-December 2022 as against $516.36 million in the previous
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India withdrew MFN status (after Pulwama)
o Pakistan suspended Bilateral Trade (After the August 370 decision)
o India consists of 3% of Pakistan's total trade.
Denied Trade access to Afghanistan and Central Asia via Pakistan
2. People to People ties
History: Historical Cultural Linkages in terms of shared history, language and

cuisines. • Cross-Cultural sites: Bilateral Protocols for access to Religious
shrines. o Example: Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi), Gurudwara Sri Nankana Sahib
(Rawalpindi) Kartarpur corridor: Sikh pilgrimage site
⚫ Pilgrimage Flights: India has given a positive reaction to Pakistan's proposal

of operating mutual flights for pilgrims to religious sites on both sides of the
border.
3. Strategic
Ceasefire Agreement 2021: The DGMOs of both nations signed an agreement to strictly
observe the ceasefire agreements along the LoC and other sectors. • Indus Water
Talks: After almost 2 years talks on the Indus Water treaty began in March 2021
Recent Events
Surgical Strikes (2016): Amid the escalating tensions in Kashmir and Pakistan's
exacerbation of the situation, the assault on Uri Army camp in September 2016
resulted in the deaths of 19 Indian soldiers. Subsequently, the Indian Army
conducted surgical strikes on terrorist infrastructure in Pakistan occupied Kashmir
(PoK) towards the end of September.
• Pulwama Attack (2019): In February 2019, a suicide bombing in Pulwama, Jammu and
Kashmir, carried out by a Pakistan-based terrorist group, resulted in the deaths of
40 Indian paramilitary personnel. This event escalated tensions between the two
countries and led to military skirmishes and heightened hostilities.
⚫ Balakot Airstrikes (2019): In response to the Pulwama attack, the Indian Air
Force conducted airstrikes on alleged terrorist camps in Balakot, Pakistan. This
marked the first time since the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War that Indian jets crossed
the Line of Control (LoC) into Pakistan-administered territory. The situation
escalated rapidly, with both countries engaging in aerial combat.
⚫ Abrogation of Article 370 (2019): In August 2019, the Indian government revoked
Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, which granted special autonomous status to
the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistan strongly condemned this move, claiming it
violated international law and exacerbated tensions between the two countries.
⚫ Ongoing Cross-Border Attacks: There have been several instances of ceasefire

violations and cross-border attacks along the Line of Control (LoC) and the
International Border between India and Pakistan. These incidents have resulted in
casualties on both sides and further strained bilateral relations.
⚫ Kartarpur Corridor: Despite the tense relations, the opening of the Kartarpur
Corridor in November 2019 was seen as a positive development. The corridor allows
Indian Sikh pilgrims to visit the Gurdwara Darbar Sahib in Kartarpur, Pakistan,
without requiring a visa. It was seen as a confidence-building measure between the
two countries.
Causes for the Conflictual Nature
1. Kashmir Dispute: Both countries claim sovereignty over the entire region,
leading to ongoing conflicts, border skirmishes, and diplomatic tensions. Further,
Kashmir's militancy and terrorism is directly funded by Pakistan and its agencies
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⚫Pakistan Occupied Kashmir: India maintains that the entire territory of Jammu and
Kashmir, including Pok, is an integral part of India, and it has consistently
called for the complete reunification of the region under Indian sovereignty. India
has raised concerns about the human rights situation in PoK and the lack of
democratic governance.
2. Siachen Dispute: The conflict over Siachen began in 1984 when India launched
Operation Meghdoot, taking control of the glacier and establishing military
outposts. Since then, both countries have maintained a military presence in the
region. The dispute stems from differing: interpretations of the Line of Control
(LOC) beyond the agreed termination point, leading to conflicting territorial
claims.
3. Sir Creek Dispute: The dispute is over a 96-kilometer-long tidal estuary known
as Sir Creek. It is located in the Rann of Kutch area in the westernmost part of
the India-Pakistan border. The disagreement revolves around the demarcation of the
maritime boundary in the Sir Creek region. Both countries have differing
interpretations of the course of the creek and the boundary line, leading to
conflicting claims over the area.
4. Colonial Legacy: The partition of British India in 1947, resulting in the

creation of India and Pakistan as separate nations, was accompanied by widespread
violence and displacement. The traumatic events of partition have left a lasting
impact on the psyche of both nations and continue to shape their relations.
5. Nuclear Deterrence: The presence of nuclear weapons in both India and Pakistan
has significantly influenced the dynamics of the dispute. The theory of nuclear
deterrence suggests that the possession of nuclear capabilities by both countries
has created a delicate balance of power, preventing full-scale war but also
perpetuating a state of perpetual hostility and low-intensity conflicts.
But after the Balakot Air strikes against Pakistan in response to Pulwama, many
scholars like Brahma Chellany have opined that Pakistan's nuclear bluff has been
called off by India 6. External Influences: The support and influence of countries
like the United States, China, and Russia have shaped the trajectory of the
conflict. External interventions, both overt and covert,
have influenced the balance of power and complicated efforts for resolution.
• Example: Currently, Chinese stakes in Pakistan are so high that Pakistan cannot
negotiate dispute redressal with India without the support of China and since China
sees India as a regional rival it will never want India-Pakistan ties to get
better.
7. Nationalism: Conflicting nationalist aspirations and competing narratives of

history contribute to the animosity and deep-seated mistrust between the two
nations.
8. Pakistan's sponsor of Terror: India has consistently raised concerns about

Pakistan's support for militant groups operating in the region. Pakistan, on the
other hand, has denied allegations of state- sponsored terrorism and has maintained
that it is itself a victim of terrorism
•Example: Several major terrorist attacks in India, such as the 2001 Parliament
attack, the 2008 Mumbai attacks, and the 2019 Pulwama attack, have been linked to
Pakistan-based militant groups.
Evolution of India's Pakistan Policy
Initial Years (1947-1965): In the early years after independence, India adopted a
policy of conciliation and sought to establish friendly relations with Pakistan.
Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, emphasized the importance of
resolving disputes through dialogue and peaceful means. The signing of the Indus
Waters Treaty in 1960 was a notable achievement during this period.

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Wars and Tensions (1965-1971): The outbreak of the Indo-Pakistani war in 1965
strained bilateral relations. India's policy shifted towards a more assertive
stance as it sought to counter Pakistan's aggression. The 1971 Indo-Pakistani war
and the subsequent creation of Bangladesh led to a significant shift in regional
dynamics and further strained relations.
• Bilateral Engagement (1972-1998): The signing of the Simla Agreement in 1972

marked a turning point in India's policy towards Pakistan. It emphasized bilateral
negotiations and a commitment to resolving disputes peacefully. However, occasional
conflicts and tensions persisted, including the Kargil conflict in 1999.
• Peace Process and Confidence-Building Measures (1998-2008): The late 1990s saw a
renewed emphasis on peace-building initiatives and confidence-building measures.
The Lahore Declaration in 1999 and the Agra Summit in 2001 aimed to normalize
relations and address contentious issues. However, the peace process was derailed
by the 2001 Parliament attack and subsequent events. ⚫ Terrorism and Limited
Engagement (2008-present): Following the 2008 Mumbai attacks,
which were attributed to Pakistan-based militants, India adopted a more cautious

and selective approach to engagement. It prioritized the issue of cross-border
terrorism and insisted on concrete" actions by Pakistan to address it. Bilateral
talks have been intermittent, with periods of both engagement and diplomatic
standoffs.
Various policy options to deal with Pakistan
1. Interdependence (Manmohan formula):
⚫ Resume cross-border trade between India and Pakistan, following the model of
trade relations with China.
• Transition from indirect trade to direct trade, promoting economic

interdependence between the two countries..
2. Functionalism (Vajpayee Formula):
• Resume the composite dialogue process based on the 2+6 framework, addressing
various aspects of the bilateral relationship.
Promote functional cooperation in areas of mutual interest, such as trade, cultural

exchanges, and people-to-people contacts.
3. Realist view (Rajiv Sikri):
• Adopt an assertive diplomatic approach in dealing with Pakistan, taking a firm

stance against terrorism.
• Refrain from compromising on national security interests and maintain a strong

deterrent posture.
• Address the issue of Kashmir alienation and work towards finding a lasting
solution. Counter radicalization efforts to prevent the growth of extremist
ideologies. 4. Cold Start Doctrine: Sumit Ganguly.
Focus on deterrence by denial, ensuring adequate military forces are stationed in

Kashmir to respond effectively to any security threats.
• Emphasize counter-insurgency operations to maintain stability in the region. •

Address the underlying issues of Kashmir's alienation to reduce tensions and
promote peace. • Take proactive measures to prevent the spread of radicalization
and extremist ideologies.
India's Pakistan Policy under Prime Minister Modi
Diplomatic Isolation of Pakistan: Diplomatic Isolation of Pakistan: India has

focused on diplomatically isolating Pakistan on the international stage,
particularly in the context of highlighting Pakistan's support for terrorism.
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providing safe havens to terrorist groups and garnering international support for
curbing such activities.
'Pakistan's role in sponsoring terrorism was extensively discussed and scrutinized

in international forums, which put pressure on Pakistan to take concrete action
against terrorist groups operating from its soil.
Doval Doctrine: One of the key principles of the Doval Doctrine is the concept of
"offensive defense" or "defensive offense." It suggests that India should adopt
defensive measures to protect its interests but also maintain an offensive posture
to deter and respond effectively to any aggression.
Example: One example of the application of the Doval Doctrine is India's surgical
strikes carried out in September 2016. The surgical strikes were conducted swiftly
and with precision, sending a strong message to Pakistan about India's capability
and willingness to take necessary action to safeguard its security.
Conditional Bilateralism: No Bilateral Talks without Concrete Action: India has

emphasized any meaningful dialogue or engagement with Pakistan can only take place
if there is a visible verifiable reduction in cross-border terrorism.
Theoretical Analysis of the Conflictual Relationsship Realism Realism is a

prominent perspective in India-Pakistan relations, emphasizing power, security, and
self-interest. It acknowledges the competitive nature of their relationship Nuclear
Deterrence Nuclear deterrence has raised the threshold for conflict escalation. The
possession of nuclear weapons has made the costs of any aggression uch higher
Security Dilemma Conflictual nature of the partition, numerous wars, and nuclear
arms race) showcase how Pakistan faces intense, security dillemma from India Threat
Perception Under Social Constructivism, it can also be said that the conflict is
largely a result of perspective which views the other country through the weight of
history, colonialism and threat perceptions.
Pakistan's New Security Policy On 28 December 2021, the Pakistan cabinet approved
its first National Security Policy (NSP) document aimed at guiding its defence and
foreign policies.
Key Points
Pursuing Peace with India: Of particular importance is the NSP's emphasis on

pursuing peace with India. It mentions that 'Pakistan, under its policy of peace at
home and abroad, wishes to improve its relationship with India.
J&K Resolution: Further, it says that a just and peaceful resolution of Jammu and
Kashmir remains a 'core issue' for the bilateral relationship.
Economic Security: It stated the ultimate purpose of national security was to

ensure the safety, security and dignity of the citizens of Pakistan. "To ensure
this citizen-centric approach to security,

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the NSP put economic security at the core. Impact on India-Pakistan Relations
No Real Promise: In Pakistan, the civilian government is often not the decision-
maker but rather the deep state - Army.
No Real change on Kashmir: There was a separate section on Kashmir, where the
policy document reiterated Pakistan's traditional position, thus no improvement in
Pakistan's stance on the issue. Critical of Indian Government: The political
exploitation of a policy of belligerence towards Pakistan by India's leadership has
led to the threat of military adventurism and non-contact warfare to our immediate
east.
Indication for Talks: The policy highlights that Pakistan is finding it

increasingly difficult to ignore India while being plagued by multiple domestic
issues.
Does the new policy indicate a change in Pakistan's position on India?
⚫ Seeking Regional Peace: Pakistan is willing to make peace with immediate

neighbours, including India, under its first-ever National Security Policy leaves
doors open for trade with New Delhi • Emphasis on Economics: The Statement stated
that Economic security would be the central theme of the new national security
policy" thus giving hints at possible trade ties and reduction of cross-
border skirmishes to secure trade routes.
• Change in Army's Stance: With both the civil and military authorities in Pakistan
on the same page as far as an outreach to India is concerned, there is now an
opportunity before both India and Kashmir Issue: Pakistan has been critical
regarding the dilution of Article 370 and has maintained its stance on Kashmir.
Pakistan to try and reset their bilateral relationship. Example: Pakistan Army
seems to have realised that unending state of hostility is dragging Pakistan down
and creating existential problems. No
Question government positions: It has increasingly labelled the Government of India

as being partisan to Hindu interests and leading a majoritarian agenda, such
questions do not favour any change in the relations.
Questions about the Indian Army: Pakistan is concerned about the "growing Indian
arms buildup, facilitated by access to advanced technologies and exceptions in the
non-proliferation rules".
Criticises Indian Security Policy: The policy also questions the expansion of
India's nuclear triad, open-ended statements on nuclear policy, and investments in
and introduction of destabilising technologies disturb the strategic balance in the
region.
Various Strategic Terminologies
Policy of Thousand Cuts: The policy of "a thousand cuts" refers to a strategy
attributed to Pakistan, particularly its intelligence agency, Inter-Services
Intelligence (ISI), in dealing with India. The term suggests that rather than
engaging in full-scale warfare, Pakistan aims to inflict a multitude of small-
scale attacks and acts of violence in a sustained manner. These acts include
supporting and sponsoring militant groups and insurgents to carry out terrorist
activities, infiltration across the border, and fomenting unrest in regions like
Jammu and Kashmir. The policy aims to destabilize India and keep it engaged in
internal security challenges, thereby weakening its position and diverting its
resources.
Cold Start Doctrine: The Cold Start Doctrine is a military strategy developed by
India to enable a rapid and limited offensive response in the event of a conflict
with Pakistan. It aims to deter cross- border terrorism by emphasizing proactive
mobilization and quick military action while avoiding a

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full-scale nuclear confrontation. Example: The Balakot airstrike in February 2019

can be seen as an example related to the Cold Start Doctrine.
Quotes
Hussain Haqqani: In his book "India vs Pakistan: Why cant we just be friends" he
says inspite of huge economic and military power assymetry, illusions of parity
with India drives the deep state in pakistan to pursue assymtric warfare in the
form of terrorism.
Stephen Cohen: In his book, "Shooting for a century" he says that Paired minority
conflict between an Islamist Pakistan and a "Hindu" India and says even after a
century of partition (2047) there would be no substantive changes in relationship.
⚫ Sumit Ganguly: Conflict of identity between an Islamist Pakistan and "Secular"

India. ⚫ S. Jaishankar: Ours is really not just a story of missed opportunities
but also of deliberate obstacles. Terrorism is among them.
INDUS WATER TREATY
Blood and water cannot flow together: PM Modi on Indus Water Treaty
The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) is a water-sharing agreement between India and
Pakistan that was signed on September 19, 1960, with the mediation of the World
Bank. The treaty was designed to address the distribution of water from the Indus
River and its tributaries, which flow through both countries.
Under the treaty, the control and use of the three eastern rivers (Beas, Ravi, and
Sutlej) were given to India, while Pakistan was given control over the three
western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab). The treaty established mechanisms for
sharing and regulating the water flow between the two countries, including the
establishment of the Indus Water Commission to resolve disputes and facilitate
cooperation.
Terms of the Treaty
Rivers and Water Distribution: The treaty classifies the six rivers of the Indus
basin into two categories: the Eastern Rivers (Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej) and the
Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab). India has unrestricted use of the
Eastern Rivers, while Pakistan has exclusive rights over the Western Rivers.
Water Sharing: The treaty provides specific allocations of water to each country.
India is allowed to use the waters of the Eastern Rivers for various purposes,
including irrigation, domestic use, and hydropower generation. Pakistan receives a
guaranteed amount of water from the Western Rivers for agriculture and other uses.
Permanent Indus Commission: The treaty establishes the Permanent Indus Commission
(PIC), consisting of representatives from India and Pakistan, to manage the
implementation of the treaty. The PIC facilitates cooperation, exchange of data,
and resolution of disputes related to the treaty. • Prohibited Activities: The
treaty restricts both countries from undertaking certain activities that could
negatively impact the other's water supply. This includes constructing any storage
works, irrigation systems, or hydroelectric power projects that could interfere
with the natural flow of the rivers.
⚫ Dispute Resolution: The IWT has provisions for resolving disputes between India
and Pakistan related to the treaty. Disputes that cannot be resolved by the PIC are
referred to neutral experts or to a court of arbitration, as outlined in the
treaty.
• World Bank Mediation: The treaty was mediated and facilitated by the World Bank,
which
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played a crucial role in negotiating and drafting the agreement. The World Bank
continues to play a role in facilitating discussions and resolving disputes related
to the treaty.
Issues in the Treaty
Kishenganga and Ratle Hydroelectric Projects: Pakistan has raised objections to the
construction of two hydroelectric projects by India, namely the Kishenganga project
on the Neelum River (a tributary of the Jhelum River) and the Ratle project on the
Chenab River. Pakistan has expressed concerns about the potential impact of these
projects on its water supply and has sought resolution through the Permanent Indus
Commission and international arbitration.
• Pakistan based Terrorism: The issue of cross-border terrorism and its impact on
bilateral relations between India and Pakistan also has implications for the
implementation of the IWT. Disputes and tensions between the two countries can
spill over into discussions and cooperation related to water sharing and management
under the treaty.
• Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: The effectiveness of the dispute resolution

mechanisms outlined in the IWT has been a subject of debate. Both countries have at
times raised concerns about the pace and outcomes of dispute resolution processes.
There have been calls for strengthening these mechanisms and making them more
efficient and transparent.
Way Forward
Basin-wise Approach: This approach involves managing the water resources of the
entire Indus Basin as an interconnected system, rather than focusing on individual
projects or rivers. By adopting this basin-wise approach, both India and Pakistan
can work towards optimizing water use and management for the benefit of both
countries.
Greater utilisation Flexibility: Many experts have called for changes that would
allow for the transfer of water from one river basin to another, increased storage
capacities, and the use of the waters for non-consumptive purposes such as
hydropower generation. These proposed modifications aim to optimize the utilization
of water resources under the treaty. However, any alterations to the IWT would
require the agreement of both India and Pakistan, highlighting the importance of
bilateral cooperation in achieving these changes.
Quotes
Brahma Chellaney: The Indus Waters Treaty is a remarkable achievement in water

diplomacy, providing a legal framework for sharing the waters of the Indus Basin.
It demonstrates the importance of sustained commitment to dialogue and compromise
in resolving complex water disputes."
• KPS Gill: The Indus Waters Treaty, while successful in preventing direct conflict
over water, has failed to address the broader issues of water governance and
management in the region.
Dealing with Pakistan's terrorism
1. MK Narayan (Former NSA):
Advocate for India to act with restraint and maintain a mature image on the global
stage. • Emphasize the importance of India avoiding actions that would make it
appear as a rogue state. Highlight the challenges posed by Pakistan, comparing it
to a basket case similar to North Korea. • Emphasize the need for India to manage
its relationships with neighboring countries, recognizing that it cannot choose its
neighbors.

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⚫ Suggest focusing on cyber warfare instead of using the Baluchistan card.
2. Happymon Jacob:
Call for a more nuanced and strategic approach in engaging with stakeholders in
Pakistan. Caution against relying solely on military options as the best approach.
Reference to Clausewitz's view that war is an act of senseless passion, implying

the need for alternative means of dealing with Pakistan.
Advocate for creative statecraft and out-of-the-box diplomacy to effectively

address the complex challenges posed by Pakistan.
3. Suhasini Haider: • Compare the relationship between India and Pakistan to a game
of chess, highlighting the need for strategic thinking and avoiding predictable
moves. Caution against falling into a copycat trap with Pakistan, suggesting the
importance of maintaining a unique and independent approach.
NEIGHBOURHOOD FIRST POLICY
Components
Prioritizing Neighbors: The core concept of the policy is to address neighborhoods

within the first concentric circle of foreign policy. ⚫ Conflict Resolution: All
existing conflicts of the region which have historically hampered the
progress of integration
Integrating Relations: Integrating relations across cultural, trade, political and

economic parameters.
• Soft Borders: To facilitate cross border movement of people and good with more
open borders and convenient transportation.
⚫ Bilateral Visits: The increased importance is reflected in the PM's multiple
visits to every regional nation in the last few years.
Importance/Advantages
1. Consensus Based Dialogue: By engaging with neighboring countries and fostering

political connectivity through discussion, it concentrates on tenacious regional
diplomacy. The first step in this strategy was to invite everyone.
2. Improved Trade and Economics: It emphasizes strengthening business ties with

neighbors. Example: The Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) grouping for energy
development, including the management of waterpower and inter-grid connectivity, is
one example of this.
3. Foreign Policy Continuity: It complements India's Look East policy focused on

Southeast Asia and Look West Policy focused on the Middle East.
4. Securitising regional Interests: Indian concerns regarding extremists and

illegal activities
targeting India has been a fundamental area for boosting neighborhood policies.
Example: Extending aid to Afghanistan and expanding presence in Afghan
Infrastructure to contain any Afghan origin threats.
5. Regional Stability: India would be able to pursue its foreign policy objectives
through stability, which will also help other South Asian nations flourish and
develop. • Example: Resolution of the ULFA camps in Bangladesh aided Indo-
Bangladesh ties to expand to other areas.

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6. Disaster Management: Disaster management: India's offer cooperation on disaster

response, resource management, weather forecasting and communication and also
capabilities and expertise in disaster management for all South Asian citizens.
7. Resolving bilateral issues: Focus is on resolving bilateral issues through

mutual agreement. Example: India and Bangladesh have signed a pact to
operationalise the historic Land Boundary Agreement (LBA).
8. Investment Climate: Peace and stability can also ensure better markets for
Investment and trade expansion for India.
Example: Currently only 5% of trade in SAARC is between neighboring countries. 9.

Consolidating Historical Ties: Cultural and social ties are expensive in the region
however without focus they are seem to be impacted by poor political climates.
10. Countering China-Pak Nexus: Prioritizing neighbors ensures China is kept out of
more integrated engagements compared to India.
Example: Many SAARC neighbors are part of China's BRI network. 11. Overcoming Post
Colonialism: Or overcoming the regional ethnic and social issues emanating from the
partition and its aftermath.
Example: India and Bangladesh resolved their border issue through mutual agreement.
12. Core area of Soft Power: As part of the development assistance, the Indian
government allocated
INR22,660 million to Bhutan, INR7,500 million to Nepal, INR6,000 million to

Myanmar, INR3,600 million to the Maldives, INR3,000 million to Bangladesh and
INR2,000 million to Sri Lanka, respectively.
1. Indian Dominance: India's neighbors have traditionally viewed India as an

hegemon in the region and as dominating in internal affairs.
Example: In 2021, Sri Lanka accused India of meddling in internal issues. 2.

History of Conflict: India has fought 3 wars with pakistan and thus reduced the
trust levels to a point of almost no return.
3. Existing Issues: Issues such as illegal migration, drug trafficking, fishing

disputes have remained largely unaddressed bilaterally.
4. Anti-Indian Sentiments: Many regional nations have nationalistic parties solely

based on the Anti-India propaganda.
Example: Nepalese elections are decided by which party has offensive stance towards
India. 5. Riparian Issues: India has long standing riverine issues with Bangladesh,
Nepal and Pakistan. 6. Ethnic Conflicts: Communal conflicts still exist among the
nations which have a negative impact on integrating ties.
Example: Increased violence against Hindus in Bangladesh and Pakistan. 7. Poor

Connectivity: With exception of Nepal and Bhutan, India's border connectivity with
the rest of its neighbors is marred with infrastructure issues.
Solutions to improve the relation with neighbours
To improve India's neighborhood policy, several key actions can be taken:
• Principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of neighbours: India should

refrain from intervening in the internal affairs of its neighbors. Historical
instances of Indian influence in countries like Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives
have often backfired. Instead, India should allow events to unfold naturally and
then deal accordingly, avoiding unnecessary interference. • Importance of dealing
with whoever is in power in a neighboring country: India should

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prioritize national interests over the wellbeing of a neighbour's democratic

institutions. It is crucial to maintain engagement with whichever government is in
power, whether democratically elected or not, as there is no guarantee that a
democratic country will be pro-India. Focus should be on how the relationship
affects India, rather than who is in power.
Importance of patient diplomacy: India should adopt a patient and consistent

approach in its diplomatic engagements with neighbouring countries. Quick fixes and
grand events should not replace sustained efforts at engagement. Building strong
relationships requires dedicated diplomatic personnel and a long-term strategy for
engaging with neighbors.
Be careful of what you say: India should be cautious of its public statements
regarding neighbouring countries. Words have the power to create misunderstandings
and strain relationships. It is essential to choose words wisely and avoid making
derogatory or inflammatory remarks that may damage bilateral ties.
⚫ Treat them as equals and use power with humility: India should treat its
neighbors as equal partners and avoid condescension. Humility and respect can go a
long way in building trust and fostering better relations. It is important to
refrain from boasting or making aggressive statements that may be perceived as a
display of power.
Match China on what India does better: Instead of competing with China in areas
where it excels, such as infrastructure development, India should focus on
leveraging its strengths. India can leverage its rich ethnic, religious, and
historical connections with South Asian states to strengthen bilateral and
multilateral relations. Initiatives like the South Asian University and civilian
aid to Afghanistan are examples of leveraging pre-existing linkages.
⚫ Fulfill promises: India should ensure the timely delivery of promised

infrastructure development and other projects in the region. By fulfilling
commitments, India can build trust and demonstrate its reliability as a partner. It
is important to recognize the competition in the region and reform the way India
conducts business with its neighbors.
• Resurrect SAARC: India should revive and actively engage with the South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAARC is an India-centric
institution, and its revival would demonstrate India's commitment to regional
cooperation. It provides a platform for dialogue and collaboration among South
Asian countries and should not be cold-shouldered. By implementing these measures,
India can improve its neighbourhood policy, foster stronger
relationships, and enhance regional integration and cooperation.
BAY OF BENGAL INITIATIVE FOR MULTI-SECTORAL TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC COOPERATION

(BIMSTEC)
Significance of BIMSTEC
1. Strategic
• Regional aspirations: The Bay of Bengal has grown in strategic significance

within the Indo- Pacific, especially due to the contest between India and China for
maximum presence.
。 For example: Chinas string of pearls policy and maritime silk route and for
India- BIMSTEC is key to fulfil the country's strategic aspirations to cater to the
wider concept of 'Indo-Pacific' and an Indian Ocean community.
⚫ A zone of geopolitical competition: Among major powers and especially in the
context of overarching initiatives like Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
2. Economic

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• Trade potential: The Bay of Bengal is the largest bay in the world and is the
route for about 25 percent of global trade.
• A zone of Natural Reserve: The Bay also has huge reserves for natural gas which
is an untapped source of energy.
• At global level: The Bay of Bengal (BOB) region is home to 1.68 billion people,
accounting for almost 22 percent of the world population, with a combined GDP of
US$ 3.7 trillion. 3. Regional cooperation
⚫ Alternative to SAARC: Due to setbacks to South Asian Association of Regional

Cooperation, BIMSTEC seeks to act as a bridge between South and Southeast Asia,
making it a natural platform to fulfil our key foreign policy priorities of
'Neighbourhood First' and 'Act East'. 4. Security:
Connective link: It borders the Strait of Malacca which is the main energy lane for
the eastern and Southeast Asian nations.
Potential for India:Presents opportunity to enhance its Blue Economy and Maritime
Security. • Provide Regional security: Piracy and trafficking, depleting fish
stocks, and irregular migration are some issues, which plague bay and require
regional cooperation in their dealing.
Importance for India
Bypasses Pakistan: It helps bypass the stalling of Pakistan seen in SAARC and makes
resolutions more in Indian interest.
• ASEAN Connect: It helps the subcontinent connect more institutionally with the
ASEAN nations through Myanmar and Thailand
• Market Access: It is an effective platform for India to converge on economic

interests of region North-East development: Increasing cooperation with Myanmar and
Thailand can benefit the North East which shares a long border with Myanmar.
⚫ Soft Power:Showcases India's influence over region and helps extend its culture
to these nations. • Maritime Trade and Security: It can also help develop maritime
ties in a holistic manner with Thailand and Myanmar and Sri Lanka.
Challenges with BIMSTEC
Untapped potential: The Bay of Bengal's potential is hamstrung by a lack of close

internal economic integration among the countries that call the region home.
• Physical infrastructure: The BIMSTEC region is beleaguered by poor road and rail
connectivity, insufficient last-mile links and cumbersome customs and clearance
procedures which hampers trade and people-to-people interactions.
• Asymmetries among members:For example- Myanmar is possibly the most unreliable in

terms of its domestic politics due to the Rohingya crisis, Bhutan is understandably
protective about the conservation of its environment and so on.
• Free Trade Agreement (FTA): Despite signing a framework agreement for a

comprehensive FTA in 2004, BIMSTEC stands far away from this goal due to
protectionist economies of South Asian countries and so-called national interests.
⚫ Perception of Indian hegemony: There is an impression that it is an India-

dominated bloc, a problem that India faced for a long time in SAARC too.
⚫ Relevance of SAARC: In order to maintain regional peace cannot be denied. • Over

presence of China: In BIMSTEC where major countries are dependent on China for one
or the other reason. For example: Debt trap policy of China, BRI, Marine silk
route.

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Unresolved Issues: like Rohingyas (Myanmar), Kalapani territory Issue(Nepal),

Teesta and Border issues(Bangladesh) etc. Strategic Importance of Afghanistan and
Maldives: Afghanistan for border security and Maldives for Indian Ocean region.
Both are not part of BIMSTEC
Inconsistent Meetings: Only 5 summits have taken place in 25 years.
Lack of convergence: Myanmar and Thailand are more institutionalised with ASEAN and
do not converge much with the other nations.
Stalled Projects: Most of the projects are still in the initial stages or have been
delayed like the Asian Trilateral Highway.
SAARC Regional organisation looking into South Asia. Established in 1985; a product
of the Cold War era. BIMSTEC Interregional organisation connecting South Asia and
South East Asia. Established in 1997 in the post-Cold War. Members maintain
reasonably friendly relations Member countries suffer for mistrust and Balancing of
power with the presence of suspicion. Asymmetric power balance Intra-regional trade
only 5 percent Thailand and India on the bloc. Intra-regional trade has increased
around 6 percent in a decade
BIMSTEC as an alternative to SAARC?
1. Yes
Stable group: With established government structure, all nations have cordial
bilateral relations with each other. India's Act East Policy: with focus more and
more on improving relation with ASEAN and other East Asian countries Better
Connectivity Prospects: with Projects like Kaladan Multimodal Project, IMT
Trilateral highway
• Good Intra Regional Trade: 7% of total trade as compared to 5% among SAARC

members. ⚫ More effective regional Group: with no Pakistan and Afghanistan 2. No
Non-Inclusive: Due to Absence of Pakistan and Afghanistan, it does not include the
major issue in the region India-Pakistan.
Inconsistency: The BIMSTEC is inconsistent in its mandate and meetings, however

SAARC is much more institutionalised and is much more regular since the last 3
decades. Strategic Relevance: The SAARC allows India to strategically engage with
Pakistan and
resolve the issues multilaterally.
Connectivity: SAARC offers opportunities to connect with three strategically

important regions, Central Asia, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia
Neighbourhood First: SAARC represents entire subcontinent and thus is closer to

India's neighbourhood policy than BIMSTEC
Recent BIMSTEC summit -its outcome and BIMSTEC charter
The main outcome of the Summit was the adoption and signing of the BIMSTEC Charter,
which formalizes the grouping into an organization made up of members states that
are littoral to, and dependent upon, the Bay of Bengal.

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Main outcome of summit and BIMSTEC charter
⚫ BIMSTEC Charter: The signing of the BIMSTEC Charter established the

organization's formal structure and international personality. It defined the
purpose and principles that member countries will adhere to and established a
regular meeting schedule of once every two years. ⚫ Organizational Identity: With
the Charter, BIMSTEC gained a distinct visual representation through the adoption
of an emblem and a flag.
• Division of Work: The leaders of the member countries agreed to divide the
working of BIMSTEC into seven segments, with India leading the security pillar,
ensuring focused cooperation in different areas.
• Connectivity and Cooperation: The summit resulted in the declaration of the

Master Plan for Transport Connectivity, which aims to enhance regional and domestic
connectivity. Additionally, member countries signed agreements on mutual legal
assistance on criminal matters and the establishment of the BIMSTEC Technology
Transfer Facility.
⚫ Operational Support: India pledged to provide USD 1 million to the BIMSTEC
Secretariat, increasing its operational budget and supporting the organization's
activities.
Conclusion on BIMSTEC
India should adopt a proactive and pragmatic approach towards BIMSTEC, recognizing
its geo-strategic importance. Establishing a separate BIMSTEC division within the
Ministry of External Affairs would further enhance coordination and effectiveness
in promoting regional cooperation and strengthening engagement with member
countries.

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UNIT 4: INDIA AND THE GLOBAL SOUTH: RELATIONS WITH AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA
Discuss the factors for the decline of India's presence in Latin America. (2015) ⚫
Suggest measures so that India's partnership with Africa becomes a true symbol of
South-South Cooperation, delivering clear-cut economic and political dividends to
both sides of the equation. (2017)
"India's capacity building programmes under the Indian Technical and Economic
Cooperation (ITEC) has earned much goodwill for it in Africa." Discuss. (2018)
"India's Research and Information System for Development Countries" (RIS) is a
major
initiative in the area of South-South Cooperation. Discuss. (2018)
How is India pursuing her foreign policy objectives through the IBSA Dialogue Forum
(India, Brazil and South Africa)? (2019)
• How do the guiding principles of India-Africa relations seek to enhance harmony

and mutual cooperation between India and Africa? (2020)
Identify the drivers of India's new interest in Africa. (2021)
INDIA- AFRICA
Bilateral Data
1. Economic
Trade relations: India is currently Africa's fourth-largest trading partner and

Africa's third- largest export destination.
Bilateral trade: In 2020-21, India's exports to and imports from Africa stood,
respectively, at $27.7 billion and $28.2 billion.
Line of Credit (LOC): After South Asia, Africa is the second-largest recipient of
Indian overseas assistance with LOC worth nearly $10 billion (42% of the total)
spread over 100 projects in 41 countries.
Top 5 markets for India: India's top five markets today are South Africa, Nigeria,
Egypt, Kenya and Togo.
Exports from India: India's top three exports to Africa are mineral fuels and oils
(processed petroleum products), pharmaceutical products and vehicles.
Import from Africa: Mineral fuels and oils, (essentially crude oil) and pearls,
precious or semiprecious stones are the top imports accounting for over 77% of our
imports from Africa. 2. Political
Visits: From 2014 onwards, there have been a total of 29 visits to African
countries from the Indian side at the level of President, Vice President, and Prime
Minister, apart from several ministerial level visits.
⚫ Indian Missions in Africa: Opening of 18 new Indian Missions in Africa over a

period of four years from 2018-2021
India Africa Forum Summit: India has started engagement with African Union (Pan
African Platform).
4. Security
Peacekeeping: Approximately 6,000 Indian soldiers are deployed in UN peace-keeping

missions in five conflict zones in Africa.

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Military training: Capacity building and training of African military officers in

Indian institutes has long remained a cornerstone of defence ties. ⚫ AFINDEX-19:
Africa-India conducted Field Training Exercise-2019, called AFINDEX-19. 5. Cultural
Follow up of India ideals: After India's independence the factors like the success
of Gandhian non-violent methods, establishment and survival of modern ideals of
secularism, development etc. in India, despite various hurdles, etc. became
important models for many young African nations.
People to people contact:
o Diaspora: There are more than three million people of Indian origin in Africa
today. 。 Scholarships: 40% of all training and capacity building slots under the
Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) Programme have traditionally been
reserved for Africa. India provides about 50,000 scholarships to African students
each year.
Self-Help Group and Africa: Ethiopia and South Africa are working with
Kudumbashree, a self-help group movement created by the Government of Kerala aimed
at eradicating poverty and empowering women.
⚫ PAEN: India's digital cooperation with Africa is the Pan African e-Network (PAN)
project on tele-education (e-VidyaBharati) and telemedicine (e-ArogyaBharati),
launched in 2004.
Africa has transitioned from being viewed as the "Dark Continent" to a continent of
hope. India-Africa relations are deeply rooted in cultural, historical, and
commercial ties. The ideologies of Vasudhiva Kutumbakam and Ubuntu highlight the
shared spirit of cosmopolitanism between India and Africa.
The strong emotional link and the pillar of Indian foreign policy are based on the
warmth and depth of the relationship.
Former Vice President Hamid Ansari identified four imperatives for cooperation,
including Common historical experiences,
⚫ Complementarities in strengths,
• Common approach to development
• Convergence on global matters. The partnership between India and Africa is

essential for their collective progress and development.
Importance of Africa
1. Geostrategic:
Security: Africa is critical to India's security, especially the Horn of Africa

region, because of its proximity with India. The threat of radicalism, piracy,
organized crime emerges from this region
⚫ Energy diversification: India is seeking diversification of its oil supplies

away from the Middle East and Africa can play an important role in India's energy
matrix. 2. Economic:
• Growth pole of the world: Africa is home to over half a dozen of the fastest
growing countries of this decade such as Rwanda, Senegal, and Tanzania etc. making
it one of the growth poles of the world.

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Potential market: African continent has a population of over one billion with a
combined GDP of 2.5 trillion dollars making it a huge potential market.
⚫ Resource rich: Africa is a resource rich nation dominated by commodities like
crude oil, gas, pulses and lentils, leather, gold and other metals, all of which
India lack in sufficient quantities. o Example: Nigeria is the 5th largest crude
oil supplier to India. While gold and other precious metals accounts for 16
percent.
Agriculture: Africa has ample agricultural land which cab address India's food
security. India is looking at leasing land in Africa to overcome the land deficit
that we face in terms of arable land.
Example: India has entered into agreements with Malawi and Mozambique for the
import of pulses.
3. Geopolitical:
⚫ UNSC support: Support of African countries is important for India's aim of

gaining a permanent seat in UNSC
⚫ Display of power: Africa provides a space for displaying both India's soft and
hard power
Quotes
S. Jaishankar: "India as Africa's most steadfast partner, whose projects would

"empower rather than extract from local communities"
Shashi Tharoor: "African countries admire China, but want to be like India"
Rajiv Bhatia: In his article, "This time for Africa," he emphasizes the urgency for
India and Japan to take swift and coordinated measures to counterbalance China's
presence in Africa and enhance their own strategic interests in the region.
Harsh V Pant: Africa is a strategic priority for India as it offers immense

opportunities for trade, investment, and partnerships. India's engagement with
Africa is driven by a desire for mutual growth and development."
C. Rajamohan: "Africa's rise presents India with an opportunity to expand its

economic and geopolitical influence. India sees Africa as a valuable partner in
achieving its own developmental goals and addressing global challenges.
Significance of India-Africa Relations
1. Historical foreign policy linkages: India's foreign policy ideas after

Independence impacted
African decolonisation movements. Bandung conference: India's role in organising

the 1955 Bandung conference marked the first time that Asian and African countries
came together to denounce imperialism and colonialism.
NAM: With the subsequent pioneering of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), India
established many links to African nations.
Strong people-to-people connection: Historically, Indian traders travelled

regularly to the East African coast, forming relationships with local inhabitants
in ports leading to the establishment of Africa-based family businesses, some of
which exist even today. • Increased Bilateral Visits: Indian PM visited Uganda and
Rwanda in 2018, and Presidents
visit to Benin, Guinea Conakry and Gambia in 2019 is diversifying Indian diplomacy
and bringing Africa towards the centre of Indian Foreign Policy.
2. Strategic

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Battling Chinese influence: Because of the social capital India has in Africa,
acquired through the historical, political, economic and people-to-people ties, its
presence is welcomed by African countries in a way that China's is not.
Resurging Africa and rising India: It can give a strong impetus to South-South
Cooperation, especially in areas like clean technology, climate-resilient
agriculture, maritime security, connectivity, and Blue economy.
• Cooperation to tackle terrorism: India strongly advocated stepped-up cooperation

through intelligence exchange and training with 54 African countries.
• Climate cooperation: Cooperation on climate change between India and Africa, both
who had "contributed the least to global warming".
Open and free Oceans: India aims to enhance cooperation with African countries in
order to keep the oceans open and free for the benefit of all nations.
⚫ Policy congruence: Complemented by India's SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in
the Region) and SAGARMALA (port development) initiatives, the AAGC (Asia Africa
Growth Corridor), with Africa being an equal partner, can potentially be a game-
changer in the IOR. 3. Security
• India and Africa Maritime strategy: Indian Navy's 2015 Maritime Strategy document
and the African Union's 2050 Africa Integrated Maritime Strategy (AIMS 2050) aim
for a free and open Indian ocean.
⚫ Non-traditional threats: Addressing non-traditional threats in the IOR and

Higher incidences of natural disasters and regional instabilities in the past
decade have necessitated increased deployment of Indian Navy for Humanitarian
Assistance and Disaster Relief (HA/DR) operations.
• Peacekeeping: India has been actively involved in peace and stability of African
countries through UN Peace keeping operations. India is involved in capacity
building of African countries. Africa is also the largest beneficiary of India's
ITEC programme 4. Economy
• Increase in bilateral trade: Indian government initiatives like Focus Africa

(2002), TEAM- 9 (2004), Duty-Free Tariff Preference Scheme for Least Developed
Countries (2008), and the institution of the India Africa Forum Summit (held in
2008, 2011, 2015), have succeeded in lifting bilateral trade and investment flows
to new heights
. Maritime Cooperation: Development of blue economy and renewable energy for the
continent's growth can be realized by Indian experience and the expertise to
develop and manage the maritime resources.
⚫ Further cooperation for trade growth: Indian-African synergies can be used for
expanding sectors like tourism, banking, telecommunications, manufacturing and
agriculture. ⚫ Capacity building programme: India is investing in capacity
building providing more than $1 billion in technical assistance and training to
personnel under the Indian Technical and
Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program.
Africa growth corridor: India has also unveiled the Vision Document of the Asian
Africa Growth Corridor which is jointly prepared by Indian and Japanese think
tanks.
• Development is the priority: India postulates that its partnership with Africa is
an amalgam of development priorities in keeping with the African Union's long term
plan and the Africa Agenda 2063, as well as India's development objectives.
5. International
• Convergence of interest in WTO: India and Africa are aligned on the outstanding
issues at the WTO and are in favor of multilateral trading systems.

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For example: At the Bali Ministerial in 2013 too, Africa and India had united in
seeking an interim mechanism for safeguarding minimum support prices to farmers
against WTO caps till a permanent solution is found and adopted.
New Global Order: The institutions of global governance that were created after the
Second World War, like the UN, IMF, and WTO, failed to adapt to the changing global
scenario and adequately represent the voice of the developing world.
Cooperation in UN: India the world's largest democracy representing one-sixth of

humanity, and Africa with more than a quarter of UN members, cannot be kept out of
the decision-making table.
6. Social
Food Security: India and Africa face similar challenges in regards to hunger and
under nutrition. Importing food grains from African nations will address nation's
food security problem.
Social security: Indian congruence with African countries in the agriculture sector
is most important. It will also provide opportunities to farmers of Africa to
increase income, productivity and generate employment.
o For example: With 65% of the world's uncultivated arable land, employing over 60%
of the workforce, and accounting for almost 20% of Sub-Saharan o Africa's GDP,
agriculture is critical to Africa's economy
Identify the drivers of India's new interest in Africa. (2021)

Economic Opportunities: India's interest in Africa's economic potential can be seen
through its investments in sectors such as telecommunications, agriculture,
manufacturing, and infrastructure. o For example, Indian telecommunications
companies like Bharti Airtel and Vodafone Idea have made significant investments in
African markets, expanding mobile networks and services. Tata Group, an Indian
multinational conglomerate, has invested in African industries including
automotive, steel, and hospitality.
Energy Security: India's engagement in Africa's energy sector is exemplified by its

investments in oil and gas exploration and production.
o Indian companies like ONGC Videsh and Oil India Limited have acquired stakes in
oil and gas assets in countries such as Sudan, Mozambique, and Nigeria. These
investments aim to secure energy resources for India's growing energy demands.
Geopolitical Influence: India's engagement in Africa is evident through its

participation in multilateral forums like the India-Africa Forum Summit. This
summit, held in 2015, aimed to deepen political, economic, and cultural ties
between India and Africa. It brought together heads of state and government from
both sides to discuss and enhance cooperation in various sectors.
Counterbalancing China: India's engagement in Africa can be seen as a response to

China's
increasing influence in the region. For instance, India has been actively involved
in infrastructure development projects in Africa, competing with China's Belt and
Road Initiative. 。 Example: India has conceptualised the Asia-Africa growth
corridor
Challenges
1. For India
Lack of coordinated policy: With government institutions and businesses working in

silos, India has no coordinated Africa policy nor does there seem to be an avenue
where strengths of both actors can be leveraged.

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⚫ Shift of focus: Geopolitical tensions in Asia and the imperative to consolidate

its position in the Indo-Pacific region have compelled India to deviate from India-
Africa relations. For example: Instead, India concentrated on its ties with the
United Kingdom, the EU, and the Quad powers, particularly the U.S.
• Pending summits: The third India-Africa Forum Summit was held in 2015. The fourth
summit, pending since last year. The summit is not even pushed in a virtual format.
⚫ Conflicts in the region: Ethnic and religious conflicts and governance issues in
some countries make foreign contributors aversive to venture in the region.
• Financial limitations of India: India cannot compete with China or the U.S. Some
of the African countries, even the richer ones like Nigeria, expect India to invest
in Africa under the India Africa Forum Summit. However, India asserts for joint
endeavor for better development. o For example: Asia Africa growth Corridor.
• Attack on Africans in India: India will have to make efforts to make African
nationals feel welcome.
• Impact of COVID-19 in Africa: The latest economic data confirms India's exports
and imports have reduced 4.4% and 25% respectively in 2020-21 compared to the
previous year. Poor Coverage of the entire continent: Although often bracketed with
China, Indian
investments in Africa may actually be much less than widely believed. This is
largely due to the fact that over 90 percent of Indian investments in Africa are
directed to Mauritius, a tax haven, and most of the Indian investment in Mauritius
is actually 'round tripped' back to India. Therefore, for a true picture of Indian
investments in Africa, it is better to exclude Mauritius from the analysis.
2. For Africa
• Poverty and underdevelopment: The WB's Africa's Pulse, a biannual analysis of the
near- term macroeconomic outlook for the region, in its report, assessed that the
COVID-19 outbreak has sparked off the Sub-Saharan Africa region's first recession
in 25 years.
⚫ Disinflation: The steep decline in commodity prices has spelt disaster for the
economies of Nigeria, Zambia and Angola.
• Health crisis: With high rates of HIV, malaria, diabetes, hypertension and
malnourishment prevalent, a large number of Africans were already faced with a
health and economic crisis. • Increasing Public debt: According to the World Bank,
the SSA region paid $35.8 billion in total debt service in 2018, 2.1 percent of
regional gross domestic product (GDP).
• Terrorism in Africa: There has been an extraordinary increase in terrorist

attacks by extremists connected to al-Qaida and ISIS across Africa over the recent
years.
Chinese presence in Africa
1. Trade and investments: In terms of investments, India is the fifth-largest

investor in Africa with our cumulative investments standing at US$ 54 billion.
However China surpasses India by a huge margin with a total investment of $155
billion over the past two decades.
Data: China's contribution to the investments in Africa, in 2018, was about 28 per
cent indicating the increasing debt burden on the continent. This is highlighted by
the fact that at
least 18 African countries have been renegotiating their debts with China. 2.
Defence: China has become a major supplier of military equipment to various African
countries, including fighter jets, armored vehicles, artillery systems, and small
arms. Chinese companies have been involved in constructing defense infrastructure,
such as military bases, airstrips, and naval facilities, in African countries.

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Examples: China has also established its military base in Djibouti increasing its
defence presence in the continent.
3. Counterterrorism Cooperation: China provides assistance and training to African

countries in countering terrorism and extremism, sharing its experiences and
expertise in security matters.
4. Debt Trap Diplomacy: China's debt-trap diplomacy continues in Africa through the
Belt Road Initiative as it gains momentum in the continent through a slew of big
infrastructural projects and the criticism of trapping African countries in debt by
Chinese lenders is also coming to fore
Data: The total debt of African countries owed to China amounts to USD 145 billion,
while the debts to be repaid this year are USD 8 billion so far (2022).
While Beijing has thrown its immense economic heft into developing transformative
effects only if they are able to create jobs, generate revenue, attract
investments, and contribute to the development of local productive capacities. Yet
Chinese firms are often
manufacturing capacity and extracting natural resources, New Delhi has focused on
its core competencies of human resource development, Information technology,
education, and health care. Without any doubt, China's drive to build
infrastructure throughout the continent has been welcomed. However, mega-scale
infrastructure projects will have the desired
5. Chinese Private Sector: A growing number of small- scale Chinese private firms
are making business in Africa without the direct endorsement of the Chinese
government. Growth in Chinese private investment in sectors outside traditional
natural resources has however fuelled resentment among local investors and the
people.
accused of employing mostly Chinese workers and offering little training and skills
development for African
employees. Some infrastructure projects thus run the risk of turning into
economically unviable vanity projects.
For instance, Ethiopian and Zambian farmers have complained of Chinese acquisition
of large tracts of land at their expense.
Why Indian investment in Africa is more substantial than that of China?
1. Equal Partnership and Long-term Focus: India's bilateral partnership with

African countries emphasizes developing together as equals. The focus is on
enhancing Africa's productive capacity, diversifying skills and knowledge, and
investing in small and medium-sized enterprises. Example: India's support for the
development of the pharmaceutical industry in Africa, through initiatives like the
India-Africa Health Sciences Collaborative Platform, promotes long-term capacity
building and knowledge transfer.
2. Growth in Trade: India offers duty-free, quote-free access to low-income

countries since 2008. Despite the global recession, trade between India and Africa
grew by nearly 32% from 2009 to 2012. Bilateral trade between India and Africa
reached US$ 62.66 billion in 2017-2018 and continues to grow.
3. Cultural Proximity: India has advantages over China in Africa due to proximity,
a common language, popularity of Indian culture, and the appeal of democracy.
Example: Bollywood movies and Indian television shows have gained immense
popularity in African countries, showcasing the appeal of Indian culture and
entertainment. 4. Sustainable Development: The International Solar Alliance (ISA)
exemplifies India's sustainable development partnership. Africa has taken a
leadership role in solar expansion, with many member states ratifying the ISA
agreement. India has pledged over US$ 1 billion for off-grid solar energy projects
in Africa, particularly in West African countries.

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Example: The "Solar Mamas" is an initiative supported by India in collaboration

with the Barefoot College to empower women from rural communities in Africa and
other developing regions by providing them with training in solar engineering.
5. Diaspora: India's diaspora in Africa provides a significant advantage over

China. The diaspora, with its historical and cultural ties, acts as a bridge
between India and Africa, fostering trust and cooperation. They leverage their
networks and business expertise to facilitate investment, and entrepreneurship,
giving India a competitive edge.
Indian trade,
India's Key Investments in Africa
Infrastructure Development: India has invested in infrastructure projects such as

roads, railways, ports, and power plants in African countries.
o Example: India has supported the construction of the Tazara Railway in Tanzania.
Agriculture and Food Security: India has invested in agriculture-related projects
in Africa, focusing on enhancing agricultural productivity, promoting sustainable
farming practices, and improving food security. Indian companies have invested in
agricultural technology, irrigation systems, and food processing industries in
several African countries.
o Example: Indian company Karuturi Global established large-scale flower farms in

Ethiopia, contributing to the country's flower export industry.
Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals: India has invested in healthcare infrastructure,

medical facilities, and pharmaceutical industries in Africa. Indian pharmaceutical
companies have set up manufacturing units and provided affordable medicines to
African countries, contributing to healthcare accessibility and affordability.
• Example: India has supported the Pan-African e-Network Project, providing

telemedicine services to connect Indian and African doctors for consultations and
medical assistance. Education and Skill Development: India has invested in
education and skill development
initiatives in Africa, including scholarships, training programs, and educational

partnerships. Indian institutions have collaborated with African universities and
institutions to promote knowledge exchange and capacity building.
o Example: The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) offers scholarships to
African students to study in India, promoting educational exchange and capacity
building. Renewable Energy: India has made investments in renewable energy projects
in Africaparticularly in solar and wind energy. This includes the establishment of
solar power plantsdistribution of solar lanterns, and the promotion of clean energy
technologies.
• Example: The India-Africa Clean Energy Finance (IACEF) program was launched to
support renewable energy projects in Africa, including solar electrification
initiatives in countries like Rwanda and Tanzania.
, ,
Information Technology and Telecommunications: Indian IT companies have invested in

the African market, providing software development, IT services, and
telecommunication infrastructure. This has contributed to the growth of the digital
economy and connectivity in Africa.
Example: India's Bharti Airtel has invested in telecommunication infrastructure

across multiple African countries, expanding access to mobile and internet
services. Defence: India has been actively engaging in defense cooperation with
African countries to strengthen bilateral ties and contribute to regional security.
o Example: India has provided naval vessels, radars, and other defense hardware to
nations like Mauritius, Seychelles, and Mozambique to enhance their maritime
security capabilities.

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Private Sector Involvement: India has provided naval vessels, radars, and other
defense hardware to nations like Mauritius, Seychelles, and Mozambique to enhance
their maritime security capabilities.
⚫ COVID Aid: During the COVID-19 pandemic, India has extended crucial support to
African countries. India's assistance includes vaccine donations through the COVAX
initiative, where it has supplied COVID-19 vaccines to various African nations.
o Example: Nigeria received 100,000 doses of the COVISHIELD vaccine as a donation

from India. Additionally, India has provided medical supplies like
hydroxychloroquine tablets to countries such as Seychelles and Mauritius.
Way Forward
PSIR
1. India, as a Balancer: China has been actively pursuing chequebook and donation
diplomacy in Africa. However, Chinese investment is seen as neo-colonial in nature.
India's approach, on the other hand, is one that focuses on building local
capacities and an equal partnership with Africans and not merely with African
elites concerned.
2. Enabling strategic convergence: Both India and Japan share a common interest in
forging a partnership for Africa's development through the Asia-Africa Growth
corridor. In this context, India can leverage its global status to establish Africa
on the strategic map of global politics. 3. Deliver on ground: New Delhi will need
to start delivering on the ground if the India-Africa partnership has to move
beyond high level visits.
4. Joint projects: In order to keep the momentum of building political and economic
ties with this increasingly important region, steps should be taken towards
tailoring and funding joint projects for the sustainable development of the Africa.
5. Becoming voice of developing world: Just as India and Africa fought colonialism
together, both can now collaborate together for a just, representative and
democratic global order that has a voice for around one-third of humanity that
lives in Africa and India.
6. Preventing global rivalries: In recent years, several global economic players

have strengthened their engagement with African states, with an eye to rising
economic opportunities, including in energy, mining, infrastructure and
connectivity.
7. Focus on 10 Guiding Principles for India-Africa engagement, as articulated by PM

during his 2019 Uganda visit:
Africa will be at the top of our priorities.
⚫ Our development partnership will be guided by your priorities. We will build as

much local capacity and create local opportunities as possible.
• We will keep our markets open and make it easier and more attractive to trade
with India. We will harness India's experience with the digital revolution to
support Africa's development; improve delivery of public services; extend education
and health; spread digital
literacy; expand financial inclusion; and mainstream the marginalised.
Africa has 60 percent of the world's arable land, but produces just 10 percent of
the global output. We will work with you to improve Africa's agriculture.
Our partnership will address the challenges of climate change.
We will strengthen our cooperation and mutual capabilities in combating terrorism

and extremism; keeping our cyberspace safe and secure; and, supporting the UN in
advancing and keeping peace.

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We will work with African nations to keep the oceans open and free for the benefit
of all nations. The world needs cooperation and competition in the eastern shores
of Africa and the eastern Indian Ocean.
As global engagement in Africa increases, we must all work together to ensure that
Africa does not once again turn into a theatre of rival ambitions, but becomes a
nursery for the aspirations of Africa's youth.
Just as India and Africa fought colonialism together, we will work together for a
just, representative and democratic global order that has a voice for one-third of
humanity that lives in Africa and India.
Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme
The Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme, ITEC for short, is the
leading capacity building platform of the Ministry Of External Affairs, Government
of India. Instituted in 1964, ITEC is one of the oldest institutionalized
arrangements for international capacity building having trained more than 200,000
officials from 160+ countries in both the civilian and in the defence sector.
Building on India's vast and rich network of governance- and development-related
expertise available
in higher educational institutions and training facilities, ITEC offers nearly

10,000 fully-funded in- person training opportunities through nearly 400 courses
offered at 100+ eminent institutes in India each year.
Since 2014, India has offered close to 100,000 world-class capacity building
trainings and scholarships at premier institutions in India, along with a chance to
experience the culture and hospitality of India. Even during the disruptions
occasioned by the covid pandemic, the ITEC programme continued with its commitment
to share India's development experience with the world, providing online healthcare
and
governance related trainings to nearly 10,000 professionals through digital

platforms.
Apart from our regular calendar-based training programmes, India also responds to
country-specific requests for training in specific areas of governance by
organizing customised training programmes which are designed and delivered by the
leading institutions in India.
Today, ITEC utilises a bouquet of varied modalities to meet its mandate of capacity
building. Even as we have re-commenced in-person (or on-campus) courses, we have
also introduced modalities like eITEC (for online trainings using digital delivery
platforms), ITEC-Executive (short-term policy- focussed, in-person trainings for
senior government executives), ITEC-Onsite and ITEC-Expert (onsite capacity
building assignments carried out by Indian experts).
ITEC is administered by the Development Partnership Administration-II Division of

the Ministry of External Affairs.
Background
INDIA - LATIN AMERICA
Early Connections: Diplomatic relations between India and Latin American countries
were established in the mid-20th century.
Non-Aligned Movement: Both India and Latin American countries were founding members
of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in 1961. NAM provided a platform for India and
Latin American countries to collaborate on global issues and promote mutual
interests.
⚫ Economic Engagement: India's economic engagement with Latin America gained

momentum in the 1990s with economic liberalization in both regions. Trade between
India and Latin American countries expanded, with a focus on commodities,
pharmaceuticals, textiles, and automobiles.

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Diplomatic Exchanges: High-level visits between India and Latin American countries
increased in the 2000s, strengthening diplomatic ties. Indian presidents, prime
ministers, and ministers visited Latin American countries, and vice versa, to
foster political and cultural connections. Multilateral Cooperation: India and
Latin American countries collaborated within multilateral forums such as the United
Nations, BRICS, G20, and the World Trade Organization.
Importance of India- Latin America Relations
1. Energy: Latin America is gaining strategic significance in the area of energy

security. Currently India sources 15% of its crude oil from LAC countries and in
order to sustain its growing energy needs, its demand will increase in the future.
2. Critical Minerals: Latin America's critical minerals hold great importance for
India due to their essential role in industries such as manufacturing, electronics,
renewable energy, and defense. For instance, Latin America's reserves of lithium,
copper, and rare earth elements are crucial for India's ambitions in electric
vehicles, infrastructure development, and high-tech industries. Securing access to
these minerals is vital for India's industrial growth and technological
advancement.
3. Strategic Significance: Latin America's increasing geopolitical significance,

coupled with its
growing regional integration efforts, provides India with a platform to strengthen

its presence in the region. Collaborative initiatives like the International Solar
Alliance highlight India's leadership and commitment to addressing global
challenges, including renewable energy. 4. Economic Opportunities: Latin America
offers significant economic opportunities for India. The region has a large
consumer base, with a population of over 620 million and a growing middle class.
Strengthening trade and investment ties with Latin American countries can provide
access
to new markets, diversify India's export destinations, and stimulate economic

growth. Example: India's preferential trade agreements with Chile and MERCOSUR
(Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay and Venezuela) have given boost to the two-
way trade. India is presently negotiating a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with Mexico
and Peru.
Challenges in the Relations
1. Growing Chinese Footprint: One of the key challenges for India in Latin America
is the increasing Chinese influence in the region. China's extensive investments,
infrastructure projects, and trade relations with Latin American countries pose a
challenge to India's economic engagement and strategic presence in the region.
Example: China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has gained significant traction in
Latin America, leading to a surge in Chinese investments and infrastructure
projects. For instance, in Brazil, China has invested heavily in sectors like
energy, telecommunications, and transportation. Chinese companies have also secured
major infrastructure contracts in countries like Argentina, Peru, and Ecuador.
2. Regional Instability in Chile and Venezuela: The political and economic

instability in countries like Chile and Venezuela creates challenges for India's
engagement in Latin America. These volatile situations can affect trade,
investment, and diplomatic relations, requiring India to navigate complex political
landscapes to maintain stable partnerships.
3. Need for Equivalence of Economic and Political Impetus: To deepen India-Latin

America ties, it is crucial to ensure that economic cooperation is accompanied by a
corresponding political impetus. Without adequate political engagement and
alignment of interests, the relationship may face obstacles and fail to reach its
full potential.
4. Diversification of Engagement: While Brazil and Mexico have traditionally been

important partners for India in Latin America, it is essential for India to expand
its engagement beyond these

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larger economies. Exploring opportunities with smaller countries in the region can
help diversify and strengthen India's presence, foster new partnerships, and tap
into emerging markets. 5. Lack of Direct Shipping Services: The absence of direct
shipping services between India and Latin American countries leads to high freight
costs, making trade and transportation challenging. Establishing direct shipping
routes and improving logistics infrastructure can significantly reduce costs and
enhance trade between the two regions.
6. Trade Disparity with China: India's trade volume with Latin America, valued at
around $40 billion in 2018-19, is significantly lower compared to China's trade
volume of $264 billion with the region. Bridging this trade gap and increasing
India's trade presence in Latin America poses a challenge that requires focused
efforts to boost trade and investment.
7. Limited Institutional Presence: India's limited participation in Latin American

financial institutions, such as the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) and the
Central American Bank, restricts its influence in regional economic and financial
matters. Strengthening institutional connections and establishing bilateral banking
relationships can enhance India's role in Latin America's financial landscape.
Way forward for India -latin America relation
There is need of more sustained high level visits from the top leadership though
the trend is increasing it needs to be more frequent.
• Need to look a focused policy towards South America similar to the South East
Asia, Africa and West Asia.
• Move beyond the transactional relationship - India needs to move beyond the
transactional relationship and focus on long terms interest, interest in the global
institutions, increasing soft power as well as bringing in focus the humanitarian
aspect.
• Give strategic thrust to the relationship -and move in the areas like defence co-
operation, Cooperation in space sector and cyber security.
• India and Latin America need to better understand each other's political reality,
endowments, capabilities and priorities, beyond the experience of transitory
diplomats. Both sides need to define their priorities after realistically assessing
their capabilities and the prospects for engagement.
Indian Diaspora in Latin America
The 17th Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) Convention in Indore will have a special
focus on strengthening India's diaspora connections with Latin America, with two
Presidents of Indian origin from the region as special guests in attendance.
History of Indian Diaspora in Latin America
• Indentured Laborers: The Indian diaspora in Latin America dates back to the late
19th century when thousands of Indian indentured laborers were brought to work on
plantations in various countries such as Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname,
Jamaica, and Fiji.
• Migration of Punjabis: In the early 1900s, a significant number of Punjabi men

migrated to Mexico and other Latin American countries to work as farmers and
laborers. They were commonly known as "Hindu" Mexicans due to their Indian origins.
⚫ The Arrival of Sindhis: The Sindhi community in Latin America originated from
the migration of traders from Sindh (now in Pakistan) to different countries such
as Panama, Colombia, and Peru in the early 20th century.

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• Settlement in Guyana and Suriname: After the abolition of slavery, Indian

indentured laborers settled in countries like Guyana and Suriname, where they
developed their own culture and traditions.
Growth of Indian Community: Over time, the Indian community in Latin America grew
and became more diverse, with people from different regions of India and various
religious backgrounds settling in the region.
South-South Co-operation
South-South Cooperation refers to the process of cooperation among developing

countries, particularly in the economic field and other areas. It is characterized
by a collective approach, sharing commonalities, and addressing the historical
legacy of colonialism and economic exploitation. The objective is to promote mutual
cooperation and a common approach to development issues.
Evolution of South-South Cooperation:
The origins of South-South Cooperation can be traced back to the Asian-African

Conference held in Bandung, Indonesia, in 1955, also known as the Bandung
Conference. This conference laid the foundation for the Non-Aligned Movement, which
advocated for economic cooperation among developing countries to achieve collective
self-reliance.
Subsequently, significant milestones in South-South Cooperation include the New

Delhi meet in 1982, the establishment of the Global System of Trade Preferences
(GSTP) in 1985, and the formation of the G15 in 1990.
These initiatives aimed to foster greater cooperation and solidarity among

developing nations.
Importance of South-South Cooperation for Developing Countries:
South-South Cooperation holds significance for developing countries due to various

reasons. Firstly, it provides an alternative approach to the slow progress of the
New International Economic Order (NIEO) and Official Development Assistance (ODA)
provided by developed countries. Secondly, it enables developing nations to address
common challenges such as poor economic infrastructure, illiteracy, unemployment,
poverty, and lack of technology. By sharing experiences and expertise, countries
can find mutually beneficial solutions and promote sustainable
development.
Initiatives like the India-Brazil-South Africa (IBSA) partnership exemplify this

spirit of cooperation and development assistance.
Challenges and Failures:
Despite the potential and aspirations, South-South Cooperation has faced challenges
and encountered failures. Economic cooperation has weakened under the pressures of
globalization, which has perpetuated neo-colonial control by developed countries.
The inactivity of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) has also hindered collective
efforts. Moreover, the dependence of developing countries on foreign aid, limited
control over multinational corporations, and the rise of regional economic blocs
led by developed countries have further complicated the cooperation landscape.
Additionally, local issues, including border disputes and ethnic conflicts, have
strained cooperation efforts.

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Conclusion:
Moving forward, South-South Cooperation needs to adapt and evolve to remain

relevant in the changing global landscape. Initiatives like IBSA may prove to be
viable mechanisms for fostering cooperation among developing countries. The nature
of cooperation is also being shaped by globalization, presenting new opportunities
and challenges.
• Developing countries that have achieved economic growth and technological

advancements can play a pivotal role in sharing their experiences and expertise
with poorer nations for mutual benefit. By diversifying cooperation areas and
adopting out-of-the-box approaches, South-South Cooperation can contribute to the
progress and development of participating countries.
BRICS
BRICS is an acronym that stands for Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
It is an five major emerging economies from different regions of the world. BRICS
was established in 2006, with the inclusion of South Africa in 2010, to enhance
cooperation and coordination among its member countries on various economic,
political, and social issues of global significance. The primary objective of BRICS
is to promote economic growth, sustainable development, and greater global
influence for its member nations.
association of
Achievements/Initiatives of BRICS
1. Powerful driver for the global economy
• Over the past decade, the combined BRICS GDP has grown by 179%.
Total trade of the member nations has expanded by 94%.
2. New Development Bank (NDB): With every nation having equal voting rights, it
focus on lending to infrastructure projects.
3. Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA): An alternative to the IMF, CRA aims to

provide short-term liquidity support to the members through currency swaps to help
mitigating BOP crisis situation.
4. PartNIR: BRICS partnership on New industrial revolution
5. BRICS Business Council:25 prominent entrepreneurs from Brazil, Russia, India,

China and South Africa, representing various industries and sectors in the BRICS
nations. 6. BRICS Women Business Alliance: Recently created, both as a women
empowerment measure and as a tool to bring "a distinctive perspective on issues of
interest for the business community.
7. BRICS Bond Fund = Proposed BRICS Bond fund will help member countries conduct
intra-
BRICS trade in national currencies, avoiding the U.S. dollar.
8. BRICS Credit Rating Agency = Independent rating agency proposed by India in

2018. 9. Bilateral Issues addressal: Example: BRICS Summit in Xiamen in 2017 did
help expedite an end to the Doklam standoff.
Challenges for BRICS
1. Institutional
Dominance of Big three: Marked Dominance of big three Russia-China-India is

challenge for the BRICS as it moves ahead.
Inequality: South Africa is not robust economically compared to its BRICS

counterparts, and its economy has been performing badly since 2008.
Different nature of State: India, Brazil and South Africa are liberal democracies
where China and Russia have different political structure.

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Narrow agenda: BRICS will need to expand its agenda for increasing its relevance in
the global order like terrorism, climate change etc.
⚫ Differential agendas: All the BRICS nations have different global aims and
ambitions and there is a lack of coherence in them.
Untested Foundational principles: Principles like respect for sovereign equality

and pluralism in global governance are liable to be tested. Example:
Military standoff between India and China in Doklam plateau and Galwan valley is
blot on foundation principal.
。 China's increasing assertiveness in South China Sea.
o Belt and Road Initiative of China.
PSIR
⚫ Global Antagonism: China and Russia are often seen on opposite ends of the
established order in respect of Democracy, human rights and regional peace. 2.
Operations Related
Poor Intra-BRICS Trade: Despite combined population accounting 40% of humanity,
intra- BRICS trade is just 17% of world trade.
⚫ Geographical Discontinuity: Most of the BRICS Nations are in different

continents, making bilateral trade, joint exercises difficult.
Lack of Unity: In the issue of expansion of the UN Security Council, BRICS exposed
its disunity, China strongly opposes India's seat as a permanent member ⚫ Lack of
dispute redressal: The BRICS has no internal mechanism for resolving disputes
between member nations.
o India-China issues hardly form any agenda on the Forum.
Need to Diversify: There are other emerging economies which can be included like
Mexico, Indonesia and South Korea who can make the platform effectively that of
emerging economies.
Relevance of BRICS to India
1. Economic Relevance
• Critical Economic Engine: With 40% of the world's population and about 30% of the
GDP, BRICS has proved to be a critical economic engine.
Economic Convergence: It is a platform where India shares similar economic

interests as the other nations.
• Credit Related: The NDB will help India to raise and avail resources for their
infrastructure and sustainable development projects.
Alternative to World Bank/IMF: The NDB and Contingent Reserves can be an

alternative to World Bank and IMF resources.
2. Geopolitical Relevance
NSG and UNSC Permanent Seat: India remains engaged with the other BRICS countries
on its NSG membership, particularly China.
⚫ Balancing Relationships: India has to maintain the balancing act between Russia-
China on the one side and the US on the other side.
• Security of India: BRICS put counter-terrorism on top of the agenda, this has
been a success for India. This could be helpful in isolating Pakistan.
Platform to resolve Bilateral Issues: Especially between India and China.
3. Others
Platform to Voice developing nations' concerns: BRICS can help protect the rights
of the developing countries at global platforms like WTO and climate change talks.
⚫ Scientific Cooperation: Regional Data Network is proposed for collecting

astronomical,

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celestial and space related data. ⚫ COVID Aid: There is a lot of potential of
BRICS in respect of global pandemics and how to effectively mitigate and fight
them. • Russian Vaccine development and Chinese effectiveness in curbing its
spread. o Brazil became the 1st nation to receive 2 million doses of vaccines from
India.
Is BRICS a Anti-West Engagement for India?
Points against
⚫ Economic Cooperation: BRICS focuses primarily on economic cooperation among its

member countries, including Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. It is
not inherently anti-west, but rather aims to enhance trade, investment, and
financial cooperation among the member nations. The primary objective is to promote
economic growth and development, rather than being anti-western.
• Multilateral Engagement: BRICS provides a platform for its members to engage with
each other and other international actors on various global issues. It is not
limited to anti-western engagement but focuses on areas of mutual interest, such as
sustainable development, climate change, and global governance. BRICS encourages
dialogue and cooperation rather than being exclusively anti-western in nature.
• Diverse Membership: BRICS includes countries with diverse political systems,

ideologies, and foreign policy priorities. While there may be differences in
approaches and perspectives, BRICS serves as a forum for dialogue and
collaboration. It does not seek to create a unified anti-western bloc, but rather
promotes cooperation based on shared interests and mutual benefits. Points in
support
Counterbalancing Western Influence: BRICS can be seen as a platform for emerging

economies to counterbalance the dominant influence of western powers in global
affairs. Through closer cooperation, BRICS members can present a collective voice
and pursue common interests that may diverge from traditional western approaches.
This can provide a sense of empowerment and autonomy for member countries,
including India.
• Reforming Global Institutions: BRICS countries advocate for the reform of global
institutions such as the United Nations, World Bank, and International Monetary
Fund. They argue for a more equitable and inclusive global governance system that
reflects the changing global dynamics. This stance challenges the existing power
structures dominated by western countries and seeks to promote a more multi polar
world order.
⚫ South-South Cooperation: BRICS embodies the concept of South-South cooperation,

which aims to foster collaboration among developing countries. By engaging with
other emerging economies, India can strengthen its ties with countries that share
similar developmental challenges and aspirations. This enables India to leverage
collective strength and pursue common goals that may not align with the traditional
western agenda.
While there are elements within BRICS that may challenge western dominance, it is
important to note that the engagement is not solely anti-western. BRICS serves as a
platform for economic cooperation, multilateral engagement, and shared interests
among its member countries, with a focus on development and global governance
reforms.

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UNIT 5: INDIA AND THE GLOBAL CENTRES OF POWER: USA, EU, JAPAN, CHINA AND RUSSIA
INDIA-USA RELATIONS
Do you agree with the view that the USA is of late willing to treat India as a
partner rather than merely a camp-follower? Give reasons for your answer. (2014)
Before the year 2000, the Indo-U.S. relationship has been marked more with
estrangement than cordiality. Why? (2015)
Comment on India's growing relationship with USA in the background of constrained

relations between India and China. (2016)
The natural behaviour of India and the United States is likely to serve each
other's interest. Hence, a deliberate strategy of dovetailing their efforts will
obviously benefit both, Elaborate. (2017)
Discuss the role of Indian diaspora in promoting Indo-US relations. (2018) Discuss
the significance of Indo-US strategic partnership and its implications for India's
security and national defence. (2020)
Explain the significance of Basic Exchange and Co-operation Agreement (BECA)

forIndo- US strategic relations (2022)
The India-US relationship has evolved significantly over the years, driven by a
convergence of interests and mutual benefits. From a complex history marked by
ideological differences and mistrust, the two nations have now emerged as strategic
partners.
The India-US relationship is one of the most significant partnerships in the world,
characterized by a complex history, evolving interests, and shared concerns.
According to Ashley Tellis, "The U.S.-India partnership has come a long way in the
past two decades and it is a partnership that will shape the 21st century."
Background
1. Historical: Before India gained independence in 1947, the relationship between

India and the United States was relatively limited. There were some interactions
between Indian nationalist leaders and American officials, including Mahatma
Gandhi's meeting with President Woodrow Wilson in 1919 at the end of World War I.
However, these interactions did not lead to significant cooperation or partnerships
between the two countries. During the colonial period, the US was not a major
player in India, which was primarily under British rule. However, there were some
American businesses and missionaries in India, and some Indian nationalists did
seek American support for their cause.
2. Phase 1 (1947-1971):
The relationship after India's independence was characterized by a mix of mistrust

and cooperation. India's non-alignment stance, which sought to avoid aligning with
either the Soviet Union or the United States, made it difficult for the U.S. to
develop close ties with India. However, despite this, during the 1950s and 1960s,
India was one of the largest recipients of U.S. economic assistance, which was
primarily aimed at promoting economic development in India. The U.S. also provided
India with military aid during this period, including the transfer of military
equipment and the training of Indian military personnel.

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However, the relationship between the two countries was strained by a number of
issues during this period. One of the most significant was the U.S. support for
Pakistan during the Indo- Pakistani Wars of 1965 and 1971. The U.S. also opposed
India's nuclear program, which it believed could destabilize the region.
3. Phase 2 (1971-1991)
• During the period of 1971-1991, US-India relations were marked by a series of ups
and downs. The US supported Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation war. In 1974,
India conducted a nuclear test, which led to the US imposing restrictions on
nuclear cooperation with India. India's policy of non-alignment during the Cold War
created some friction with the US, which saw India as being too close to the Soviet
Union. However, the US sought to improve ties with India in the 1980s, particularly
in the areas of economic and security cooperation.
4. Phase 3 (1991-2000's)
The period between 1991 to 2005 marked a significant shift in US-India relations.
The end of the Cold War created a favorable environment for the two countries to
engage in a more productive relationship. The US supported India's economic reforms
and lifted sanctions after India's nuclear tests in 1998. The two countries signed
the historic civil nuclear deal in 2005, which paved the way for greater
cooperation in the field of energy and defense.. The two countries have also signed
a number of agreements in areas such as defense, trade, and technology transfer.
However, there have been some tensions, particularly over trade issues and India's
defense ties with Russia. In recent years, the two countries have also been
collaborating on regional security issues, including counterterrorism and stability
in the Indo- Pacific region.
Views of Scholars on India US relations

Dennis Kux: India and USA have moved a long way from estranged democracies to
engaged democracies embodying most defining partnership of 21st century. Shared
democratic values and converging global interests unite Washington and New Delhi in
a "strategic handshake" Mike Pompeo: "It's only natural that the world's most
populous
⚫ democracy should partner with the world's oldest democracy to maintain our
shared vision throughout the Indo-Pacific."
⚫U.S. Defence Secretary, Mark Esper, stating that "India will be the most
consequential partner for the US in the Indo-Pacific this Century"
PM Modi: "India and the United States are not just natural partners, they are
partners by choice. And it is the overcoming of the hesitations of history that has
provided the context in which the transformative vision of our partnership has
taken shape."
⚫ S. Jaishankar: "India and the United States have an increasingly important

partnership in addressing the challenges of the 21st century."
• Tanvi Madan: Tanvi Madan, a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, has
written about the need for the US and India to work together on issues such as
climate change, cybersecurity, and terrorism.
⚫ Shiv Shankar Menon: India and the United States "are moving towards a
partnership that increasingly has some of the characteristics of an alliance but
without the commitment to defense that is the heart of any alliance

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Bilateral Data
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1. Trade: In 2021-22, the bilateral trade between India and the USA stood at a
record US$ 119.42 billion as against USS 80.51 billion in 2020-21.
1. In 2021-22, India had a trade surplus of USS 32.8 billion with the US.
2. Trade Basket: India-US trade basket includes a wide range of products, including
information technology, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, aviation, defense, energy,
and services such as IT services, financial services, and education. The United
States is one of India's top trading partners, and India is among the fastest-
growing export markets for the US.
Bilateral Relations
1. Economic Developmental
• Market Access: USA is currently one of the biggest markets for Indian Goods, thus
it is extremely attractive for both industry as well as potential service
investments. Data: India was the United States' 11th-largest overall goods trading
partner; and the
United States was India's largest merchandise export destination and third-largest
merchandise import, supplier.
Key Investor: USA is India's second biggest investor with FDI of $10.5 billion,
with 18 percent of total FDI in FY22.
Technology: The US has been a major supplier of technology to India, particularly

in the areas of defense and space. In recent years, there has been an increase in
collaboration between Indian and American companies in emerging technologies such
as artificial intelligence and cyber security.
Education: India and the US have been collaborating in the field of education for
several years. There are several exchange programs in place that allow Indian and
American students to study in each other's countries.
2. Defence and Strategic
⚫ Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA): Signed in August 2016, this

agreement allows both countries to use each other's military bases for refueling
and maintenance purposes.
⚫ Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA): This agreement

was signed in September 2018 and allows for secure communication and data sharing
between the two countries' armed forces.
Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA): Signed in October 2020, this
agreement allows for geospatial intelligence sharing between India and the US,
which will help India in its defence and counterterrorism operations.
⚫ Defense Technology and Trade Initiative (DTTI): Launched in 2012, this

initiative aims to promote co-development and co-production of defence technologies
between India and the US.
⚫ Defence trade: The United States is one of India's top defence suppliers, and
the two countries have been gradually increasing their defence trade. In 2020,
India signed a $3 billion deal to buy military helicopters from the United States.
Counterterrorism cooperation: India and the United States have been working
together to counter the threat of terrorism. This includes sharing intelligence,
conducting joint military exercises, and coordinating efforts to disrupt terrorist
networks.
• Major Defence Partner: The United States has been gradually increasing its
defence technology cooperation with India. In 2016, India was designated as a
"Major Defence Partner" of the United States, which has opened up new avenues for
cooperation in defence technology.

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o The Biden administration's March 2021 "Interim National Security guidance" has
described the "deepening partnership" with India as being critical to America's
"vital national interests."
• 2+2 Dialogue: It was initiated in 2018, and there have been several rounds of
dialogue since then. The 2+2 dialogue covers a wide range of issues, including
defense cooperation, security, trade, and people-to-people ties. It also focuses on
regional and global issues of mutual interest, such as the Indo-Pacific region,
counter-terrorism, and the situation in Afghanistan.
The Industrial Security Annex (ISA) is a part of the General Security of Military
Information Agreement (GSOMIA) signed between India and the United States in 2002.
The ISA provides a framework for the exchange and protection of classified military
information between the two countries. The ISA was renewed for another ten years in
2020 during the 2+2 dialogue between the two countries.
3. Multilateral
• Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad): India and the US, along with Japan and
Australia, participate in the Quad, a strategic forum for regional security
cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region. They work together to promote regional
security, stability, and economic growth.
⚫ 12U2: The 12U2 Group is a grouping of India, Israel, the United Arab Emirates,
and the United
States. The group's first joint statement, released on July 14, 2022, states that
the countries aim to cooperate on "joint investments and new initiatives in water,
energy, transportation, space, health, and food security."
4. Others
⚫ US-India Energy Dialogue: The dialogue was launched in 2005 to promote

cooperation between the two countries in the areas of energy security, energy
efficiency, clean energy, and sustainable development.
• Partnership to Advance Clean Energy (PACE): PACE was launched in 2009 to support
research and deployment of clean energy technologies, such as solar, wind, and bio
fuels. • US-India Strategic Energy Partnership (SEP): The SEP was launched in 2018
to strengthen energy cooperation between the two countries, with a focus on
promoting clean energy, energy security, and sustainable growth.
India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement
The Indo-US Nuclear Deal is a bilateral agreement between India and the United
States, which was signed on October 10, 2008. The deal is officially known as the
"United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act" and was passed by the
US Congress in December 2006.
According to Charles D. Ferguson, the nuclear deal between the United States and
India is unprecedented and unique.
Ashley Tellis, another expert, echoes this sentiment and emphasizes that the deal
reflects the increasing engagement between the US and India.
Background:
Prior to the nuclear deal, India was not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty (NPT) and was subject to sanctions by the international community. The US
had imposed sanctions on India after its nuclear tests in 1998. The sanctions
included restrictions on high technology exports, dual-use items and cooperation in
nuclear and space areas. However, in 2005, US President George W. Bush and Indian
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh signed a Joint Statement on the Next Steps in
Strategic Partnership, which paved the way for the nuclear deal.
The Indo-US Nuclear Deal has several provisions, some of which are as follows:

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India agreed to separate its civil and military nuclear facilities and allow
international | inspections of its civilian nuclear program.
The US agreed to exempt India from certain provisions of the US Atomic Energy Act
that require comprehensive safeguards and verification procedures.
The US also agreed to support India's entry into the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG),
a group of countries that regulate global nuclear trade.
The deal established a framework for cooperation in areas such as nuclear power,
nuclear safety, and nuclear fuel supply.
The deal also includes provisions on technology transfer, joint research and
development, and cooperation in the fields of science and technology. Benefits For
India
Access to civilian nuclear technology: The nuclear deal gave India access to
civilian nuclear technology, which helped India to expand its nuclear power program
and reduce its dependence on fossil fuels.
• Access to nuclear fuel: The deal allowed India to import nuclear fuel for its
nuclear reactors, which was crucial for India's energy security.
⚫ Economic: In India, the proponents of the agreement cite economic considerations

as one of the topmost factors in their support of the agreement. For example,
Indian scholar Rejaul Karim Laskar argues, "the most important significance of the
deal for India (is) related to the contribution it will make in meeting India's
energy requirements to sustain high rate of economic growth"
Counter China: It also helped to strengthen the strategic partnership between India
and the US, which has become increasingly important as China's influence in the
region has grown.
Reasons for Convergence
1. Economic
Trade: India and the US are two of the largest economies in the world, and trade
between the two countries has been growing steadily. Both countries have recognized
the potential for further expansion of trade and investment ties, and have been
working to promote greater economic integration.
Investment: India has been actively seeking foreign investment, and the US is one
of the largest sources of foreign investment in the country. The US has also been
seeking opportunities to invest in India's fast-growing economy, particularly in
sectors such as technology, healthcare, and infrastructure.
Innovation: Both India and the US are known for their innovation and technological
prowess. Collaboration in areas such as science, technology, and research and
development can help drive economic growth and development in both countries.
Energy security: India is one of the world's fastest-growing energy markets, and
the US is a major producer of oil and gas. Closer cooperation between the two
countries on energy issues can help India meet its growing energy needs and enhance
its energy security. Job creation: Closer economic ties between India and the US
can lead to the creation of more jobs in both countries, which can help drive
economic growth and reduce poverty.
2. Strategic
⚫ Countering China: [Explained Ahead]
⚫ Countering terrorism: India and the US have a common interest in countering

terrorism and extremism. Both countries have suffered from terrorist attacks and
have been working together to prevent and combat terrorism.

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Timeline of India-U.S. Counter-Terrorism Cooperation:
2010: India-U.S. Counter-Terrorism Cooperation Initiative signed. U.S.-India

Counterterrorism Joint Working Group holds 16 meetings. 2013: U.S.-India Cyber
Policy Dialogue takes place.
Maritime Cooperation Framework established to enhance security at sea. o 2017:

Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on bilateral Counter-terrorism Designations
Dialogue signed.
2018: Pact signed for real-time exchange of intelligence on terrorism ⚫ Enhancing

maritime security: India and the US have a shared interest in enhancing maritime
security in the Indo-Pacific region. Both countries are concerned about piracy,
smuggling, and other forms of transnational organized crime in the region.
⚫ Joint Projects: Both nations are involved in joint projects in various nations,
this gives both an opportunity to engage together and also help develop nations of
mutual interest. This is also an attempt to reduce the Chinese Economic presence in
these regions.
。 Examples:
Joint Projects in Maldives: India and the US have jointly undertaken projects in
the
. Maldives to enhance its connectivity and infrastructure. For instance, the US has
provided assistance to India's project to build a port in the Maldives. Joint
Projects in Sri Lanka: India and the US have undertaken joint projects in Sri
Lanka, including the Trincomalee oil tank farm and a liquefied natural gas (LNG)
terminal.
⚫ Defence Collaboration: Defence cooperation: India-US defence cooperation is

based on the "New Framework for India US Defence Cooperation", which was renewed
for a period of ten years in 2015.
o Example: The US recognized India as a "Major Defence Partner in 2016. Military

Modernisation: US arms shipments are vital for the modernisation of Soviet-era
weapons and technology in the Indian Military.
o Example: There has been 2.8% increase in Military exports by the US to India
since 2019. 。 Sujin R Chinoy highlights the significant progress made in defense
cooperation between the United States and India in recent years. This progress has
been facilitated by the designation of India as a Major Defense Partner/Friendly
Foreign Country by the US. Additionally, there has been an increasing willingness
on the part of the US to relax rules and regulations related to high technology
transfer. One notable example of this is the Strategic Trade Authorization Tier-1
License Exemption, which has enabled smoother and more efficient transfer of
advanced defense technologies between the two countries.
Samir Saran and Richard Rahul Verma recommendations for future defence engagement.
Create a dedicated India cell within DoD.
Conclude and operationalise foundational agreements. The United States and India
should quickly conclude negotiations on the ISA and BECA.
Establish a combined disaster relief team.
Create a new visa category to improve defence exchanges.
■Redouble focus on exchanges and professional military education.. Institutionalise

requirements and mission-driven technology cooperation.⚫ Focus on co-production
opportunities. Launch DTTI 2.0. 3. Include regional strategy in the 2+2 Dialogue
Space

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⚫ NISAR: The ISRO and NASA are working together to realize a joint microwave
remote sensing satellite for Earth observation, named NISAR.
Clean Energy: Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and President Barack Obama launched the
U.S.-India Partnership to Advance Clean Energy (PACE) under the U.S.-India
Memorandum of Understanding to enhance cooperation on energy security, and energy
efficiency, clean energy, and climate change.
⚫ USA-SERB: In J2013, the U.S.signed an agreement with SERB to launch a new

jointly funded collaborative research program on hypertension. DST and NSF are
discussing plans to partner through NSF's Graduate Research Opportunities
Worldwide.
Indo-USA S&T Fund: The United States and the Indian Department of Science &
Technology (DST) endowed the India-U.S. Science & Technology Forum (IUSSTF) in 2000
with matching funds to facilitate mutually beneficial bilateral cooperation in
science, engineering, and health.
• Space Cooperation: India and the U.S. have a long history of cooperation in the
civil space arena in Earth Observation, Satellite Navigation, Space Science and
Exploration. 4. Cultural
• Diaspora: The Large politically empowered Diaspora in the US aids in developing

stronger ties between the nations. 。 Example: The Indian Diaspora played a vital
role in sending COVID related supplies during the second wave from US
Connectivity: High flight connectivity and travel ease
Indian Students: Indian students comprise a large proportion of foreign students in

the US.
India-US relations in the Backdrop of China
India-China: India and China have historically have had relations defined by
security dilemmas and mistrust especially since 1962. The contested territories of
Aksai Chin, Arunachal and frequently in Doklam have shaped the security
considerations of both nations. Further, China's support and strategic alignment
with Pakistan have made matters more complicated in bilateral relations. Both
nations also have economic rivalries with the Indian economy having a large trade
deficit with China.
China-USA: USA's major issues with China are various from South China Sea, Taiwan
to the recent trade war. Similarly the USA feels threatened by China's rise and the
possible subjugation of the US led world order. Thus it is in the US vital interest
to have a counterweight to China in its own region i.e India. A strong India can
ensure China's rise is checked at least in the South Asian region.
Today, both India and the U.S. have relationships with China that have elements of
cooperation, competition and, potentially, conflict-though to different degrees.
Each country has a blended approach of engaging China, while preparing for a turn
for the worse in Chinese behavior. Each sees a role for the other in its China
strategy. Each thinks a good relationship with the other sends a signal to China.
Mutual Interest
Economic Competition: Both India and the USA view China's rapid economic growth as
a challenge to their own economic competitiveness. They have concerns over China's
unfair trade practices, such as dumping of cheap goods, and state subsidies to its
industries, which give it an unfair advantage.
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⚫ Regional Security: Both India and the USA are concerned about China's growing
assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific region. China's territorial claims in the South
China Sea and its increasing military presence in the region are seen as a threat
to the stability of the region.
• Democratic Values: India and the USA share a commitment to democratic values, and
view
China's authoritarian system as a challenge to those values. Further China is also

seen to be a key ally of numerous rogue regime likes North Korea, Afghanistan under
Taliban and Pakistan which pose a threat to both US and India
⚫ Counter-terrorism: Both India and the USA have been victims of terrorist attacks
and share an interest in countering terrorism. They view China's close ties with
Pakistan, which is a state sponsor of terrorism, as a concern.
⚫ Preserving US Hegemony: Although India has been critical of US hegemony in the

past, today it has come to accept that India's interests are better served in a US
led order rather than a one with China. Example: Recently China brokered a peace
deal between Saudi Arabia and Iran, which proved that USA's historic influence in
the middle east is now at a decline.
As things stand, neither India nor the U.S. is interested in the other's
relationship with China being too hot or too cold-the Goldilocks view. For New
Delhi, a too-cozy Sino-U.S. relationship is seen as freezing India out and
impinging on its interests. It would also eliminate one of Washington's rationales
for a stronger relationship with India. A China-U.S. crisis or conflict, on the
other hand, is seen as potentially destabilizing the region and forcing India to
choose between the two countries. From the U.S. perspective, any deterioration in
Sino-Indian relations might create instability in the region and perhaps force it
to choose sides. Too much Sino-Indian bonhomie, on the other hand, would
potentially create complications for the U.S. in the bilateral, regional and
multilateral spheres.
QUAD and Indo-Pacific
The Indo-Pacific construct refers to the strategic region that includes the Indian
Ocean, the western and central Pacific Ocean, and the eastern and southern coasts
of Africa. The concept has emerged as a result of growing economic and security
ties between countries in the region, particularly India and the United States, as
well as concerns about China's increasing influence and assertiveness in the
region.
The region accounts for half of the world's population and 58 percent of its youth,
approximately 60 percent of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and two-thirds of
global economic growth; it is home to 25 percent of the world's land and 65 percent
of its oceans.
Why has the Indo-Pacific emerged as a major geopolitical area?
Historical Context: The United States has been involved in the South China Sea
region for many decades. The US Navy has been conducting freedom of navigation
operations (FONOPs) in the South China Sea since the 1970s to assert its position
that these waters are international and not under the jurisdiction of any one
country. The US has also been a vocal supporter of the United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which defines the rights and responsibilities of
nations in their use of the world's
oceans.
Reasons for increased importance of the region for US • Belt and Road Initiative: A
key driver of US's strategic decisions in the region was Beijing's increasing
regional influence in the form of its flagship Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) which
was perceived as a threat to the multilateral structure of the Indo-Pacific. ⚫
ASEAN Centrality: US and China compete for influence in ASEAN, the region is caught
in the middle and faces a complex balancing act. ASEAN is strategically located
between the Indian and

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Pacific Oceans, and is home to some of the world's busiest shipping lanes, making
it a key area for global trade and security.
South China Sea: As one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world, the South China
Sea is vital for global trade, and the US wants to ensure that the sea remains open
and accessible to all countries. The US is wary of China's growing military and
economic influence in the region and sees the South China Sea as a key area where
it can push back against China's assertiveness. Further The US has alliances with
several countries in the region, including Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, and
Australia, and wants to maintain and strengthen these alliances to counter China's
influence.
⚫ Resources: The South China Sea is rich in natural resources, including oil and
gas, and the US has economic interests in the region that it wants to protect. •
Other Threats: North Korea's nuclear threat, China's disputes in the South China
Sea and its
claims over Taiwan,
India's interest in a "Free and Open Indo-Pacific"
India's interest in the region is not just China centric. Although countering China
along with other Quad nations is a reason, Indo-Pacific also offers India
opportunities of expanding markets, access to various resources and developing
entrenched ties with the nations in the region. Further the area is India's
backyard and historically the region of Indian Ocean has had a dominating influence
of India.
1. Changing Regional Dynamics: India's own approach toward the Indo-Pacific is

shaped by a new strategic environment coinciding with the rise of China,
particularly in the Indian Ocean region
and South Asia.
2. Protecting IOR: In the post-Cold War era, the absence of strategic competition
in the Indian Ocean allowed New Delhi to not only play a prominent role but also
ensure a favorable and secure Indian Ocean region for its strategic interests. The
emergence of China as an additional and perhaps an alternative security provider
compelled India to review its foreign policy choices under the government of Prime
Minister Narendra Modi.
3. Countering Chinese presence: China's economic growth, combined with its military
modernization, continues to widen the strategic and capacity gap with India. As a
result, Beijing is able to offer substantial economic projects and military
assistance in South Asia and the Indian Ocean region.
• Example: Increasing collaborations between China and island states such as

Maldives, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Sri Lanka threaten India's assumed role of a
security provider driving the Sino-Indian competition in the maritime domain.
4. ASEAN Centrality: India's Act East Policy is centered around strengthening its
economic and strategic ties with Southeast Asia, and ASEAN is the cornerstone of
that policy. India has been working closely with ASEAN on issues such as
counterterrorism, maritime security, and connectivity. ASEAN centrality is crucial
for India's regional aspirations and to counterbalance China's influence in the
region.
5. Outreach to the Pacific: Indo Pacific policy for India also conceptualizes
integration with the Pacific island groups which have historically been neglected
in India's foreign policy. Example: India's "Pacific Islands Development
Initiative" aimed at strengthening its engagement with the Pacific Island
countries.

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India-US relations in the Backdrop of Russia
The Russia-Ukraine war since 2022, has made diplomacy complicated for India. India
has maintained both political and defense ties to Moscow, stretching back to the
1970s, much to Washington's consternation. India and Russia held their first 2+2
last year, making Russia the only non-Quad country with whom India has had a 2+2
dialogue. Further, a majority of Indian military equipment across the army, navy,
and air force is of Russian or Soviet origin. Due to these imperatives, Russia has
been a close partner to India, however following the Ukraine war, US imposition of
sanctions on Russia and the overall pariah category of Russia globally today
has impacted India and its relationship with US
Key Highlights
1. Possibility of Sanctions: India is also facing the threat of U.S. sanctions for
its procurement of the Russian S-400 surface-to-air missile system under CAATSA.
These sanctions have already been imposed on Turkey for its own procurement of S-
400s. While there has been discussion of granting India a waiver for its S-400
purchases, this has yet to happen.
2. Strategic Complexity: USA's approach to India has traditionally been one of

"strategic altruism," in which the United States supports a militarily strong
India, despite bilateral issues, under the assumption that India is a natural
counterbalance to China's rising power. However the US has always been critical of
Russian military aid to India making the relationship extremely complex.
Example: India's Russian-origin systems and U.S. systems are not technologically
compatible, which makes interoperability difficult, and of greater concern to the
United States, is the possibility that Russian intelligence-collection platforms,
like the S-400, could breach the security of U.S. systems and collect information
on advanced U.S. technology.
3. India's Strategic Autonomy: India has stood out among major democracies for its
reluctance to criticize Russia for the war in Ukraine, and has held off from
efforts by the US, Europe and their allies to isolate Russia globally.
Instead of taking sides in the conflict, New Delhi sees itself both as a power
broker in big geopolitical rivalries having influence with Putin as well as the
West-and a champion for the voice of the Global South.
4. UN abstention: India has abstained on all votes so far on the Ukraine crisis at
the General Assembly since Russia launched the invasion on February 24, 2022. India
has not publicly censured Russia's actions while calling for the sovereignty and
territorial integrity of all states to be respected.
•Indian envoy to UN Ruchira Kamboj: India remains steadfastly committed to

multilateralism and upholds the principles of the UN Charter. We will always call
for dialogue and diplomacy as the only viable way out.
5. Russia-China Nexus: While India-US relations have converged along the mutual
conflictual relations with China, Russia has entrenched itself with China with
China emerging its closest ally in the Ukraine conflict. This makes the equation
complicated between US, India, Russia and China.

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INDIA'S DEFENCE OF INDO-RUSSIA RELATIONS
Indian participants justified New Delhi's relationship with Moscow on four counts;
Ensuring continued access to spares and maintenance for India's vast stock of
Russian arms; gaining geopolitical support in multilateral institutions (e.g.
United Nations Security Council); slowing the Russia- China defense technology
relationship, and potentially driving a wedge between them; and accessing or
jointly-producing Russian weapons technology (e.g. nuclear submarines, advanced
cruise missiles). By comparison, the United States refuses to countenance the
transfer of certain high-end items (e.g. nuclear submarines) to India, offers non-
competitive or inflated prices (e.g. air defense systems), and is only in the
nascent stages of enabling co-production (e.g. DTTI). Indian participants suggested
the United States address some of these issues by facilitating non-Russian but also
non-U.S. options, for instance European or Israeli air defense systems, or data
links and similar technology.
Current Challenge
The current challenge for India-US relations with respect to Russia is the
continuation of the war in Ukraine, as Russia and the west gets more entrenched in
the conflit it makes India's position problematic. The current position of
strategic autonomy is at risk as most of India's partners (EU, Japan, Australia,
UK) have been against Russia and have openly endorsed sanctions against Russia,
this is compounded by the fact the Russia's closest ally in the conflict is China
which is also the inconvenient and conflictual neighbor for India.
The challenge for India today lies in suitably navigating the complexity of such
alliances and counter alliances and uphold its own strategic interest with each of
the players.
Ashley Tellis: The international system's evolving challenges suggest that

Washington and New Delhi will be united by shared concerns for the foreseeable
future. These concerns include containing China, defeating jihadi terrorism,
stopping the further spread of WMD, preserving the multilateral trading order,
ensuring food and energy security, and managing climate change. C. Rajamohan:
"India needs to be more skilful - traditional props and talks of shared values
alone
will not do." He further adds that Strategic autonomy won't help when post-cold war
global order
Quotes
is breaking down and suggests a policy of Multiple alignments with a room for
maneuverability. Dhruva Jaishankar: "India's relationship with Russia is based on a
shared history of Cold War- era alignment, while its relationship with the US is
based on shared values and interests in the current global context."
Shashi Tharoor: "India's long-standing relationship with Russia and its growing
strategic partnership with the US reflects its multi-polar approach to the world."
Is the India-USA relationship still transactional? Or does it shows signs of

strategic depth? India-US relations have been traditionally transactional, marked
by mistrust and differences. However, over the years, the relationship has evolved,
and there are signs of depth in the bilateral ties. Both countries have realized
the strategic importance of a strong partnership, and there have been efforts to
expand cooperation in various fields.
India and the US have deepened their engagement in the fields of defence, security,
and counterterrorism, with several high-level exchanges and joint military
exercises. Both countries have also signed important agreements such as the Indo-US
nuclear deal, Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA), and Basic
Exchange and Cooperation Agreement for Geo-Spatial Cooperation (BECA), which
demonstrate their commitment to strengthening their strategic partnership.

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Besides defence, India and the US have also expanded their economic ties. Trade and
investment have been identified as important areas for cooperation, with both
countries aiming to increase bilateral trade to $500 billion. The two countries
have also established several initiatives such as the Strategic Energy Partnership
(SEP) and the US-India Health Dialogue to expand cooperation in other areas of
mutual interest.
Therefore, while there are still some issues and challenges in the India-US
relationship, such as trade and visa-related issues, overall, the relationship is
showing signs of depth and is gradually moving towards a more strategic
partnership.
Challenges/Issues
1. Trade issues: The USA has been critical of India's trade policies, particularly
with regard to tariffs on US goods and intellectual property rights.
•No GSP: The US withdrew the Generalised System of Preference which made many
Indian products liable to entry duties by the US
2. IPR Issues: The main divergences are pharma patents, data flows, e-commerce, and
regulatory precision.
Example: In pharma, Americans want long-term protection to monetize and recoup

investments whereas Indians want a lower cost and greater access. 3. Visa issues:
Changes in US visa policies have made it more difficult for Indian workers,
particularly those in the IT sector, to work in the USA.
4. Defence cooperation: While there have been some significant agreements between
India and the USA in the defence sector, there have also been concerns around
technology transfer, procurement, and pricing.
Example: The S400 missile issue and US threat of sanctions under the CAATSA. 5.
India-Russia Relations: The United States has expressed particular concern
regarding new streams of arms like the S-400 air defense system, because they fuel
Russian power, diminish
prospects for interoperability of and secure communications between U.S. and Indian
forces.
6. Climate change: India and the USA have had differing approaches to climate
change, with the USA pulling out of the Paris Agreement and India continuing to
emphasize the need for sustainable development.
India-US issues at the WTO
India is involved in a number of trade disputes at the WTO. US has challenged

India's export subsidy
schemes like MEIS, citing that the country has crossed the US$ 1,000 GNI threshold
for the third successive year and can no longer provide such subsidies. India's
subsidies for sectors like sugar, fisheries and solar panels as well as import
duties for sectors like electronics, iron and steel have been challenged by other
countries at the forum. The US has also challenged India's retaliatory tariffs on
28 products. Some of the major disputes involving India at the WTO are as follows:
Disputes filed by USA
Agriculture Subsidies: US filed request for dispute consultations with India in the
WTO. The issue revolved around subsidies. The squabble between US & India over the
latter's export promotion subsidies has been won by the US. WTO's dispute
settlement panel has ruled that these schemes violated several provisions of the
WTO's subsidies and countervailing measures agreement.
Measures related to solar cells & solar modules: In this case, too, the US was
supported by other countries like Brazil, Canada, China, EU, Japan, Norway,
Ecuador, etc. The dispute dates back to 2013, when US alleged that the domestic
content requirement of India's Jawaharlal Nehru National

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Solar Mission for solar cells & solar modules are inconsistent with GATT. Disputes
filed by India against USA
Measures on Steel and Aluminium Products: India alleged that some of the measures
practised by the US flout the provisions of the Agreement on Safeguards & GATT.
India also claims that the imposition of high import duties on aluminum & steel
items by the US has impacted exports of these products by Indian businesses. India
has alleged that the US move is also not in compliance with global trade norms.
• Measures Relating to the Renewable Energy Sector: India requested consultations

with the United States regarding certain measures of the latter relating to
domestic content requirements and subsidies instituted in the energy sector. It
argued that these subsidies contravene the provisions of TRIMS, GATT & SCM.
USA and India may disagree on multiple issues but as they work together, they form
an unbeatable partnership.
As PM Modi has stated that the Indo-US partnership is based on both, principle and
pragmatism. According to Harsh V Pant, "India and US have now recognized that there
are shared strategic interests that go beyond just business ties and are working
towards long-term strategic partnership."
INDIA - JAPAN
Is there any linkage between a shift in China's relations with Japan to a perceived
shift in her relations with India? Examine in the light of China's so-called 'anti-
encirclement struggle'. (150 words) (2012)
Economic interest has emerged as the main component of India's foreign policy.'
Discuss the statement in light of India's initiatives to improve relations with
China, Japan and the Central Asian republics. (2015)
Comment: Emerging areas of cooperation between India and Japan. (2005) • Examine
the recent developments in the India-Japan relationship. (150 words) (2013)
Evaluate the recent changes in Indo - Japan relations. (2014)
• Do you subscribe to the idea that in the new evolving Asian dynamics, Japan and
India have not only moved closer in economic cooperation but also in a strategic
partnership? (2017) Do you agree that the growing assertiveness of China is leading
to multilayered Indo-Japan relations? Comment. (2018)
What are the notable features of the recently concluded pact or the Acquisition and
Cross Servicing Agreement (ACSA) between India and Japan? How is it likely to
address the security concerns of India? (2020)
What are the main drivers of India Japan Strategic and Global Partnership? (2022)
By the Mandal Siddhant of Kautilya, Japan lies in the second concentric circle and
is an important ally in realizing India's Act East policy.
In an increasingly complex and interdependent world, India and Japan have forged a
strategic partnership that has come to be known as the 'Special Strategic and
Global Partnership.'

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India Japan relations have enabled both countries to collaborate on a range of

issues, from security and defense to trade and investment, as they seek to
strengthen their roles as major players in the region
As two of Asia's largest economies, India and Japan have established a robust
economic partnership built on shared values of innovation, entrepreneurship, and
technological advancement.
Background
1. Historical: There is evidence to suggest that Indian traders had contact with
the Japanese in the 6th century CE, during the time of the Soga clan in Japan.
According to some accounts, Indian traders visited Japan and introduced Buddhism to
the country.
⚫ There are also some historical records that suggest that Indian scholars may
have traveled to Japan during the 8th century CE, during the Nara period. For
example, a text called the "Nihon Shoki" (Chronicles of Japan) mentions that a monk
from India named Bodhisena visited Japan in 736 CE and was welcomed by the Emperor.
2. Post World War II: After World War II, Japan and India signed a peace treaty and
established diplomatic relations on 28th April 1952. This treaty was one of the
first peace treaties Japan signed after World War II.
⚫ Since establishing diplomatic relations, the two countries have enjoyed cordial
relations. India's iron ore helped a great deal Japan's recovery from the
devastation of the World War. Following Japanese Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi's
visit to India in 1957, Japan started providing yen loans to India in 1958, as the
first yen loan aid extended by the Japanese government.
Views of Scholars and Experts C. Rajamohan:
"The emerging strategic partnership between India and Japan can help create a
stable balance of power in the Indo-Pacific region."
。 "For India, the importance of the Japan relationship lies in its ability to
augment India's strategic options in the Indo-Pacific, particularly in countering
China's assertiveness." "India and Japan share a long-standing and abiding interest
in the security and stability of the Indo-Pacific region, and have a responsibility
to work together to ensure its continued prosperity." °
"The India-Japan partnership can help to create a more secure and prosperous Indo-
Pacific, and promote a rules-based international order based on the principles of
democracy, free trade, and respect for human rights."
。 Japan and India are lynchpin for free and open Indo Pacific. A strong India is in
the best interests of Japan.
• Brahma Chellaney: "The India-Japan partnership is important not only for

bilateral relations, but also for the wider Indo-Pacific region, which is
witnessing significant geopolitical changes." Shinzo Abe:
"India is a natural partner for Japan, with whom we share a commitment to

democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. Together, we can build a better
future for our region and the world."
"This partnership is an association in which we share fundamental values such as

freedom, democracy, and the respect for basic human rights as well as strategic
interests." "We are now at a point at which the Confluence of the Two Seas is
coming into being. The

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Pacific and the Indian Oceans are now bringing about a dynamic coupling as seas of
freedom and of prosperity. A "broader Asia" that broke away geographical boundaries
is now beginning to take on a distinct form."
⚫ Takashi Shiraichi: "The India-Japan relationship is not just about strategic and
economic cooperation, but also about cultural exchange and people-to-people ties,
which are critical for building trust and understanding between our two countries."
⚫Shin KawashimaHe has called for increased strategic coordination between India
and Japan, including joint military exercises and intelligence sharing.
Shyam Saran: The former Indian Foreign Secretary has been critical of Japan's
reluctance to transfer high-end technology to India. Saran has argued that Japan's
restrictive policies on technology transfer have limited the scope of India-Japan
economic cooperation.
Bilateral Data
Trade: Japan's bilateral trade with India totalled US$ 20.57 billion during FY
2021-22. Japan's exports to India were 2.35% of India's total imports and India's
exports to Japan were 1.46% of India's total exports. India faces a trade deficit
of almost $14 Billion with its trade with Japan.
⚫ Trade Basket: India's chief exports to Japan comprise engineering goods,

petroleum products, and agricultural and allied products. The exports mostly
comprise low-value-added goods, such as ferrous and non-ferrous metals, machine
tools and instruments, and transport equipment parts.
Bilateral Relations
1. Economic/Developmental
⚫ Key Investor: Japan is regarded as the fifth largest investor in India with
cumulative FDI worth US$38 billion from April 2000 - September 2022.
Where Japan Invests: Auto and services sectors have been the largest investment
sector destinations for Japan, followed by drugs and pharmaceuticals
o Projects: Some of the proposed projects are in the areas of stable energy and
infrastructure development. The projects in the pipeline include the Mumbai-
Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail (MAHSR) project, the Mumbai Trans Harbour Link, the
Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor with 12 industrial townships, the Chennai-
Bengaluru Industrial Corridor beside the Clean Energy Partnership, and the
Sustainable Development Initiative for North-East
India.
Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement: The CEPA has been beneficial for both
India and Japan.
。 Japan has been able to increase its exports to India, particularly in the areas
of automobiles, electronics, and machinery.
For India, the CEPA has provided better access to the Japanese market for its goods
and services, which has helped to increase bilateral trade between the two
countries. ⚫ Official Development Assistance: Japan started ODA with India in 1958
in the form of a Yen Loan. This was Japan's first case of the Yen Loan. Since then,
Japan has been extending ODA to India mainly in the form of Yen Loans.
。 Delhi Metro is one of the most successful examples of Japanese cooperation

through the utilization of ODA.
。 ODA loans to support the Indian government's programmes such as Pradhan Mantri
Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY)
"Abenomics": The structural reforms implemented as part of Abenomics also had

global implications, as they aimed to make Japan more competitive and attractive
for foreign

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investment. This has led to increased investment from Japanese companies in India,
particularly in the areas of manufacturing, automotive, and infrastructure. •

Infrastructural Support: Japan has been a constant partner to India's
infrastructure projects, with support ranging from developmental, financial and
advisory. Some key projects today
include:
° Patna Metro Rail Construction Project
o Project for Forest and Biodiversity Conservation for Climate in West Bengal.
。 Rajasthan Water Sector Livelihood Improvement Project.
o India's mega infrastructure projects like the Delhi-Mumbai Freight
o Corridor, Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor, Chennai-Bangalore Industrial Corridor

and the Ahmedabad-Mumbai High-Speed Rail.
。 North East: Japan has invested around $2 billion in improving infrastructure in

India's Northeast
Digitisation: India and Japan will undertake joint projects for digital
transformation in the areas of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) and eco-friendly
mobility. 2. Defence and Strategic
• Security Cooperation: In 2014, the bilateral strategic relationship was upgraded

to "Special Strategic and Global Partnership."
• 2+2 Dialogue: There are also various frameworks of security and defense dialogue
between
Japan and India including Foreign and Defense Ministerial Meeting ("2+2" meeting)
⚫ Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement: In 2020, the Agreement between Japan
and India Concerning Reciprocal Provision of Supplies and Services between the
Self-Defense Forces of Japan and the Indian Armed Forces (so-called "Acquisition
and Cross-Servicing Agreement" or ACSA) was signed.
Vision for Indo-Pacific: In 2015 both nations signed the "Japan and India Vision
2025 Special Strategic and Global Partnership Working Together for Peace and
Prosperity of the Indo-Pacific Region and the World", a joint statement that would
serve as a guidepost for the "new era in Japan-India relations."
Military Exercises: Malabar, "Dharma Guardian" and "SHINYUU Maitri have been some
of the exercises conducted between the defense forces of both the nations. 3.
Multilateral
• Quadrilateral Arrangement (QUAD): The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, commonly

known as the Quad, is a strategic security dialogue between Australia, India, Japan
and the United States that is maintained by talks between member countries.
. Asia Africa Growth Corridor: The Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC), an Indian-
Japanese collaborative vision regarding development, connectivity and cooperation
between Asia and Africa, was announced in 2017.
Supply Chain Resilience Initiative: The Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI)
is a trilateral agreement that was launched following a videoconference between
trade ministers of India, Japan and Australia on 27 April 2021 during the COVID-19
pandemic. 4. Others
Clean Energy Partnership: In a bid to achieve sustainable economic growth, and

ensure energy security in areas of electric vehicles, India and Japan have launched
a Clean Energy Partnership (CEP).
Indo-Japan Energy Dialogue: As an outcome of the visit of Hon'ble Prime Minister of

India to Japan in December 2006, Indo-Japan Energy Dialogue was initiated to
promote cooperation in the energy sector.

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⚫ Space Technology: India and Japan are jointly developing a satellite-based

augmentation system (GAGAN) and a Joint Earth Observation Mission (JEOM) to provide
high-resolution images for disaster management and agriculture. Additionally, the
two countries are collaborating on a system for sharing information and
coordinating their efforts in tracking and monitoring space debris and other
objects in orbit.
Complementarities of India Japan relationship
Japan Capital rich Ageing population Most advanced infrastructure Manufacturing

(hardware) India Need investment and capital scarce Human capital demographic
dividend Requirement of modern transportation IT technology (software)
Understanding the Recent Convergence

1. Geostrategic Reasons
Chinese Assertiveness: o Territorial disputes: China and Japan have conflicting

claims over s the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands. The dispute has escalated in recent
years, with both countries increasing their military presence in the region.
Similarly India faces territorial conflict with China in Arunachal, Doklam and
Ladakh.
Economic competition: China has emerged as a major economic power in recent years,
and its growth has created challenges for Japan as well as for India. Both nations
aim to challenge China's predatory economics in the region and counter the
increasing trade deficits in both economies.
Military build up: China's rapid military modernization and expansion has been a
source of concern for Japan and India particularly in light of the territorial
disputes and China's growing aggression in both near Japanese waters and near
India's borders. Relations with US: Both Japan and India today enjoy integrated
strategic relations with the US, this is another reason to increase China's
security dilemma in Asia and cause for
its growing assertiveness.
• Indo Pacific Construct: The Indo-Pacific construct recognizes the interdependence

of the two oceans and seeks to promote greater economic, political, and security
cooperation among the countries in the region. It also reflects the growing
influence of India and Japan, two of the largest democracies in the region, in
shaping the strategic landscape of the Indo-Pacific. ⚫ Regional Security: India
and Japan share concerns about regional security, including maritime security and
the threat of terrorism. Both countries have an interest in maintaining stability
and security in the Indo-Pacific region.
Example: The two countries also planned joint projects in Maldives and Sri Lanka
among others to counter Beijing's influence.
Shared Democratic Values: India and Japan are two of the largest democracies in the
world and share a commitment to democratic values and human rights. This has
created a strong foundation for closer ties between the two countries. India's
interests also are in line with the Japanese construct of "Free and Open Indo-
Pacific". 2. Economic Reasons
⚫ Economic Diversification: Japan's Economy is gradually slowing and thus requires

a diverse investment portfolio which India as one of the fastest growing economies
offers.

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Similarly, India has the potential to expand its exports to Japan in areas such as
automotive components, pharmaceuticals, textiles, IT services, and agriculture/food
products. Indian companies can offer high-quality products at competitive prices,
tapping into Japan's demand for these sectors.
Economic Aid: India's goals of transitioning into a $5 trillion economy are
complemented well by Japanese expertise and funds in India's infrastructure
projects, this ensures Japan healthy investments, while at the same time helps in
India's development. • Geo-economic Convergence: The potential for India and
Japan's relation extends beyond the sphere of bilateral trade and investments.
India and Japan have aimed at coordinating India's
"Act East" policy and Japan's vision of a free and open Indo-Pacific.
Decline of the West: As the West today declines more in economic and geopolitical
terms, India and Japan naturally emerge as growing partners to rely on each other.
3. Cultural Reasons
• Shared Values: India and Japan have converged in recent years due to several
cultural factors. Shared cultural values, popular culture, Buddhist heritage, and
food and cuisine have brought the two countries closer together. These factors have
fostered a sense of affinity, mutual respect, and shared identity. Indian films,
music, and television shows are popular in Japan, while Japanese anime, manga, and
video games have become popular in India. Additionally, Indian cuisine has gained
popularity in Japan, and Japanese cuisine has become popular in India, promoting
cultural exchange and understanding.
How Far is India Japan relations shaped by China and its actions?
Points in Support
• Shared Concerns about China: India and Japan share concerns about China's
assertive behavior in the region, including its territorial claims in the South and
East China Sea. This shared concern has helped to bring the two countries closer
together.
• Maritime Security Cooperation: India and Japan have been working together to
enhance maritime security in the Indo-Pacific region, which is seen as a response
to China's growing presence and assertiveness in the region.
• Quad: India and Japan are part of the Quad, a strategic grouping that also
includes the US and Australia, which aims to counterbalance China's growing
influence in the region. ⚫ Economic Cooperation: India and Japan are also
cooperating in economic areas, including the development of the Asia-Africa Growth
Corridor, which is seen as a response to China's Belt and Road Initiative.
Points Against
⚫ Economic Cooperation: While China's rise may be a factor in India and Japan's
cooperation, economic factors, such as Japan's need for new markets and India's
desire for foreign investment, are also important factors.
⚫ Divergent Interests: While India and Japan share concerns about China's
behavior, they also have divergent interests and priorities in the region, which
can limit their cooperation. • Independent Foreign Policy: Both India and Japan
maintain an independent foreign policy, and their relations are shaped by a range
of factors beyond China, including their own interests and priorities.

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Challenges in the India - Japan relationship
1. Ukraine Conundrum: During Japanese PM Kishida's recent visit, he appeared to be

emphasizing the need for a global consensus, especially including India, in
tackling the challenges from Russia and China, where Japan is aligned with western
powers.
2. Too much politically motivated: The relation is seen increasingly as a symptom

of having a common regional rival; China, without having much real integration.
Harsh V Pant: He has criticized the India-Japan relationship as being driven by

geopolitical considerations rather than economic interests, and has argued that the
two countries have not done enough to deepen their economic ties.
3. Underutilised CEPA: Given that the trade relationship remains fairly

underdeveloped, reworking the CEPA remains critically important if Indo-Japanese
trade is to be both robust and balanced. Data: India's merchandise exports to Japan
remain limited with 13.2 per cent of all tariff lines excluded from the
Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) between the two countries.
Quote: PM Modi has remarked that Indo-Japan ties are a mile wide but only an inch
deep, even after signing CEPA we have not been able to cross $18 Billion.
4. Failure of Asia-Africa Growth Corridor: there were two notable disappointments.

First, the much-hyped Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC), a joint Indo-Japanese
effort to build infrastructure and connectivity in Africa, found no mention in the
summit. This is particularly worrying in the light of reports that the initiative
has run aground.
5. High Integration with China: Both India and Japan still are underweighed by
Chinese economic dominance in the region and beyond, and both economies are the
largest trading partners of China. 6. Trade Barriers: Indian exports to Japan are
presently affected by a number of issues, which include both tariff, and Non-tariff
Barriers like Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) and Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measures (SPS).
Data: An India Exim Bank study titled "Study on Non-Tariff Measures" points out
that in Japan, the average tariff on products of export interest to India are 7
percent, which is higher than the simple average (4 percent) of the tariff of the
country as a whole.
7. Nuclear Awkwardness: Japan is the world leading Anti Nuclear crusader having
been a victim of the world's only nuclear attack, this is contrary to India's aims
of enhancing its Nuclear capabilities to improve its security dilemma situation
with China and Pakistan. 8. India's Diplomatic stance: Unlike India, Japan is part
of the U.S.'s alliance. Japan has also joined
sanctions against Russia, while India has refused to do so. India has been vocal
about its concerns over China's actions at the Line of Actual Control (LAC) but
reticent in directly criticising China's actions in the South China Sea, Taiwan
Straits, etc
9. Japanese Tech transfer reluctance: Japan's reluctance to transfer high-end

technology to India. Japan's restrictive policies on technology transfer have
limited the scope of India-Japan economic cooperation.
10. Project Delays: While India can emerge as a large market for Japanese
infrastructure system exports, there have been incredible delays in the
commencement of the projects. Japanese companies face considerable logistics
challenges and non-availability of uninterrupted power supply constraints their
plans for establishing manufacturing plants in India.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION
What are the notable features of the recently concluded pact or the Acquisition and
Cross Servicing Agreement (ACSA) between India and Japan? How is it likely to
address the security concerns of
India? (2020)

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The Acquisition and Cross Servicing Agreement (ACSA) signed between India and Japan
is a significant step towards enhancing their strategic partnership. Notable
features of the pact include: Sharing of Military Logistics and Supplies: The
agreement allows for the sharing of military logistics, supplies, and services
between India and Japan. This includes fuel, ammunition, and
spare parts, which will help to enhance the operational readiness of both
countries.
• Reciprocal Use of Military Bases: The ACSA also provides for the reciprocal use
of military bases between India and Japan, which will help to improve their
military capabilities and readiness.
⚫ Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistance: The agreement also allows for the
sharing of resources and facilities for disaster relief and humanitarian
assistance. • Confidentiality and Security: The ACSA includes provisions for the
protection of confidential information and the security of military assets and
facilities.
The agreement is likely to address India's security concerns by enhancing its

military capabilities and readiness. The sharing of military logistics and supplies
will enable India to improve its operational readiness and sustain its military
assets for a longer duration. This will be particularly useful in the context of
India's ongoing border disputes with China, which have highlighted the need for a
more robust military infrastructure.
The agreement also signals a deeper level of trust and cooperation between India
and Japan, which can have wider regional implications. It sends a clear message to
China that India and Japan are willing to work together to safeguard their
interests in the region.
Overall, the ACSA is an important step towards enhancing India's security
preparedness and strengthening its strategic partnership with Japan.
Free and Open Indo-Pacific
"Free and Open Indo-Pacific," which is a vision for regional security and economic
cooperation articulated by the Japanese government. Here are some key features of
Japan's FOIP: • Security: Japan's FOIP emphasizes the need for a free and open
maritime order, respect for the rule of law, and the peaceful resolution of
disputes. It also seeks to promote defense cooperation
and capacity-building among like-minded countries.
Economic cooperation: Japan's FOIP aims to promote free trade, investment, and
infrastructure development in the Indo-Pacific region, with an emphasis on quality
infrastructure that is open, transparent, and financially sustainable.
Connectivity: Japan's FOIP seeks to promote connectivity in the Indo-Pacific

region, including through digital technology and people-to-people exchanges.
Partnerships: Japan's FOIP emphasizes the importance of partnerships with like-

minded countries in the Indo-Pacific region, including India, Australia, and the
United States. • Multilateralism: Japan's FOIP supports a rules-based international
order and the strengthening
| of regional multilateral institutions, including the Association of Southeast

Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA).
Way Forward
China balancing: C. Rajamohan He makes the case in his book "Samudra Manthan: Sino-
Indian Competition in the Indo-Pacific" that Japan and India should strengthen
their security ties and cooperate to counterbalance China's ascent.
Japanese experts agree that Japan should provide India additional support since a
robust India is in Japan's best interests. Increased interaction and cooperation
between the two countries would be advantageous because Japan and India both
require advanced technologies.

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⚫ There is a huge potential with respect to Make in India. Combining Indian labour
and raw resources with Japanese digital technology could result in joint
enterprises.
Potential areas for collaboration include big data, Al, IoT, and digital
partnerships. ⚫ Revision of CEPA: Both nations must conclude the various rounds of
talks on revising the terms of the CEPA to ensure no wide trade deficit persists in
the trade relations.
Japanese PM Kishida's recent India visit Speech Highlights
Expanding efforts for security and safe use of sea to the air; addressing
difficulties in an Indo- Pacific manner; multi-layered connectivity in south-east
Asia, south Asia, and Pacific Islands region; and In order to ensure free and open
Indo-Pacific, India is "indispensable" (FOIP) A free and open international system
founded on the rule of law needs to be upheld and strengthened, and India and Japan
have a major role to play in this.
Industrial value chain between Northeast India and the Gulf of Bengal
Along with India and Bangladesh, Japan will push the "Bay of Bengal-Northeast India
industrial value chain concept" for the development of the entire region. Japan
will collaborate with other powerful nations: Japan will also improve collaboration
with US, Australia, UK, Canada, Europe, and other countries in order to fulfil the
goals of FOIP. The Quad alliance is made up of Australia, Japan, the United States,
and India. In the Asia-Pacific, this alliance sees itself as a safeguard against
China's rising assertiveness. enlarged area of FOIP
.The scope of FOIP would broaden, according to the Japanese PM, to encompass new
fields including food security, cybersecurity, and climate change.
Monetary commitment: The Japanese Prime Minister emphasised that Japan would
provide $75 billion in public and private funding to Indo-Pacific infrastructure by
2030. proposed collaborating with ASEAN to promote prosperity to the area.
In conclusion, the relationship between India and Japan has evolved significantly
in recent years, from cultural and economic ties to a strategic partnership that
spans a range of areas. With both nations having territorial disputes with China in
Himalayas and Senkaku Islands
respectively, If Japan has to counter China's unipolarity in Asia, there is no

other natural ally than India.
"In conclusion, India and Japan have successfully transformed their relationship
into a multifaceted strategic partnership, however the existing challenges in trade
must also be resolved to integrate the ties further.
INDIA-EUROPEAN UNION RELATIONS
Examine the nature of the issues currently being debated with the European Union.
(2010) "EU - India relations have long way before they can purposely be termed
strategic." Discuss. (2014) Explain Britain's ouster from EU and bring out its
consequences on world economy in 2016)
general and India in particular. (
Explain India's relations with the European Union in the context of Brexit. (2021)
Russian-Ukraine crisis has cast a dark shaddy on the energy needs of the member
states of the European Union (EU). Comment. (2022)

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The decline of Pax Americana and Chinese expansionism has opened new avenues of
cooperation between the EU and India.
• India and the European Union (EU) have a long-standing relationship based on
shared values of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law.
In a largely multipolar world, The EU and India emerge as two potential allies
which can help both reset and diversify the existing ties.
Background
The 1950s-60s: India-EU relations began informally through trade, as India was a
major market for European goods. The first formal engagement between India and the
European Economic Community (EEC) was established in 1962 with a Joint Study Group
on Trade.
⚫ The 1970s-80s: India-EU relations grew in scope beyond trade, with the
establishment of a Joint
Commission in 1973 to facilitate political dialogue and cooperation. However,

relations were strained due to India's nuclear program, and the EU imposed
sanctions on India in 1975. ⚫ The 1990s: With the end of the Cold War, India and
the EU sought to deepen cooperation in areas such as trade, investment, and
technology. The EU became India's largest trading partner, and in
1994, India and the EU signed a Cooperation Agreement.
⚫ The 2000s: India and the EU launched a Strategic Partnership in 2004, aimed at
further enhancing cooperation in areas such as energy, environment, and security.
The EU also supported India's bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council.
The 2010s: India and the EU continued to deepen cooperation in areas such as
counter-terrorism, climate change, and defense. However, negotiations for a free
trade agreement (FTA) between India and the EU stalled due to disagreements over
issues such as intellectual property rights and market access.
Views of Scholars
C. Rajamohan:
° What was once a taboo in Delhi- regional security cooperation with former
European colonial powers, has now become a strategic necessity.
India's new emphasis on strengthening security cooperation with Britain and the EU
within the framework of Indo-Pacific security is matched by a new commitment to
seek trade liberalization with Europe as well. The new interest in deepening
commercial ties comes amid India's efforts to decouple its economy from China's.
As it confronts a rising China, India needs both the United States and Europe to
construct a multipolar Asia.
o A strong cooperation between asian and European powers has become an

indispensable element of the geopolitics of the East.
Rajendra Jain (JNU Prof.): "India and the EU should build a strategic partnership
that is based on mutual respect and shared interests. The EU can play a key role in
supporting India's rise as a global power, while India can contribute to Europe's
security and stability."
Harsh V Pant: "India and the EU have converging interests in areas such as counter-
terrorism, climate change and economic cooperation. A stronger partnership between
the two would be beneficial for both sides."
Shashi Tharoor: "India and the European Union share common values of democracy,
human rights and the rule of law. Strengthening India-EU ties is important for both
regions to address global challenges together."

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According to David Malone, one of the most challenging aspects of Indian foreign
policy is its relatively underwhelming relationship with Europe, despite having
dynamic trading ties.
Bilateral Relations
1. Economic/Developmental
Bilateral Trade: India's merchandise exports to EU member countries stood at about

USD 65 billion in 2021-22, while imports aggregated at USD 51.4 billion. In 2022-
23, the exports aggregated at USD 67 billion, while imports stood at USD 54.4
billion in the last fiscal
⚫ Foreign Direct Investment: The EU's share in foreign investment stock in India
reached €87.3 billion in 2020, up from €63.7 billion in 2017, making the EU a
leading foreign investor in India.
o Data: The EU's share in foreign investment inflows to India more than doubled
from 8% to 18% in the last decade making the EU India's largest source of FDI.
During April 2000 to September 2020,
• Development cooperation: India and the EU have several development cooperation

programs in areas such as education, environment, and energy. The EU is one of the
largest donors of development assistance to India. The EU-India development
cooperation program focuses on areas such as poverty reduction, education, health,
and environmental sustainability.
• Trade and Technology Council: The EU-India Trade and Technology Council is aimed
at tackling "challenges at the nexus of trade, trusted technology and security, and
thus deepen cooperation in these fields between the EU and India."
European Investment Bank: European Investment Bank's (EIB) is providing loans for
Lucknow, Bangalore, Bhopal, Kanpur and Pune Metro Projects. EIB opened its first
office for the South Asian Region headquartered in New Delhi on 30 March 2017.
⚫ Recent Developments: At the 13th India-EU Summit, the leaders adopted a Joint
Declaration on Common Agenda on Migration and Mobility (CAMM) that facilitates
legal migration on both sides. A High-Level Dialogue on Migration and Mobility has
been instituted and held its 6th meeting on 27 October 2022 in Brussels at which
the two sides reaffirmed that migration and mobility are important dimensions of
the strategic partnership between India and the EU and exchanged views on future
initiatives aimed at realizing the full potential of further strengthening
cooperation.
• FTA: EU and India are currently in the dialogue for the stalled India-EU FTA. 2.
Strategic
⚫ India-EU Strategic Partnership: In 2004, India and the EU signed a Joint Action
Plan to establish a strategic partnership. The partnership is based on shared
values and principles such as democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. The
partnership covers areas such as trade and investment, energy, climate change,
environment, education, culture, and science and technology.
India-EU Leaders' Meeting: In continuation of the highly successful 15th India-EU

Summit, the first ever India-EU Leaders' Meeting was held on 08 May 2021 in hybrid
mode in Porto, Portugal with the participation of Prime Minister, leaders of all
the 27 EU Member States as
well as the President of the European Council and President of the European
Commission. • Strategic Partnership Review Meeting: The 3rd round of the India-EU
Strategic Partnership Review Meeting was held in October 2021 in Brussels. Both
sides reviewed the India-EU Strategic Partnership, discussed political and economic
relations and exchanged views on regional and global issues of mutual interest.

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Bilateral Dialogues: India and EU have institutionalized political dialogues, inter

alia, on Counter-Terrorism, Cyber Security, Migration and Mobility, Maritime
Security, Human Rights, Non-Proliferation and Disarmament. The two sides meet
regularly to discuss bilateral cooperation and international developments in these
areas.
Nuclear: The EU and India agreed on 29 September 2008 at the EU-India summit in
Marseille, to expand their co-operation in the fields of nuclear energy and
environmental protection and deepen their strategic partnership.
3. Others
• India and the EU have cooperation in various sectors including Agriculture &
Marine, Energy, Environment, Water, Pharmaceuticals, Biotechnology & Medical
Devices, Science & Technology, Science and Technology, Infrastructure, Information
& Communications Technology and aviation.
• Climate Cooperation: The EU has also invested in numerous programmes such as

India-EU water partnership, solar park programme, and Facilitating Offshore Wind in
India (FOWIND). One of the major investments was the signing of the 200 million EUR
loan agreement between the EIB and the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency.
KEY FOCUS AREAS
India-EU Free Trade Agreement
The negotiations on a free trade agreement (FTA) between India and the European
Union (EU) started in 2007. The EU is one of India's largest trading partners,
accounting for around 11% of India's total trade. However, there has been a growing
trade imbalance between the two sides, with India running a significant trade
deficit with the EU. In order to address this issue, both sides initiated talks on
an FTA, which would aim to eliminate or reduce tariffs on goods and services traded
between them, and also address non-tariff barriers to trade. However, the
negotiations have been beset by several challenges, with both sides struggling to
reach agreement on several key issues.
What are the issues currently affecting the talks?
Market access: One of the key issues in the negotiations is market access, with
both sides seeking to increase trade and investment opportunities. India wants
greater access to the EU market for its goods and services, including agriculture,
textiles, and IT. The EU, on the other hand, wants greater access to the Indian
market for its automobiles, pharmaceuticals, and other goods.
• Intellectual property rights: Another contentious issue is the protection of

intellectual property rights (IPR). India has been under pressure to strengthen its
IPR regime, particularly with regard to pharmaceuticals and patents. The EU has
been pushing for stronger protections for its companies' patents and copyrights.
•Investment rules: The EU wants greater investment protection and transparency for
its companies investing in India. India, on the other hand, is concerned about the
impact of foreign investment on its domestic industries and wants to ensure that
foreign investors do not have too much power over its economy.
⚫ Services sector: The services sector, including IT and outsourcing, is a key

area of interest for both India and the EU. However, India has been seeking greater
access to the EU market for its IT professionals, while the EU has been pushing for
greater market access in India for its service
providers.
⚫ Non-tariff barriers: Non-tariff barriers, such as technical regulations,

standards, and certification requirements, have been a significant issue in the
negotiations. The EU has been pushing for

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greater harmonization of regulations and standards, while India has been seeking to
protect its regulatory autonomy.
Environmental and labor standards: The EU has been pushing for stronger
environmental and labor standards in the FTA, which India has been resisting,
arguing that such standards could be used as non-tariff barriers to trade.
⚫ Geographical indications: The EU wants greater protection for its geographical

indications, such as Champagne and Parma ham, in the Indian market. India has been
resisting this demand, arguing that its own geographical indications, such as
Darjeeling tea and Basmati rice, should also be protected.
• India's Trade Deficit: The analysis by the Indian government suggests that India
will be a net loser from the FTA in terms of the trade in goods, primarily as a
result of the loss of revenues from lower or zero tariffs, although gains are
expected from liberalisation of the services sector. • Data Secure Clause: One of
India's key objectives is to be recognised as a data-secure country.
At present, India is not considered data-secure under EU legislation, despite India

amending its
Information Technology Act in 2000 and issuing new Information Technology Rules in
2011, in line with the "safe harbour" principles adopted by the United States. This
hampers the flow of sensitive data such as information on patients, and means that
Indian firms are unable to gain market access in the EU, increasing operating
costs.
Benefits for EU
The proposed agreement is politically and economically crucial for both sides. In
political terms, from the EU's perspective the free trade agreement (FTA) with
India will be its first with an emerging economy, will support the EU's aim of
employing FTAs to foster partner countries' integration into the world economy, and
will strengthen its role in global trade governance.
Benefits for India
From India's perspective, it will boost Prime Minister Narendra Modi's "Make in
India" campaign and his ambition to establish India as a regional leader and global
manufacturing centre. Furthermore, the FTA will strengthen India's attempts to
harness its growing domestic economy and middle class to support its rise as a
global economic power.
⚫ The FTA is also important for India from the perspective of investment flows and
technical cooperation. The EU's assistance would enable European companies to help
India in its plan to develop 100 "smart cities" in the near future, as well as
helping other Indian initiatives.
Way Forward
To agree on the FTA despite the differences between the EU's and India's
negotiating agendas in a tough economic climate, both partners will need to show
the same determination. Given both sides' reluctance to agree to the other's
demands, they should begin by negotiating less
difficult sectors. This will demonstrate willingness to get back to the negotiating
table and send a clear signal that both sides want to talk further.
It is important for India to overcome its siege mentality, commit to institutional

reform, and confront domestic vested interests.
General Areas of Convergence in the current Global situation
Shared democratic values: India and the EU are both committed to democratic values,
human rights, and the rule of law. This shared commitment has led to greater
cooperation in areas such as climate change, counter-terrorism, and regional
security.

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⚫ Russia-Ukraine Impact: Europe is weaning itself off Russian energy, and India is
diversifying its defence imports away from Russia, which already fell significantly
following Russia's invasion of Crimea in 2014. A depleted Russian military and
Western sanctions make Russia an unreliable defence partner for India's future.
European countries could fill some of this void through enhanced security
cooperation with India.
Mutual interests: In an altered global landscape, opportunities for EU-India

collaboration are only increasing as both rethink their energy, trade and security
architectures, and seek alternatives to move away from Russia and China.
Alignment with US: India-EU relations will also show more integration and
determination especially as both EU and India enjoy entrenched relations with US.
India's improved relations promise to integrate it with the global anti-China
sentiment.
Global Multi polarity: Geopolitics is driving the EU and India closer together. It
has also led to a flurry of proposals for pluri lateral cooperation among
democracies in the economic and security realm, such as in the proposed D10 or
technology alliances. While these proposals are indicative of the stalemate in
global governance, they also indicate a degree of energy and urgency among some
countries to defend norms and advance economic rulemaking.
⚫ Chinese disengagement: The EU has shown its interest in gradual disengagement

from China, which has proved to be a difficult and overbearing trade partner. In
this situation, the Indian economy proves to be the best alternative for European
markets and for trade.
⚫ Strategic partnerships: India has forged strategic partnerships with several EU

countries, such as France, Germany, and the UK, in areas such as defence, counter-
terrorism, and technology. These partnerships have led to greater cooperation and
coordination between India and the EU as a whole.
• Regional security: India and the EU share a common interest in regional security
and stability, particularly in South Asia and the Middle East. The EU has been
supportive of India's efforts to combat terrorism and extremism, while India has
welcomed the EU's engagement in regional peace and stability initiatives.
Importance of India-France relations
Joint exercises: The Indian and French armed forces regularly participate in joint
military exercises, such as the annual "Varuna" naval exercise, which aims to
improve interoperability and cooperation between the two navies.
。 Example: For example, in April 2021, the Indian Navy and the French Navy
conducted the "La Perouse" exercise in the Bay of Bengal, which involved warships,
submarines, and aircraft from both countries. This exercise focused on enhancing
interoperability and coordination between the two navies.
Defense equipment: France is one of the top suppliers of defense equipment to

India, particularly in the areas of submarines, fighter aircraft, and helicopters.
India has purchased several military hardware and systems from France, including
the Rafale fighter jets, Scorpene submarines, and Exocet missiles.
o Example: For instance, in September 2016, India signed a contract with French
company Dassault Aviation to purchase 36 Rafale fighter jets. In October 2020, the
Indian Navy received the first of six Scorpene-class submarines, which were jointly
developed by India's Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited and France's Naval Group.
Strategic partnership: In 2018, India and France upgraded their relationship to a

"strategic partnership" and identified defence cooperation as one of the key areas
of cooperation. This partnership includes joint research and development,
technology transfer, and training.

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o Data: France has emerged as a key defence partner for India, becoming the second
largest
defence supplier in 2017-2021. Counterterrorism: India and France have been

cooperating closely on counterterrorism, particularly in the aftermath of several
high-profile terrorist attacks in France. The two countries have shared
intelligence and conducted joint operations to disrupt terrorist networks. Space
cooperation: India and France have also been cooperating in the area of space
technology and exploration. The two countries are jointly developing a climate
monitoring satellite, and India's space agency has signed an agreement with
France's space agency for cooperation in space research and exploration.
Example: In March 2018, India's space agency, ISRO, and France's space agency,
CNES, signed an agreement to explore possibilities of cooperation in human
spaceflight, space science, and planetary exploration.
BREXIT
In 2016, the United Kingdom (UK) held a referendum in which voters were asked if
they wanted the UK to remain a member of the EU or leave it. The referendum
resulted in a majority vote for leaving the EU. Following this, the UK government
triggered Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty, which set a two-year deadline for
negotiating a withdrawal agreement. After protracted negotiations, the UK formally
left the EU on January 31, 2020, and a transition period ended on December 31,
2020.
Impact on India-EU ties
Resetting to Fresh Start: As per PM Modi, the UK is an entry point for India to the
EU. With the UK's withdrawal from the EU, no one can predict anything with
certainty. However, some experts believe that the move of BREXIT will be an
opportunistic event for India. It is expected that it will act as a catalyst
between India and the UK and also for India and the EU to modify or reset the legal
terms of its trade with both.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION
Explain Britain's ouster from the EU and bring out its consequences on the world
economy in general and India in particular. (2021)
In 2016, the United Kingdom (UK) held a referendum in which voters were asked if
they wanted the UK to remain a member of the EU or leave it. The referendum
resulted in a majority vote for leaving the EU. Britain's ouster from the European
Union (EU), commonly referred to as Brexit, has significant consequences for the
world economy, including India.
Impact on world economy:
Brexit has had several impacts on the world economy, including:
Uncertainty: Brexit has created significant uncertainty for businesses and

investors, particularly those with operations in the UK and the EU. This has led to
a slowdown in investment and trade, which has had a negative impact on the global
economy. ⚫ Disruption of trade: Brexit has disrupted the flow of goods and
services between the UK and the EU. This has led to delays, additional costs, and
border checks, which have affected businesses and consumers on both sides of the
English Channel.
• Currency fluctuations: The UK's decision to leave the EU has led to fluctuations
in currency values, particularly for the pound sterling. This has affected
international trade and investment. ⚫ Global financial markets: The uncertainty
surrounding Brexit has led to volatility in global financial markets, with
investors worried about the impact of Brexit on the EU and the global

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Impact on India:
economy.
Brexit has had an impact on India's economy, particularly in the following areas:
Trade: The UK is an important trading partner for India, particularly in sectors
such as textiles, pharmaceuticals, and automobiles. Brexit has led to uncertainty
about the future of trade between India and the UK, which has affected business
sentiment and investment.
• Investment: The UK is also an important destination for Indian investment,

particularly in the financial services sector. The uncertainty surrounding Brexit
has led to a slowdown in Indian investment in the UK.
⚫ Financial markets: Brexit has also affected Indian financial markets, with the
value of the rupee fluctuating in response to global developments related to
Brexit.
Brexit has had significant consequences for the global economy, with the full
extent of its impact still
unfolding. For India, Brexit has created uncertainty in trade and investment
relationships with the UK, leading to concerns about the future of these important
economic partnerships.
India EU Relations after Russia Ukraine War
1. Europe's changed priority: The Ukraine crisis has shifted attention of the West
away from China and the threat China poses to the existing world order. This is an
issue for India as India finds itself isolated atleast in rasing the concerns for
the threats posed by China in the Indo-Pacific. 2. Complexity: NATO's desire to
weaken Russia permanently through a long-drawn-out conflict is
conflictual to India's interest in having a stronger Russia to act as a buffer

between India and China.
3. Challenge to Strategic Autonomy: As the conflict extends, it puts pressure on

India to choose sides with EU and USA both of which are India's most integrated
partners. This clashes with India's interest in maintaining historical relations
with Russia.
The US and EU initially questioned India's publicly stated position on the

conflict, demanding that India condemn Russia's invasion of Ukraine as a violation
of the UN Charter. Both now appreciate that India can distance herself from Russia
only if we have an alternative and robust defence partnership with them.
4. India's China concern: From India's perspective, the inexorable loss of

Ukraine's sovereignty in its Eastern flank, accompanied by a fatal weakening of
Russia's economic and military might, raised the prospect of a severely weakened
Russia, hitherto India's main arms supplier, becoming a junior partner of an
aggressive and emboldened China. This is an alarming scenario given China's
implacable hostility to India's rise. It has increased pressure on India to
distance itself from Russia, ignoring her core national interests.
S. Jaishankar: "Europe has to get out of the mindset that Europe's problem is the
world's problem but the world's problem is not Europe's problem.
Quotes
Amb. Bhaswati Mukherjee: The West should understand that just as India has to live
with China and Pakistan, the EU has to live with Russia. Nations cannot alter their
history and geography. Russia is linked to Europe.
Way Forward
Beyond trade, the EU and India should prioritize connectivity cooperation this
year. India's infrastructure needs are enormous, and the EU has recently developed
its own strategy for EU- Asia connectivity.

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• It would be a major win for both sides if the first steps could be made in data
and technology cooperation. This is especially important as the U.S.-China trade
conflict increasingly focuses on technology and the use of export controls is
forcing firms to choose which markets they want to operate in.
Strong cooperation in telecommunications, artificial intelligence, and common

standards that abide by the principles of democratic societies would be highly
beneficial for the EU and India as well as check actors who seek to undermine these
principles.
According to C Raja Mohan, Delhi has been focused on bilateral relations with
France, Germany, and Russia, while neglecting the European Union and Central
Europe. He suggests that it is time to correct this imbalance and pay more
attention to other parts of the continent, such as Spain, Sweden, Portugal, and
Poland, which have much to offer India. With the current uncertainties in relations
between America, China, and Russia, he believes that it is important for India to
move closer to Europe and strengthen its engagement with the region.
Europe had been traditionally backwaters in the Indian Foreign policy, however, the
new calls for integration and diplomacy are a welcome move. •India must keep its
Strategic continuity alive while engaging with Europe and at the same time
maintaining its historical relations with Russia.
INDIA-RUSSIA RELATIONS
Discuss the present state of Indo-Russian relations. (2006)
Analyse the drivers of Indo-Russian relations in the post-Cold-War era. (2014)
The recent differences between India and Russia are the result of misconceptions
than facts. Elucidate. (2017)
'Relations between India and Russia are rooted in history, mutual trust and
mutually beneficial cooperations.' Discuss. (2021)
India-Russia relations have stood the test of time, marked by deep historical ties,
strategic partnerships, and cooperation in various sectors.
"India and Russia have maintained a close and productive relationship over many
decades, and their partnership has been an important factor in shaping the regional
and global order."
PM Modi-
Russia has been the pillar of India's development and security.
India and Russia relations have been constant in the world that is constantly
changing since 1947 Every child in India knows that Russia is our best friend.
Background
1. Medieval: Russian travelers have had a long history of visiting India, dating
back to ancient times like Afanasy Nikitin
2. Historical: In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Russian Empire established its
presence in Central Asia and extended its influence in the region, which had a
significant impact on India's security PAPER 2-PSIR Optional | Subscribe from:
SUNYA IAS
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and strategic interests. Russia supported the Indian independence movement and
provided refuge to many Indian political exiles, including revolutionaries such as
M.N. Roy. 3. Since 1947:
⚫ Phase I (1947-1955): This phase saw the establishment of diplomatic relations

between India and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union supported India's non-aligned
policy and provided economic and technical assistance to India's development
efforts.
⚫ Phase II (1956-1971): This phase marked the deepening of India-USSR ties, with
the Soviet Union becoming India's principal economic and military partner. The two
countries signed the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation in 1971, which
cemented their strategic partnership.
Phase III (1971-1991): This phase was characterized by India's growing dependence
on the Soviet Union for military hardware and technology. The Soviet Union
supported India during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 and provided military
aid during the India-Pakistan War of 1971.The 80's saw a shift in India-USSR
relations, as the Soviet Union was facing economic and political challenges at home
and was unable to provide the same level of assistance to India.
⚫ Phase IV (1991-present): After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991,

India-Russia relations entered a new phase. The two countries signed a new Treaty
of Friendship and Cooperation in 1993, which reaffirmed their commitment to their
strategic partnership. Today, India-Russia relations are characterized by
cooperation in areas such as defense, energy, and space, and the two countries are
exploring new opportunities for economic cooperation.
Vladimir Putin: "India and Russia have a special and privileged strategic
partnership, which is based on deep mutual trust and respect."
Russian FM Lavrov: "India and Russia have maintained a close and productive
relationship over many decades, and their partnership has been an important factor
in shaping the regional and global order."
Harsh V Pant:
"India and Russia need to work together to address the challenges posed by the
changing global order, including the rise of China and the assertiveness of the
United States." "The India-Russia relationship is not a zero-sum game, and there is
ample room for cooperation and collaboration in areas of mutual interest."
Prof. Rajesh Basrur: "India's reluctance to take a strong stance on the Ukraine
conflict is driven by its desire to avoid being drawn into great power politics and
to preserve its own strategic autonomy.
Bilateral relations
1. Economic
• Bilateral Trade: As per figures of Department of Commerce, bilateral trade during

during FY 2021-22 amounted to $13.2 billion. Indian exports amounted to $3.26
billion, while imports from Russia amounted to $9.86 billion. In April-August 2022,
the bilateral trade has soared to an all-time high of $18.23 billion with India's
imports of $17.23 billion, while India's exports to Russia amounted to $992.73
million
Trade Basket: Major items of export from India include electrical machinery,
pharmaceuticals, machinery and mechanical appliances, organic chemicals, iron &
steel, while major items of import from Russia include oil and petroleum products,
fertilizers, mineral resources, precious stones and metals, vegetable oils, etc.

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Investments: Bilateral investments between the two countries remain strong and
surpassed the previous target of $30 billion in 2018, leading to revised target of
$50 billion by 2025. The major bilateral investments by Russia in India are in the
oil and gas, petrochemicals, banking, railways and steel sectors, while Indian
investments in Russia are mainly in oil and gas and pharmaceuticals sectors.
• Energy Security: Russia accounted for well over 1/3rd of India's oil imports
(India's oil imports from Russia were estimated at 1.64 million barrels per day in
March 2023 Rupee trade: A mechanism of Rupee-Rouble trade was also rolled out in
February 2023. Several Indian banks - including HDFC Bank and UCO Bank - have
opened vostro accounts. Eastern Economic Forum:
o In 2019, while attending the Easter Economic Forum (EEF) at Vladivostok, Indian
PM Narendra Modi had committed a $1 billion line of credit for the Far Eastern
Region. o India has paying greater attention to the Far Eastern Region as part of
its "Act Far East" policy.
o While for India, Russia's Far Eastern Region is important from a strategic and
economic standpoint, for Russia greater Indian involvement will help in countering
China's presence. o According to Nandan Unnikrishnan, the trade relationship
between India and Russia
requires active intervention to fully utilize policies like 'Make in India.'

Unnikrishnan emphasizes the need to implement concrete proposals in various areas
that have already been identified by both countries.
o These areas include start-ups, infrastructure, shipbuilding, river-navigation,

high-speed railways, space technology, food processing, high-technology products,
and more. Unnikrishnan highlights the importance of prioritizing these sectors to
strengthen the trade ties and collaboration between India and Russia, encompassing
a wide range of fields such as information technology, medicine, robotics,
nanotechnology, artificial intelligence, and material sciences.
2. Political
Russia currently is one of only two countries in the world (the other being Japan)
that has a mechanism for annual ministerial-level defence reviews with India. The
Indo-Russian Inter- Governmental Commission (IRIGC) is one of the largest and most
comprehensive governmental mechanisms that India has had with any country
internationally.
3. Strategic
Military hardware: Russia has been India's major defense supplier for decades.
India has purchased a wide range of military hardware from Russia, including
fighter jets, tanks, submarines, and missile systems. India is also a major
customer for Russia's defense exports, accounting for a significant portion of
Russia's defense sales.
Example:
Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter jets: India has purchased more than 250 Sukhoi Su-30MKI
fighter jets from Russia, which form a significant part of the Indian Air Force's
fleet. The Su-30MKI is a highly advanced fighter jet and has been customized to
meet India's specific requirements.
T-90 tanks: India has purchased more than 1,600 T-90 tanks from Russia, which form
the backbone of the Indian Army's armored fleet. The T-90 is a modern battle tank
with advanced features such as reactive armor and a laser-guided missile system.
BrahMos missile system: The BrahMos missile system is a joint venture between India
and Russia and is one of the world's fastest supersonic cruise missiles. The
missile

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system has been inducted into the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force and is
considered a crucial component of India's defense capabilities.
■In October 2018, India inked the historic agreement worth US$5.43 billion with
Russia to procure five S-400 Triumf surface-to-air missile defence system Arms and
ammunitions - Russia is still India's biggest arms supplier, although its share of
Indian defence imports decreased from 62% to 45% between 2017 and 2022, according
to a report by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).
Technology transfer: Russia has played a crucial role in the development of India's
defense industry. Russia has transferred technology to India and has assisted India
in developing its own defense capabilities. Several Indian defense projects, such
as the BrahMos missile system, have been jointly developed with Russia.
⚫ Joint military exercises: India and Russia conduct regular joint military
exercises, known as INDRA, which aim to improve their military interoperability and
coordination. The two countries also participate in other multilateral military
exercises, such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) joint exercises.
• Strategic partnership: India and Russia have a long-standing strategic

partnership in the defense sector. The two countries have signed several defense
agreements, including the 2001 Declaration on Strategic Partnership, which
identified defense cooperation as a key element of their partnership.
⚫ Future cooperation: India and Russia are exploring new areas of defense
cooperation, such as joint development of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and
hypersonic missile systems. India is also looking to diversify its defense
suppliers, but Russia remains an essential partner in the Indian defense industry.
4. Nuclear Cooperation
Nuclear power plants: Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear power plants to
India. The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant, which is being built in Tamil Nadu, is a
joint venture between India and Russia. The two countries are also in discussions
to build more nuclear power plants in India.
• Nuclear fuel: Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India. India's
nuclear reactors are fueled by uranium, which is sourced from Russia. Russia has
also signed agreements to supply enriched uranium fuel to India for its civilian
nuclear power plants.
⚫ Nuclear cooperation agreements: India and Russia have signed several nuclear
cooperation agreements over the years, including an inter-governmental agreement on
cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy in 1988. In 2010, the two
countries signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement, which enabled India to
import nuclear reactors, technology, and fuel from Russia.
⚫ Joint Development: According to Rosatom, India, Bangladesh and Russia on

Thursday signed an agreement to allow Indian firms in construction and installation
works in the "non-critical" category for the Rooppur nuclear power plant project in
northwest Bangladesh.
Convergence in the Relations
1. Historical: India and Russia have shared very deep relations that emerged during
the cold war. India and Russia signed the Treaty of Peace in 1971, enabling the
USSR to be India's strongest defence partner.
2. Defence Requirements: During the Cold war, India and the Soviet Union (Russia's
predecessor) engaged in a significant amount of barter trade, as India faced severe
foreign exchange constraints

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due to its economic policies and lack of foreign reserves. This enabled India to
meet its defence requirements without having to exhaust its foreign reserves.
Example: India and the Soviet Union also engaged in barter trade in the nuclear
field. The Soviet Union supplied nuclear reactors, technology, and fuel to India in
exchange for Indian goods such as iron ore, tea, and tobacco.
3. Strategic interests: India and the USSR shared strategic interests in the
region, including countering the influence of China and the United States (Through
Pakistan). This ensured that US- CHina interests were always challenged by India in
the region helping India emerge as the dominant power in the region.
Convergence Post Soviet Dissolution
Large Russian Origin Weaponry: The large percentage of Indian defence was of Soviet
origin, thus it became imperative for India to maintain cordial ties with Post
Soviet Russia to ensure timely servicing and spare parts availablity.
Failure of Russia-West: Initial Russian experiment of "intense engagement with the

West" failed, and Russian leaders redirected the foreign policy eastwards. In the
new scheme China and India gained importance
India's Economic Importance: The disintegration of the Soviet Union had altered the
power equations in international politics. Though Russia remained a military power,
it lost its erstwhile dominance in matters of economy, The newly liberalised Indian
economy promised market access and investment for Russians.
Make in India: Russia has stated it will co-operate with India on its "Make in
India" initiative by engagement in the development of "Smart Cites", the Delhi-
Mumbai Industrial-Corridor Project, the aerospace sector, the commercial nuclear
sector and enhancement in manufacturing of Russian military products through
codevelopment and co-production
Nuclear Needs: Co-operation in the nuclear field. Russia has agreed to build more
than 20 nuclear reactors over the next twenty years with installed capacity of 1000
MW each. A 1000 MW reactor currently costs around $2.5 billion.
Energy needs of India: Indian oil companies have invested in the Russia's oil
sector. An example is ONGC-Videsh which has invested over $8 billion with major
stakes in oil fields such Sakhalin- 1. "It is expected that Indian companies will
strongly participate in projects related to new oil and gas fields in the territory
of the Russian Federation. The sides will study the possibilities of
building a hydrocarbon pipeline system, connecting the Russian Federation with

India.
Rise of the Rest: India and Russia also represent powers which are non-west and are
supportive of a redefined world order which does not involve the dominance of the
West. Institutional form of this can be seen in the organisations like RIC, BRICS
and SCO which aim at competing with the western led world order.
Afghanistan: India bas been invited for talks at the Moscow format. With the exit
of US, the role and responsibility of India and Russia has further increased to
maintain stability in the region and prevent the threat of terrorism, instability
and drug trafficking
Strategic differences
Harsh Pant highlights the emergence of new equations in South Asia, with the
formation of alliances like the US-India-Afghanistan axis on one side and the
China-Pakistan-Russia axis on
the other.
⚫ C Raja Mohan emphasizes the need for India to reevaluate its relationship with
Russia, as India draws closer to the United States while Russia strengthens its
ties with Pakistan and China.

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⚫ Srinath Raghavan suggests that Russia has always followed a realist approach in
its foreign policy.
1. Ukraine Conflict: India has been finding its policy of Strategic Autonomy under
stress as the conflict progresses and the world becomes more polarised against
Russia. Since the beginning of the conflict India has not taken any sides but
rather appealed for peaceful resolution of the conflict. However as most of India's
partners (US, Australia, EU) are against Russia, it is becoming difficult of India
to not voice any support for Ukraine.
2. Russia-China Nexus: As the world sanctions Russia more, its economy becomes more
integrated with China which is filling the gaps left due to the sanctions. As a
result of this, China has emerged as the more influential player in the relation.
This is not beneficial for India which has always had Russia as a traditional
buffer between its conflicts with China. As Russia drifts more towards China it
loses more of its sovereignty towards China which is detrimental towards Indian
interests.
3. US based Sanctions: USA's CAATSA has posed a challenge towards India's import of
Defence equipments from Russia. Specifically with the S400 missile, whose import
may attract sanctions from USA. This is also detrimental towards India-USA
relations which have gained high traction in recent decades.
4. Opposite Stance on Indo-Pacific: Opposition to QUAD: Russia also views QUAD as

anti China and thus does not encourage Indian engagement in it.
⚫ Quote: "In the Asia-Pacific region, the United States and its allies are also
creating restricted blocs, trying to draw the greatest number of states into their
ranks based on anti-Russian or anti-Chinese principles," Nikolai Patrushev, the
secretary of the National Security Council of Russia.
5. Changing Defence Priorities: There has been a gradual decline in the orders of
India from Russia because of India's desire to diversify its defence imports and
therefore a heightened competition for Russia with other suppliers. Further
dissatisfaction in India with post-sales services and maintenance being offered by
Russia
6. India-US Relations: India's continued defense relationship with Russia poses new
challenges for Washington. The integrated relations between India and USA strains
its relations with Russia and vice versa.
7. Russia-Pakistan Relations: Moscow wants to expand its economic engagement with

Islamabad, this solidifies an informal alliance between Russia-China-Pakistan.
Obviously this poses a threat to India.
India's Ukraine Dilemma
India has been cautious in its response to the Ukraine conflict, adopting a nuanced
stance that seeks to balance its strategic interests with the need to maintain good
relations with both Russia and the West. India has historically had strong ties
with Russia, and has sought to maintain a neutral position on the Ukraine conflict,
refraining from taking sides and calling for a peaceful resolution to the conflict
through diplomatic channels.
India's official position has been one of support for Ukraine's territorial
integrity and sovereignty, while also acknowledging Russia's concerns over the
treatment of Russian-speaking minorities in Ukraine. India has abstained from
voting on several UN resolutions related to the conflict, and has instead
emphasized the need for dialogue and negotiation between the parties involved.
At the same time, India has sought to deepen its economic and strategic ties with
both Russia and the West, and has pursued a policy of "multi-alignment" that seeks
to balance its relations with various powers in the international system. India has
maintained its defense ties with Russia, while also seeking

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to expand its economic and strategic partnerships with the US and other Western
countries. India's dilemma in the Ukraine conflict reflects the complex nature of
its foreign policy, which seeks to balance various strategic imperatives and
maintain good relations with multiple actors in the international system. While
India's official position on the conflict has been cautious and neutral, it will
need to navigate these competing pressures carefully as the conflict continues to
unfold. India's Response
As India has continued its partnerships with Russia and the West, it has been
caught in a sticky situation since the Russian invasion of Ukraine. As Western
countries quickly condemned the invasion, India did not take a stance quickly.
India is sticking to a neutral role as it has abstained from votes in the UN
Security Council and the UN General Assembly in resolutions regarding the Russian
aggression on Ukraine. At the G20 this week, India continued to stand its ground.
While western countries such as Great Britain harshly condemned the brutal attack
on Ukraine, India's Prime Minister Modi called for
diplomacy and world peace. However, India's approach to the Ukraine conflict has
been ambiguous.
Even if India has avoided taking an official stance in the conflict, Prime Minister
Modi has spoken out about the situation. In September, PM Modi sharpened his tone
toward Russia to clarify its stance in the ongoing war, saying, "today's era is not
an era of war." While Western countries try to isolate Russia from the global
economy, India has become a crucial part of Russia's economy which may finance its
ongoing war on Ukraine. Business with Russia continues as usual as India tries to
balance its neutral role in the conflict, still saying it is "on the side of
peace." India's imports from Russia have risen 430% since the outbreak of the war
in February, as India has become Russia's second-largest oil consumer (China being
the largest). As a growing economy, India may benefit from the ongoing war since
western sanctions enable India to buy crucial Russian oil at discounts.
Alexei Zakharov: "Their partnership resembles a marriage that is falling apart, in

which the only thing stopping the couple from getting a divorce is their many years
of interdependence." ⚫ Michael Kugelman: The India-Russia relationship has run
into some bumps and yet, it's still a very strong and sound relationship with
continued security cooperation in particular
Quotes
Way Forward
India may seek to be perceived as a responsible and relevant actor by promoting

diplomatic solutions. It might put itself in an advantageous position as a mediator
in later phases of the conflict. Therefore, India may want to continue this neutral
position to enable its role as an active part in the potential solution to the
conflict, which will consolidate its self-image as a promoter of global peace.
Despite India's increasing closeness to the West, a strong Russia and stronger
India-Russia ties are important for India's vision of a multipolar world and for
its own balanced foreign policy approach.
It is also crucial for India to assert its strategic autonomy, defence

modernisation and ambition to become an important player in Euraisa and indo
pacific.

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INDIA CHINA RELATIONS
Illustrate the main causes of tension between India and China. Suggest the
possibilities of improving relationship. (2016)
How is the 'Belt and Road Initiative' of China going to affect India-China
relations? (2017) • Critically assess the evolving convergence of India and China
in the areas of trade and environment. (2018)
• Describe briefly China's 'One Belt One Road (OBOR)' Initiative and analyze
India's major concerns. (2019)
What are current issues in Brahmaputra River water sharing between India and China?
(2019) Critially examine India's position on South China Sea Dispute. (2019)
Explain the defence and foreign policy options of India to address the challenges
emerging out of the current India-China standoff at the Line of Actual Control
(LAC). (2020) • Examine the Geo-strategic points of contention in the bilateral
relationship between India and China. (2021)
Critically examine the rise of People's Republic of China (PRC) as a great power
and its implications on Asian Political order. (2022)
India and China are two major powers in Asia and their relationship is the most
important bilateral relationship in the region. It is characterized by a mix of
competition and cooperation, and the challenge lies in managing their differences
while seeking common ground.
The India-China relationship is complex, and it requires a nuanced understanding of

the historical, political, and economic factors at play. Both countries need to
pursue a cooperative approach while safeguarding their respective interests
Background
1. Ancient: Ancient relations between India and China witnessed notable travelers
who played a significant role in connecting the two regions. The most renowned
among them was Faxian, a Chinese Buddhist monk who journeyed to India in the 5th
century to seek Buddhist scriptures. Xuanzang, another Chinese monk, embarked on a
remarkable pilgrimage to India in the 7th century, documenting his travels and
contributing to the exchange of knowledge and culture between the two nations.
2. Post 1947:
⚫ Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai (1947-1962): India and China initially enjoyed friendly
relations after their independence. India recognized the People's Republic of China
and supported its entry into the United Nations. Both countries emphasized the Five
Principles of Peaceful Coexistence (Panchsheel) and sought to strengthen bilateral
ties.
State Visit: Zhou Enlai, the first Premier of the People's Republic of China,
visited India in 1960. The visit aimed to improve ties between the two nations and
address border disputes. Despite some progress, the visit did not fully resolve the
underlying issues. ⚫ War of 1962: Tensions escalated over territorial disputes,
primarily focused on the boundary between India's northeastern region and Tibet.
Talks failed to resolve the issue, leading to a military conflict in 1962. China
emerged victorious, but the war deeply impacted bilateral relations and led to a
period of mistrust and suspicion.
• Period of Cold Peace (1970s-1980s): India and China entered a phase of limited
engagement and minimal interaction. Bilateral trade and diplomatic exchanges were
limited. However,

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efforts were made to normalize relations, including the signing of agreements to

maintain peace along the border.
⚫ Thaw and Reengagement (1990s-2000s): Relations improved during this period,

marked by high-level visits, increased trade, and efforts to build mutual trust.
Both countries agreed to discuss the border issue peacefully through negotiations
and established confidence-building
• measures. 21st Century Age of conflict and cooperation. 2003 China officially
recognised Indian sovereignty over Sikkim 。 2004 Opening up the Nathu la and Jelep
la Passes in Sikkim. o 2005 Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao visits Bangalore. o 2005
China granted an observer status in SAARC. o 2006 BRIC started. 。 2007 China denied
the application for visa from an Indian Administrative Service officer. 。 2009
Asian Development Bank formally acknowledged Arunachal Pradesh as part of India,
approved a o Loan to India for a development project. 。 2011 China became India's
largest Trader replacing USA. 2013 India China Military standoff in Ladakh. /
Pranab visits AP. © 2014 Chinese incursion in Chumar o 2017 Doklam incident o Modi
Xi Bonhomie 。 2020-Galwan valley incident o Chinese incursions in 2023
Quotes by Experts
S. Jaishankar (EAM): "Leading voices" of the world must "respect international law
and recognise the legitimate interests of partners" -
"The strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must." China's
territorial aggression is the result of its military and economic strength. Source
- Indian Express Manoj Joshi: "India's relations with China involve the four C's
conflict, competition, cooperation and containment."-
Samir Saran (ORF): "New Delhi must, and can, stand up to China when its national
interests are at stake and cleverly deployed political muscle will succeed in some
instances."
Shiv Shankar Menon: India-China relations are evolving and dynamic. It is important
for both countries to engage in dialogue, build trust, and manage differences
effectively to maintain stability and peace in the region.
Harsh V Pant: "The India-China relationship is complex, and it requires a nuanced

understanding of the historical, political, and economic factors at play. Both
countries need to pursue a cooperative approach while safeguarding their respective
interests.
• Shakti Sinha (Book: One Mountain, Two Tigers): Delhi's new realism makes it
possible to
approach the challenge of China without sentimentalism or unrealistic expectations.

• Dr. Aparna Pande: Chinese attitude towards India will only change when it starts
viewing India as a strong democracy with military and economic power to reckon with
in the Indian Ocean Region.

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Bilateral Relations
1. Economic
• Trade: The Trade and Economic Relationship between both the countries reached to
a record level of $135.98 billion in the year 2022, with India's imports accounting
for $118.5 billion. ⚫ Trade Deficit: India's trade deficit with China has crossed
the $100 billion mark for the first time ever in the history of India-China
bilateral trade relations. •
• Investment: As of 2020, China was the 17th largest investor in India, with
cumulative foreign direct investment (FDI) of $2.7 billion USD.
⚫ Tourism: Before the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a significant flow of tourists
between India and China. In 2019, around 1.1 million Chinese tourists visited
India, while around 250,000 Indians visited China.
⚫ FDI: Chinese FDI in India (Cumulative) $26 Billion
Top Exports to China: Electrical Top Imports from China: Electrical machinery,
heavy machinery and critical pharma ingredients.
Machinery, Mineral Oils
⚫ Bilateral Economic Presence
° Chinese Companies in India: More than 100
。 Indian companies in China: 54
2. Strategic
⚫ Boundary Disputes:
。 Border dispute in Arunachal: China claims the whole of Arunachal Pradesh.

。 Eastern Sector: Dispute over Aksai Chin and areas in Ladakh
o Chumbi Valley: Frequent Standoff at Indi-Bhutan-China Tri-junction.
⚫ Border Agreements:
Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace and Tranquillity 1993: To peacefully resolve

all border disputes in the area between both nations.
。 Agreement on Confidence-Building Measures 1996: Avoids any use of force and

encourages measures like cooperation and mutual respect.
。 Guiding Principles for the Settlement of the Boundary Question, 2005: Boundary
differences must not be allowed to affect bilateral ties.
Consultation and Coordination on India-China Border Affairs 2012: Timely

communication of information on the border situation and handling of incidents. 。
Border Defence Cooperation, 2015: It talks about information sharing, military
exercises and curbing of illegal border trade.
⚫ Chinese Strategic Expansion: Foreign bases in Djibouti, presence in Gwadar,

Hambantota and OBOR.
• Multilateral: India and China both take part in the RATS for counter terrorism
under the SCO. ⚫ Undermining Sovereignty: China- Pakistan Economic Corridor over
Pakistan occupied Kashmir violates Indian territorial sovereignty.
⚫ Chinese Support to Pakistan: China's support to Pakistan has undermined Indian

concerns in Kashmir and beyond.
⚫ May 2020 clash: Illegally encroaching Indian Territory and resulting in clashes
killing 20 Indian soldiers.
⚫ Riparian Issues: China building dams on the Brahmaputra which affects North
East's water security

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S SUNYA IAS China gets Security Dillema PSIR Chinese Aggression India gets Security
Dillemma India engages with US and QUAD more
Points of Conflict between India and China
1. Border Issues: Western Sector: The border dispute in the western sector revolves
around the Line of Actual Control (LAC) that separates India's Ladakh region from
China's Tibet Autonomous Region. The Aksai Chin region is a major area of
contention, with China controlling it while India claims it as part of its
territory. Eastern Sector: The eastern sector dispute centers around the border
between the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh and China's Tibet Autonomous Region.
China claims the entire region, referring to it as South Tibet, while India asserts
its sovereignty based on the McMahon Line, a boundary drawn by British colonial
authorities. Demarcation and Perception Differences: The lack of a clearly
demarcated border and differing perceptions of the LAC often lead to border
incursions, standoffs, and confrontations. Both sides accuse each other of
violating the LAC, resulting in heightened tensions.
⚫ Doklam 2017: The standoff began in June 2017 when Chinese troops attempted to
construct a road in an area claimed by Bhutan, which is supported by India. Indian
troops intervened to prevent the construction, leading to a tense standoff that
lasted for over two months. Both sides deployed troops and engaged in diplomatic
negotiations to resolve the issue peacefully. Eventually, in August 2017, a mutual
agreement was reached, and both India and China withdrew their troops from the
area, de-escalating the situation.
Galwan Clash 2020: The Galwan clash refers to a violent confrontation that took
place on June 15, 2020, between the Indian and Chinese militaries in the Galwan
Valley, located in the disputed border region of Ladakh. The clash resulted in the
deaths of Indian and Chinese soldiers. It was one of the deadliest border clashes
between the two countries in decades. Tawang Clash 2022: On December 9, 2022,
Indian and Chinese troops clashed in the Yangtse area in the Tawang region along
the India-China border. The confrontation in Tawang was the
most serious skirmish between the two sides since the Galwan Valley clash in 2020.
2. Tibet: At the very heart of India's relations with China is the unresolved issue
of Tibet. In 1950, following an uprising in Tibet, the 14th Dalai Lama fled to
India, with many of his followers joining him in exile, where he established the
Central Tibetan Administration (commonly known as the Tibetan government-in-exile).
When the uprising took place, Chairman Mao Zedong accused India of "aiding the
rebels, and that Nehru and the bourgeoisie in India had sought to maintain Tibet as
a buffer zone and restore its semi-independent status.
3. Riparian Issues: China's involvement in water-sharing disputes with neighboring

countries like Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam over the Mekong River is well-
known. However, its intentions to construct multiple dams on the upper Brahmaputra
River (Tsangpo in China) have raised concerns in New Delhi. The Brahmaputra,
originating as the Tsangpo in Tibet, is a vital water resource for India's
northeast region, serving irrigation and industrial needs. China's exclusive
approach to resource sharing, stemming from its belief in utilizing resources
originating from its own land, clashes with India's plans to build 25 hydropower
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before China completes its project. India is apprehensive about potential river
water scarcity and damage to the Himalayan ecosystem.
4. Trade:
• Trade Imbalance: India has consistently faced a significant trade deficit with
China, with Chinese exports to India far exceeding Indian exports to China. India
has raised concerns about the need for greater market access for Indian goods in
China to address this imbalance.
• Market Access and Non-Tariff Barriers: Indian businesses have faced challenges in
accessing the Chinese market due to non-tariff barriers and restrictions. These
barriers include complex regulatory procedures, technical standards, and licensing
requirements, making it difficult for Indian products to enter the Chinese market.
Example: Agriculture market restrictions: China allows very low India Agri imports
Example: APEDA reported a decline of 22 per cent drop in cereal exports to China
since 2014.
• Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Violations: India has raised concerns about
intellectual property rights violations by Chinese companies. Indian firms have
faced issues such as patent infringements, counterfeiting, and unauthorized use of
Indian trademarks and copyrights in China.
Dumping and Subsidies: There have been instances where India has accused China of
dumping goods, particularly in sectors such as steel, chemicals, and textiles.
Dumping occurs when a country exports goods at prices lower than their production
costs, causing harm to domestic industries. India has imposed anti-dumping duties
on Chinese products in response.
⚫ Sector-Specific Disputes: Disputes have arisen in specific sectors, such as

pharmaceuticals, information technology, and agriculture. India has raised concerns
about market access, discriminatory practices, and the quality and safety of
Chinese imports in these sectors. 5. Pakistan and Geostrategic Issues:
Military Cooperation: China and Pakistan have a close military relationship, with
China being a major supplier of military equipment to Pakistan. China has provided
Pakistan with various advanced weaponry, including fighter jets, submarines, and
missile systems, bolstering Pakistan's defense capabilities vis-à-vis India.
Economic Assistance and Investment: China has been a significant economic partner
of Pakistan, providing financial assistance and investment in various
infrastructure projects. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a flagship
project under China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), involves substantial Chinese
investments in Pakistan's infrastructure, including ports, roads, and energy
projects.
⚫ Diplomatic Support: China has consistently supported Pakistan diplomatically on

various issues, including the longstanding Kashmir dispute between India and
Pakistan. China has been vocal in advocating for a peaceful resolution of the
Kashmir issue, often aligning itself with Pakistan's stance.
International Forums: China has used its influence in international forums, such as
the United Nations Security Council, to protect Pakistan's interests and prevent
actions that it perceives as detrimental to Pakistan's security or territorial
integrity.
6. Strategic Encirclement: One of India's growing concerns in the last decade or so

is China's ever- expanding sphere of geopolitical influence in the Indian Ocean.
Dubbed as "string of pearls", it involves the development of commercial ports in
various countries as part of its new "Silk Route" or Belt and Road Initiative. The
route, which China claims as an important trade corridor, extends from its naval
base in Hainan Island (South China Sea) to Bagamayo in Tanzania, Africa, with
several of the ports encircling mainland India. These include Hambantota (Sri
Lanka), Gwadar (Pakistan), Chittagong (Bangladesh) and Marao Atoll (Maldives).

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7. India-US Relations: India's strengthening its relations with USA has been a
conflictual point in India-China relations. Especially as India's institutionalises
its relations through the QUAD with JApan and Australia. All of the QUAD members
are seen as regional and global rivals by China, however only India shares a land
border which makes China prone to aggression towards India as a message to QUAD.
Quote: Mohan Malik in his book China and India: Great Power Rivalry says the
Chinese want to "nip the indian challenge in the bud before it becomes a serious
threat."
Explained:
Border Areas under Dispute
Share of border: India shares 3488 Km of the border with China that runs along with
the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu &
Kashmir. .LAC is divided into three sectors:
0 Western: The boundary dispute in the Western Sector pertains to the Johnson Line
proposed by the British in the 1860s that extended up to the Kunlun Mountains and
put Aksai Chin in the then princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Galwan valley Issue: The valley is strategically located between Ladakh in the west
and Aksai Chin in the east (currently controlled by China). It also a bone of
contention between the two.
Middle: In the Middle Sector, the dispute is a minor one. It is the only one where
India and China have exchanged maps on which they broadly agree.
Eastern: The disputed boundary in the Eastern Sector of the India-China border is
over the MacMahon Line.
China claim over Tawang: China's claim over Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh as a part
of South Tibet.
Srinagar Kashmir (administrated by Pak) Kashmir Area ceded by Pakistan to Chino,

claimed by India Area held by China. claimed by India Disputed areas Disputed
border TIBET McMahon line disputed border Arunachal Pradesh. largely claimed by
Jammu & Cauminis- trated by india) NDIA China
Reasons for unresolved border dispute
Shimla agreement of 1914: To demarcate the boundary between Tibet and North East
India, a convention was held at Shimla in 1914, representatives of all three i.e.
Tibet, China and British India. The agreement was signed by British India and Tibet
but not by the Chinese officials. So, China rejects the Shimla agreement and the
Mcmahon line, contending that Tibet was not a sovereign state and therefore did not
have the power to conclude treaties
Chinese tactics: China has in several territorial disputes, intentionally left its
claims ambiguous. The Chinese haven't stuck to their previously agreed positions.
The border skirmishes along the LAC seem to be indicative of the Chinese approach
to use the border problem to pressurize India on other issues.
Undemarcated borders: There is no official map in the public domain that depicts
the LAC. The current understanding of the LAC reflects the territories that are, at
present, under the control of each side, pending a resolution of the boundary
dispute.

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. Lack of mutual trusts: The agreements signed between the countries were not
nurtured in an environment of equality and mutual trust.
⚫ Chinese policy of Visa: China policy to provide Stapled Visa to the residents of
Arunachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir (POK). Which angers India.
⚫ Growing power imbalance with China: Chinese military is better funded and
equipped. Also, China, with an economy five times the size of India's, is also
investing heavil in the region, countering Indian influence.
• Resourceful/strategic sections: Ladakh is valuable to India as it helps supply

freshwater and as it connects Chinese Xinjiang province with Tibet, it is also of
great significance to China.
Belt and Road Initiative
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), also known as One Belt One Road (OBOR), is a
global infrastructure and development project proposed by China. Announced in 2013
by Chinese President Xi Jinping, the BRI aims to enhance connectivity and promote
economic cooperation among countries along the ancient Silk Road routes, spanning
Asia, Europe, Africa, and beyond.
The BRI consists of two main components:
The "Belt": The "Belt" refers to the Silk Road Economic Belt, which primarily
focuses on infrastructure development on land. It envisions the creation of a
network of roads, railways, pipelines, and other infrastructure projects to
facilitate trade and connectivity between China and other participating countries.
The "Road": The "Road" represents the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road, emphasizing
maritime connectivity. It aims to promote the development of ports, shipping
routes, and other maritime infrastructure to enhance trade and maritime cooperation
between China and participating countries.
China's Belt and Road Initiative: Major corridors Silk road economic belt Maritime
silk rod China-Pakistan economic corridor Bangladesh China india Myanmar economic
corridor Trans-Himalayan econ comidor KAZAKHSTAN Almaty Urume Beijing Kashgar
Lanzho CHINA Xi'an Kathmandus -- Dhaka Guangzhou Kunming Quanzhou Gwadar Kolkata
INDIA THAILAND Colomb -art- Kuala Lumpu INDIAN SOUTH CHINA SEA OCEAN Jakarta
India's Concerns with Belt and Road Initiative

Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity: The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC),
a key component of the BRI, passes through Pakistan-administered Kashmir, a region
that India claims as its own. India sees this as a violation of its sovereignty and
territorial integrity, as it believes it challenges its claims in the disputed
region.
Strategic Encirclement: China's development of ports and infrastructure projects in

the Indian Ocean region, such as the Hambantota Port in Sri Lanka and the Gwadar
Port in Pakistan (both part of BRI), raises concerns in India about China's
strategic encirclement. These ports potentially offer China a military foothold in
the Indian Ocean, posing challenges to India's maritime security.
Debt Trap: Sri Lanka's Hambantota Port is often cited as an example of a country
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unsustainable debt burden due to a BRI project. Sri Lanka had to lease the port to
a Chinese company for 99 years after being unable to repay the loans received for
its construction. This has raised concerns that participating countries may fall
into a debt trap, compromising their sovereignty and economic independence.
Economic Competition: India has expressed concerns about the influx of Chinese
goods into neighboring countries through BRI projects, which could undermine Indian
industries. For instance, Chinese goods flooding the Indian market, especially in
sectors like manufacturing and electronics, could adversely impact Indian
businesses and competitiveness.
⚫Security Implications: The development of ports and infrastructure projects under

BRI has raised security concerns for India. The Gwadar Port in Pakistan, being
developed by China(as part of China-Pakistan Economic Corridor), is seen as having
potential security implications for India, as it could be used for military
purposes or to monitor Indian naval activities in the Arabian Sea.
⚫ S. Jaishankar - India cannot be a party to its own destruction. It should stay

away from China's charm offensive and India should use its resources wisely and not
on Chinese projects.
String of pearls
String of Pearls is a geopolitical theory on potential Chinese intentions in the

Indian Ocean region IOR). "Pearl" refers to a current or potential Chinese overseas
military base, megainfrastructure project, economic corridor, port or other city or
locale of Chinese geostrategic advantage in the IOR. "string" of these pearls
refers to the possibility of the Chinese Navy connecting these pearls via maritime
routes. 1. Brahma Chellaney-
For years, China has pursued a "string of pearls" strategy to create a network of
infrastructure projects and staging posts stretching from its eastern coast to the
Middle East along the great trade arteries in order to gain strategic clout and
naval access.
• Stripped of its rhetoric, the Maritime Silk Road initiative just like the "string
of pearls" project is designed to make China the hub of a new order in Asia and the
Indian Ocean region.-
Coining a name to shake off a foreign-imposed term allows Beijing to market the
initiative as a "win-win" trade connectivity project. India should counter the
'String of Pearls' with a 'String of Rapiers'.-
2. Gurpreet Khurana: -An increased Chinese naval presence in the Indian Ocean and
possible military use of so-called 'pearls' suggest that China's military-strategic
intentions include the geographic encirclement of India.
3. Kanwal Sibal: China is pursuing a policy of shoring up india's individual

neighbours to the extent they have the capacity as well as depth to antagonise and
challenge India.
Steps taken to reduce dependence on China
Scrutiny: Increasing scrutiny of the Chinese investments in a variety of sectors,

as well as a move to exclude Chinese companies from 5G trials.
Prior approval of foreign investment: To prevent "opportunistic takeovers" of

domestic firms, the government has also made prior approval required for foreign
investments from nations that share a land border with India, a move that will
limit FDI from China. Domestic production of API: To reduce reliance on China for
APIs (Active Pharmaceutical
Ingredients), the government approved in March 2020 a package of four schemes

totaling Rs.

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13,760 crore to enhance domestic production of bulk drugs and medical devices in
the country as well as their exports. Example: Promotion of Bulk Drug Parks and PLI
Scheme Identification of sector to reduce imports: The Ministry of Commerce and
Industry identified 12 sectors in 2020 to help India become a global supplier and
reduce imports.
⚫ Ban on Chinese apps: Recently, the Indian government announced it would block 59
widely used apps (such as Tik Tok, Sharelt, Cam scanner etc.), most linked to
Chinese companies. De facto ban on the import of Chinese power equipments
• Imposed anti-dumping duties - On certain aluminium goods and chemicals, for 5

years to protect local manufacturers
• Identification of 12 sectors to make India a global supplier and cut import
bills. Example: food processing, organic farming, iron, aluminium and copper, agro-
chemicals, electronics, industrial machinery, furniture, leather and shoes, auto
parts, textiles, and coveralls, masks, sanitisers and ventilators.
Recent News on the Border Dispute (April 2023)
In 2020, the older arrangements, shaped by the agreements of 1993, 1996, 2005, and
2013, came apart in Ladakh after the Chinese massed troops in Tibet and established
blockades at six points on the Line of Actual Control (LAC) to prevent Indian
troops from patrolling the border. In the last three years, through patient
negotiation, the two sides managed to disengage in four of
the six points Galwan, Pangong Tso, Gogra Post, and near Jianan Pass (PP15). But
two key areas remain unsettled, i.e., the Depsang Bulge and the ChardingNinglung
Junction in the Demchok area involving nearly 1,000 square kilometres.
⚫ No Patrol Zones: The areas where the two sides' claims overlap are probably
where the no-patrol zones will be located. Until 2020, both sides patrolled to the
edge of these disputed claims, and there was a protocol that said that if two
patrols came together, they were to stop, display banners, and request that the
other side leave their territory. The matter was then discussed during meetings
held at one of the five scheduled border meeting locations.
In an article in an Indian publication in 2020, Chinese journalist-scholar Qian

Feng suggested that the concept of the "zone of actual control" could replace the
"line of actual control" in some areas that had no obvious geomorphological
features or population. Other areas, too, could be delimited as a "border belt" if
they did not require population adjustment. But whether or not the idea works will
depend on the intentions of the two interlocutors.
Areas of Cooperation
1. Climate Change: India and China have cooperated on climate change issues. They
have jointly called for sustainable development and renewable energy initiatives.
In 2019, the two countries announced the establishment of a high-level mechanism on
cultural and people-to-people exchanges, aiming to deepen cultural ties and foster
understanding between the two nations.
2. WTO:
India and China have found areas of convergence and cooperation within the World
Trade Organization (WTO) on various issues. One significant area of convergence is
the Doha Development Agenda (DDA). Both countries have a shared interest in
promoting the DDA, which seeks to address the developmental concerns of developing
countries in global trade negotiations. India and China have advocated for the need
to prioritize development, agriculture, and special and differential treatment for
developing nations within the DDA framework. They have collaborated with other
developing countries to push for a fair and balanced outcome that takes into
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Another area of convergence between India and China in the WTO is agricultural
subsidies. Both countries, as agricultural powerhouses, have been involved in
discussions related to domestic support measures for their agricultural sectors.
They have expressed the need for special and differential treatment to protect the
livelihoods of their farmers and ensure food security. India and China have
cooperated in advocating for more flexibility and leeway for developing countries
to implement agricultural subsidies that are essential for rural development and
poverty reduction.
Furthermore, India and China have had similar positions on issues related to
intellectual property rights (IPR) within the WTO. Both countries have raised
concerns about the implications of stringent IPR regulations, particularly with
regard to access to affordable medicines and technology transfer. They have jointly
emphasized the need for a balanced and development-oriented approach to IPR, taking
into account the specific challenges faced by developing countries.
3. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation: While bilateral issues between India and

China are addressed on the sidelines of SCO meetings, their participation in the
organization provides a platform for dialogue and collaboration in various areas,
contributing to regional stability and development in Eurasia.
4. Russia-India-China: The RIC provides a platform for discussions on regional and

global issues, including political, economic, and security matters. It serves as a
forum for consultations, coordination, and alignment of interests among the three
countries.
5. BRICS: India and China are both members of the BRICS group, where they
collaborate on various issues, including promoting trade, investment, and global
governance reforms. They also work together within the G20 framework to address
global economic challenges and foster financial stability.
Way Forward
1. For Border Dispute
⚫ Pressure points: India could choose to leverage the sensitivity of the Chinese
to the one-China policy and other vulnerabilities like the Tibet issue and Hong
Kong protests, to force a change in China's attitude.
. Shifting focus: To counter China, India must look for options beyond LAC. The
South China Sea/Indian Ocean Region maritime domain presents India with the best
options where the regional geopolitical context is favourable.
Going global: India should go global to defend against China. India's counter to
Chinese power in the Himalayas should be to assume a more global role of its own.
⚫ Building alliances: India must build power-balancing alliances. Many countries
are seeking
leadership from other quarters to counter-balance Chinese influence. In Southeast

Asia,
countries are pushing back against Chinese aggression in the South China Sea.. .
Use informal summits: Both sides should take guidance from Wuhan and Mahabalipuram
summits on developing India-China relations, that includes not allowing differences
to become
disputes.
⚫ Continuing communications: Through the Special Representatives mechanism, and

meetings of the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination on border
affairs. ⚫ Border infrastructure: It needs to build robust Infrastructure in
difficult border areas in its territory to ensure movement of personnel and other
logistical supplies in an efficient manner.
2. To reduce Trade Deficit

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. Formulate roadmap: Based on the economic complexity model, the Indian government
can formulate proper road maps through compartmentalizing them as per technology
and innovation capabilities.
. FTAs with other countries: India has negotiated Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with
the UAE and Australia. Further, the government is in the process of negotiating
with the EU and UK.
Atmanirbhar Bharat: Moving towards self-reliance and Atmanirbhar Bharat. ⚫ Setting

up big manufacturing units or clusters: To make goods like recently India is
working to develop a semiconductor chips industry.
Improve anti-dumping duties: China is a pro in dumping goods to other countries.

For this India has imposed anti-dumping duties on five Chinese products like
aluminium goods and chemicals etc.
⚫ Tighter FDI policy: A tighter FDI rule wherein the central government's approval
is required for any FDI in India firms from any neighbouring countries. This will
help in preventing a takeover by Chinese companies amid reviving the economy.
Approaches to deal with China 1. Idealist School:
⚫ Nehru's Approach:
o Emphasized opportunity for exchange of ideas, people, and goods between India &
China. 。 Viewed the border as a potential hotspot for the meeting of civilizations
and the exchange of ideas and goods.
Advocated for a cooperative relationship between India and China, focusing on the
betterment of humanity.
。 Saw convergence between India's worldview of "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" (the world

is one family) and China's worldview of "Shijie Datong" (world in greater harmony).
Ravindranath Tagore:
。 Believed that India and China should come together for the betterment of
humanity. o Considered the border between India and China as a meeting point for
civilizations and the exchange of ideas, goods, and people, rather than a source of
conflict.
Highlighted the historical cooperation and shared heritage between India and China.
2. Realist School:
Sardar Patel:
o Considered China a threat due to its territorial ambitions and offensive

strategic culture. 。 Advocated for the government to take proper provisions for
defense against China. o Believed that the only way to avoid war with China is to
be prepared for it. o Regarded China as an irredentist state, focusing on land
grabbing.
3. Pragmatic School:
C. Raja Mohan:
o Recognized the growth of complex interdependence in the present time.
。 Suggested a balancing approach towards China.
o Proposed engaging with China wherever possible but containing China wherever
necessary.
Advocated for a strategy that combines elements of engagement and containment based
on the specific situation.
Shamsaran:
o Supports a pragmatic approach to dealing with China.

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Acknowledges the need to engage with China in areas of mutual benefit. o Believes
in maintaining balance and taking cautious approach to safeguarding India's
interests.
India-China relations are marked by both cooperation and competition. Finding a

balance between managing differences and engaging in constructive dialogue is
essential for stability in the region. Social constructivists say the indochina war
of 1962 has created an image of enemy states and can
be changed by increasing people to people contacts.

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UNIT 6: INDIA AND THE UN SYSTEM: ROLE IN UN PEACE-KEEPING; DEMAND FOR PERMANENT
SEAT IN THE SECURITY COUNCIL
Evaluate India's participation in United Nations peacekeeping operations over the

years. (2014) The United Nations completes 70 years of its establishment in 2015.
What reforms is India asking for to strengthen the global institutions of
governance and why? (2015)
Critically analyze China's role in international politics against India's demand

for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council. (2016)
"India has been the largest and consistent country contributing to the UN
peacekeepers worldwide." Examine India's role in this perspective. (2017)
'Uniting for Consensus' also known as 'Coffee Club' has opposed the claims of India
and other countries over permanent membership of the UN Security Council. Point out
their major objections. (2017)
Discuss the various impediments in India's way to a permanent seat in the Security
Council. (2018) Analyze the recent trends in India's role in UN peacekeeping
operations. (2019)
Explain the importance of India's claim for a permanent seat in the UN Security
Council. (2020) Describe the composition of the International Court of Justice
(ICJ). Discuss its voluntary jurisdiction. (2022)
Explain the factors which justify India's claim for a permanent seat at the UN
security council.(2022)
• As essential component of UN's efforts, peacekeeping missions have served as a

critical tool for resolving disputes, protecting civilians, and fostering long-term
peace in conflict-affected areas. • With the increasing complexities of modern
conflicts, UN peacekeeping has evolved to address new challenges and adapt to the
changing dynamics of international security, making it an indispensable mechanism
for international peace and stability.
UN Peacekeeping
United Nations Peacekeeping helps countries torn by conflict create conditions for
lasting peace. Peacekeeping has proven to be one of the most effective tools
available to the UN to assist host countries navigate the difficult path from
conflict to peace. Peacekeeping has unique strengths, including legitimacy, burden
sharing, and an ability to deploy and sustain troops and police from around the
globe, integrating them with civilian peacekeepers to advance multidimensional
mandates. UN peacekeepers provide security and the political and peacebuilding
support to help countries make the difficult, early transition from conflict to
peace.
U.N. Peacekeepers provide security as well as political and peacebuilding support

to conflict-ridden countries.
Three basic principles that guide U.N.'s Peacekeeping missions are: Consent of the
parties
Impartiality
• Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate

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Background
UN Charter: The foundation for UN peacekeeping lies in the principles and

provisions outlined in the UN Charter, which was adopted in 1945. The Charter
established the UN's commitment to maintaining international peace and security and
provided a framework for collective security and the peaceful settlement of
disputes.
First UN Peacekeeping Mission: The first UN peacekeeping mission was established in

1948, The UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) was deployed to monitor the
ceasefire agreements between Israel and its neighboring Arab states after the 1948
Arab-Israeli War. UNTSO's primary role was to observe, report, and help mediate in
the conflict. Evolution from Observers to Peacekeepers: In the early years, UN
peacekeeping missions primarily involved sending military observers to conflict
zones to monitor ceasefires and peace agreements. These observers played a crucial
role in reporting violations and helping parties adhere to ceasefire arrangements.
Expansion and Complexity: As conflicts evolved, nature of UN peacekeeping missions

became more complex. Scope expanded to include civilian protection, humanitarian
assistance, election monitoring, disarmament, demobilization, and the promotion of
the rule of law and human rights.
History of the development of idea of Peace keeping
1. Phase I:
Peacekeeping mandated under UN through Agent (Nation) Ex: 1953 Korean Crisis, Gulf
war This has been criticized. But UN in initial years did not have enough force and
budget. And post 1991 US has been dominating it.
2. Phase II:-Classical Peacekeeping

In the context of Cold War.
• Threats were military, local specific to a region, national (one nation

threatening other). These threats were diffused through UN forces (no involvement
of great powers). Once the tensions were diffused the force would move out. 3.
Phase III:-Peace Enforcement
Post 1990s, nature of threats undergoes change. They are not just External but
internal as well (African and other Asian countries experiencing Civil Strife)-III
pillar of Collective Security Global threats (Terrorism, Environment, Gender
Violence etc)
Individual along with National (like Human Security Threats) Not just military but
new threats like Economic, Health etc.
Hence new threats demanded new response, which changed classical peacekeeping to
Peace Enforcement. The idea of Peace Enforcement got expanded through Peace
Building under the Peace Building Commission
U.N. military personal can be tasked with:
Protecting civilians and other U.N. personnel
Monitoring disputed borders
Observing peace processes in post-conflict areas
Providing security in conflict zones
Providing security during elections
Assisting in-country military personnel with training and support Assisting ex-
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Peace Building Commission
Formed in 2005 which was proposed by Kofi Annan as part of the report "In Larger
Freedom". Peace Building Commission is an advisory body to General Assembly and
Security Council. Its organizational committee consists of 31 members.
It is supported by Peace Building Support Fund of $250mn.
It is not just used for peace keeping but also for development as threats no longer
are military but economic as well.
PBC is now a link between Security Council (Law & Order) functions and ECOSOC
(development) functions.
Salient Features of UN Peacekeeping
Consent of the Parties: UN peacekeeping missions require the consent of the parties
involved in a conflict or dispute. The presence of peacekeepers is only possible
when the parties involved invite the UN to intervene or when authorized by the UN
Security Council.
Impartiality: Peacekeepers are expected to remain impartial and not take sides in
the conflict.
They aim to create a neutral space where all parties can work towards a peaceful
resolution. Non-use of Force, except in Self-Defense: Peacekeepers are primarily
deployed to observe, monitor, and facilitate peace processes. They should use force
only in self-defense or to protect civilians under imminent threat.
• Multilateral Cooperation: UN peacekeeping involves the collaboration of multiple

nations contributing troops, police, and resources. It fosters cooperation and
burden-sharing among member states to address conflicts collectively.
⚫ Conflict Prevention, Management, and Resolution: UN peacekeeping missions work

towards preventing the outbreak, escalation, or resumption of conflicts. They
assist in managing and resolving conflicts through diplomatic negotiations,
mediation, and facilitation of peace processes. ⚫ Post-Conflict Peace building: UN
peacekeeping often extends beyond the immediate resolution of a conflict. It may
involve supporting post-conflict reconstruction, governance, rule of law,
human rights, and other aspects of peace building to help create sustainable peace.
Regional and International Cooperation: The UN often collaborates with regional

organizations, such as the African Union or the European Union, to enhance the
effectiveness and legitimacy of peacekeeping efforts.
Quotes by Experts
Michael Doyle: UN peacekeeping has played a vital role in preventing and resolving
conflicts, protecting civilians, and facilitating political transitions in many
parts of the world. Kofi Annan: UN peacekeeping is one of the most effective tools
available to the international community for maintaining peace and security.
Nikki Halley: Too often, the United Nations has been paralyzed by bureaucracy and
mismanagement, resulting in underperformance and a failure to deliver on its
peacekeeping mandates.
On Reforms
Baan Ki Moon: "The UN must adapt and reform its peacekeeping operations to
effectively respond to complex conflicts and protect civilians. This requires
enhancing the capacity, professionalism, and accountability of peacekeepers.
• Sarah Sewall: "To improve peacekeeping, we need reforms that address issues such
as sexual exploitation and abuse, operational effectiveness, and coordination
between peacekeepers and humanitarian actors."

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Process of Initiating UN Peacekeeping
Conflict Assessment: The first step in initiating a UN peacekeeping mission is

conducting a comprehensive assessment of the conflict situation. The UN
Secretariat, often through the Department of Peace Operations (DPO), gathers
information on the nature of the conflict, the parties involved, the level of
violence, and the potential for a political resolution. This assessment helps
determine whether peacekeeping intervention is appropriate and feasible.
Request or Authorization: In some cases, a country experiencing conflict may

request UN assistance in the form of a peacekeeping mission. Alternatively, the UN
Security Council can authorize the deployment of a peacekeeping mission, even
without a request from the affected country, if it determines that the situation
poses a threat to international peace and security.
Mandate Design and Security Council Resolution: Once the need for a peacekeeping
mission is established, the UN Security Council drafts a resolution outlining the
mandate and parameters of the mission. The resolution is negotiated among the
Council's member states, considering factors such as the mission's objectives,
scope, size, duration, and rules of engagement. The resolution is then adopted by
the Security Council through a majority vote, including the concurring votes of its
permanent members.
• Troop and Resource Contributions: After the Security Council resolution is

passed, member states are invited to contribute military, police, and civilian
personnel to the peacekeeping mission. Interested countries volunteer their forces
based on their capabilities and national interests. The UN Secretariat,
specifically the DPO, coordinates with member states to assemble the necessary
personnel, equipment, and resources for the mission.
⚫ Operational Planning: Once troop and resource contributions are secured,

operational planning begins. This involves developing a comprehensive strategy for
the mission, including the deployment of personnel, logistical arrangements,
communication systems, and coordination mechanisms. The planning process also
considers potential challenges, risks, and contingencies. Deployment: After the
operational planning is completed, the deployment phase begins. Peacekeeping
forces, including military, police, and civilian personnel, are sent to the
conflict- affected region. The UN works closely with the host country to facilitate
the arrival of the peacekeeping mission and ensure cooperation from all relevant
parties.
Mission Implementation: Once on the ground, the peacekeeping mission begins

implementing its mandate. This may involve various activities, such as monitoring
ceasefires, supporting political processes, protecting civilians, facilitating
humanitarian assistance, promoting human rights, and supporting the rule of law.
The mission operates within the framework of its mandate and in accordance with the
principles of UN peacekeeping.
India and UN Peacekeeping
India stands solidly committed to assist the UN in the maintenance of international

peace and security with a proud history of UN peacekeeping dating back to its
inception in the 1950s. India has contributed nearly 195,000 troops, the largest
number from any country, participated in more than 49 missions and 168 Indian
peacekeepers have made the supreme sacrifice while serving in UN missions. India
has also provided and continues to provide eminent Force Commanders for UN
Missions. India is of the view that the international community must grasp the
rapid changes that are underway in
the nature and role of contemporary peacekeeping operations. The Security Council's
mandates to UN peacekeeping operations need to be rooted in ground realities and
correlated with the resources provided for the peacekeeping operation. It is
critical that troop and police contributing countries should be fully involved at
all stages and in all aspects of mission planning.

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neral Facts
1. Troop Contributions: India has consistently been one of the largest troop-
contributing countries to UN peacekeeping missions. As of September 2021, India had
deployed over 5,500 military and police personnel in various peacekeeping missions
worldwide.
2. Largest Troop Contributor: India has been the largest troop contributor to UN
missions since inception. So far India has taken part in 49 Peacekeeping missions
with a total contribution exceeding 1,95,000 troops and a significant number of
police personnel having been deployed. 3. Highest Troop Casualities: According to
the UN, of the 3,737 peacekeepers who have died since 1948, 163 have been from
India, the highest total from any troop contributing country. 4. Current
Deployments:
• Congo: United Nations Organization Mission in DR Congo (MONUC) was established in

July 1999. On 01 July 2010, the security council, renamed MONUC as United Nations
Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO) to
reflect the new phase reached in the country post 2006 elections, with a changed
mandate.
• South Sudan: Since 2011, Indian Army has contributed 19 Infantry Battalion Groups
in the mission. Currently, India is the second highest troop contributing country
with 2410 personnel including 63 Staff Officers and Military Observers.
⚫ Lebanon: Since 1998, Indian Army has contributed 21 Infantry Battalion Groups in
the mission. Currently, Indian Army is contributing 901 personnel including Staff
Officers/ Military Observers. The Indian Army contingent includes one Infantry
Battalion and one Indian Medical team.
⚫ Golan Heights: Indian Army has contributed troops to UNDOF with effect from 2006
as part of Logistic Battalion. Presently 200 Indian Army personnel are deployed in
the mission.
António Guterres (Secretary General UN): "Indian peacekeepers have an outstanding
reputation for their professionalism, dedication, and commitment to upholding peace
and security. They have made significant contributions to peacekeeping operations
around the world.
PM Modi: Our brave peacekeepers embody the spirit of India's commitment to global
peace. They are the ambassadors of our nation, working tirelessly to make the world
a safer place." S. Jaishankar: Indian peacekeepers exemplify the values of
compassion, professionalism, and dedication. Their contributions to peacekeeping
efforts have brought honor to our nation and have made us proud
Policy to Peacekeeping
As one of the founding members of the UN, India has always been keenly interested
and actively involved in the evolution of conceptual and policy aspects of UN
peacekeeping. As a developing country, a predominant member of Non-Aligned Movement
(NAM), Commonwealth and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), a
major troop contributor and a country with an independent
perspective on many multilateral issues, India recognises that peacekeeping

operations appear to have become the core function of the UN and any assessment of
the UN's effectiveness is dependent on its success or failure in this core
function. India, with a large standing army and vast experience in
counterinsurgency operations, is ideally suited to take part in UN peacekeeping
operations. Hence, our government advocates willing and whole-hearted participation
in UN missions.

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Advantages of Contributing Troops
Professional Enrichment: India's participation in UNPK enhances the professional

development of its armed forces by exposing them to diverse operational
environments, improving skills, leadership abilities, and understanding of
international security dynamics. Financial Benefits: Participating in UNPK brings
financial benefits as the United Nations reimburses expenses incurred during
deployments, helping offset costs and allocate resources to defense capabilities or
other developmental priorities.
World Order Interests: India's engagement in UNPK aligns with its vision of a
rules-based international order, promoting peaceful conflict resolution, and
allowing it to shape global decision-making processes related to security issues.
Enhanced Standing: India's involvement in UNPK boosts its reputation in the

international community, showcasing its commitment to global peace, fostering
goodwill, strengthening diplomatic relationships, and creating opportunities for
partnerships and economic benefits.
Issues with UN Peacekeeping

Reluctance of Developed Countries to Contribute Troops: Developed countries often
show reluctance to contribute troops to UN peacekeeping missions. This can be due
to various factors, such as domestic priorities, public opinion, and concerns over
potential risks and casualties. This places a burden on countries like India, which
frequently contribute a significant number of troops to fill the gaps.
Global North V. Global South: The main challenge in UN peacekeeping is the

divergence of opinions between Global North and South countries regarding the scope
and mandates of operations. Inconsistencies arise as the South demands more
aggressive peacekeeping but criticizes the North for interventionist policies. The
North hesitates to engage troops and fund improvements to the UN. Northern
countries seek robust mandates, while the South fears threats to sovereignty.
Peacekeepers need more resources, but the South worries about diverting funds from
fighting poverty. Geopolitical significance influences Security Council decisions.
The Secretary-General's Action for Peacekeeping initiative aims to address these
conflicts and strengthen operations.
Allegations of Fund Misappropriation: Some fund contributing countries have raised

allegations of misappropriation of funds in UN peacekeeping operations. This
creates concerns over transparency and accountability in the management and
utilization of financial resources. Such allegations can undermine trust and
cooperation among member states, impacting the overall effectiveness of UN
peacekeeping efforts.
⚫Disturbing the Balance between Global Justice and State Sovereignty: UN

peacekeeping operations often involve striking a delicate balance between the
pursuit of global justice and respect for state sovereignty. The involvement of
external forces in internal conflicts raises questions about the limits and scope
of intervention. Maintaining this balance is crucial to ensure the legitimacy and
effectiveness of peacekeeping operations.
Concerns over "Robust Peacekeeping" and Militarization: Countries like India have
reservations about the concept of "robust peacekeeping," which allows the use of
force at the tactical level with the consent of the host state. India argues that
this blurs the boundaries between peacekeeping and other forms of military
intervention, posing risks to the security of peacekeepers and exposing them to
complex legal and political situations. India emphasizes the need for political
solutions and negotiations in resolving conflicts rather than excessive
militarization.
⚫ Inclusion of Troop Contributing Countries in Decision Making: India advocates

for the inclusion of troop contributing countries in decision-making processes
related to peacekeeping operations. India argues that the current arrangement
overlooks the valuable contributions and

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expertise of countries like India, which have a deep understanding of the ground
realities. Involving troop contributing countries in decision making can lead to
more effective formulation and implementation of mandates, considering the
perspectives and experiences of those directly involved in the operations.
Issues
Sexual Abuse: United Nations (UN) peacekeepers have also been found to exploit
vulnerable populations by engaging in sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA). It is
abhorrent that the blue helmets, who are seen as symbols of peace, become another
source of insecurity for those they are mandated to protect. Statistical analysis
demonstrates that SEA is a constant and endemic problem within UN peacekeeping,
with an average of 50 cases a year since 2010.
⚫ Lack of Support: Since 2011, the international support for UN peacebuilding has
weakened. Western support has also become more patchy, particularly after changes
in US policy and funding under the Trump administration.
• Corruption: Corruption has become a mission-critical issue in many recent

operations. Yet it is often ignored in planning and execution. Mandates rarely
mention it, and training centres currently do not provide any meaningful guidance
on how peacekeepers can prevent corruption from becoming more entrenched in the
host nation and in the mission itself.
Analyze the recent trends in India's role in UN peacekeeping operations. (2019)
India's role in UN peacekeeping operations has witnessed notable trends in recent

years. Firstly, India remains a major contributor of troops, deploying over 5,400
military personnel in missions worldwide. This commitment is exemplified by its
involvement in countries like South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and
Lebanon.
Secondly, India has diversified its contributions beyond traditional troop

deployments. It has provided specialized units such as military engineers, aviation
contingents, and hospital units. For instance, in the UN mission in South Sudan
(UNMISS), an Indian engineering contingent played a crucial role in infrastructure
development.
Thirdly, India has taken up leadership roles in peacekeeping operations. Indian

officers have served as force commanders and military observers in various
missions. General Jai Shanker Menon's tenure as force commander in UN mission in
Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO) is a notable example. Fourthly, India places
a strong focus on training and capacity building. Its Centre for United Nations
Peacekeeping (CUNPK) in New Delhi provides specialized training to international
personnel. India's
expertise is shared through collaborative initiatives and training programs.
Fifthly, India emphasizes civilian protection in peacekeeping operations. In the UN

mission in Mali (MINUSMA), India deployed a Female Engagement Team (FET) to address
gender-based violence and provide support to affected women and children.
Sixthly, India actively engages with regional organizations like the African Union
(AU) to strengthen peacekeeping efforts. Collaborative endeavors with the AU
demonstrate India's commitment to regional stability.
Lastly, India advocates for reforms in peacekeeping operations. It highlights the

need for greater involvement of troop-contributing countries in decision-making
processes and better coordination between the UN and regional organizations.
In summary, India's recent trends in UN peacekeeping operations showcase its

significant contributions, leadership roles, focus on training and capacity
building, emphasis on civilian protection, engagement with regional organizations,
and advocacy for reforms. Through these endeavors, India continues to play a vital
role in promoting international peace and security.

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Evaluation of India at UN Peacekeeping Missions
1. Success
• Contributions to Troop Deployments: India has consistently been one of the

largest contributors of troops to UN peacekeeping missions. As of March 2021, India
had deployed over 5,400 military personnel, making it the third-largest contributor
of uniformed personnel to UN peacekeeping operations.
Successful Implementation of Mandates: Indian peacekeepers have effectively carried

out their mandated tasks, including protecting civilians, supporting peace
processes, and promoting stability. They have played a vital role in maintaining
security, providing humanitarian assistance, and facilitating the delivery of basic
services.
Example: In the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), Indian peacekeepers have been
involved in numerous successful initiatives, such as providing medical assistance
to conflict-affected communities, constructing infrastructure, and facilitating
humanitarian aid distribution.
Contributions to Civilian Protection: Indian peacekeepers have been actively

engaged in protecting civilians and promoting human rights in conflict zones. They
have played a crucial role in preventing and responding to incidents of violence,
including sexual and gender-based violence.
o Example: In the UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic

of Congo (MONUSCO), Indian peacekeepers have conducted successful operations to
protect
civilians from armed groups, contributing to the reduction of violence in affected

areas. • Expertise in Engineering and Infrastructure Development: Indian
peacekeepers have excelled in engineering tasks and infrastructure development,
playing a significant role in post- conflict reconstruction efforts.
Example: In the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), Indian engineering contingents

have constructed critical infrastructure such as roads, bridges, schools, and
hospitals, facilitating stability and development in the region.
UN Medals for Service: A total of 836 troops from the Indian Army, serving in UN
peacekeeping operations in South Sudan, were awarded UN medals for their exemplary
services. They were acknowledged for their efforts in protecting civilians,
facilitating humanitarian aid, supporting peace agreements, monitoring human rights
violations, and ensuring dignity in challenging operational conditions.
Critical/Issues
1. Allegations of Human Rights Violations: There have been instances where Indian
peacekeepers have faced allegations of human rights violations, including cases of
sexual exploitation and abuse. These incidents tarnish the image of India's
peacekeeping efforts and raise concerns about the conduct of its personnel.
Example: In 2017, four Indian peacekeepers were accused of sexual exploitation and
abuse in the Central African Republic. The allegations highlighted the need for
stricter accountability measures and better training to prevent such incidents.
2. Limited Gender Balance: India's peacekeeping contingents often lack gender

balance, with a relatively low representation of women peacekeepers. According to
data from the UN as of March 2021, only 5.4% of Indian peacekeepers were women,
well below the UN's target of 15%. This gender imbalance limits the ability to
effectively address gender-specific issues and engage with local communities.

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3. Inadequate Communication and Language Skills: Language barriers can hinder

effective communication between Indian peacekeepers and the local population.
Language skills, especially in the local dialects, are crucial for building trust,
understanding the needs of the community, and ensuring effective coordination with
other peacekeeping forces.
• Example: In missions like the UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the

Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO), language barriers can make it challenging
for Indian peacekeepers to effectively communicate with the Congolese population
and address their concerns.
4. Delayed Response and Decision-Making: Some observers have criticized the time
taken by Indian peacekeepers to respond to emerging conflicts or crises. There have
been instances where delayed decision-making and response have affected the
effectiveness of peacekeeping operations. • Example: In the 2013 crisis in South
Sudan, Indian peacekeepers were accused of delayed response and failure to protect
civilians during the violent conflict between government and rebel forces.
5. Challenges in Mandate Implementation: Implementing complex peacekeeping mandates

can be challenging, and Indian peacekeepers are not immune to these difficulties.
It requires adapting to dynamic situations, engaging with various stakeholders, and
effectively balancing peacekeeping objectives with the sovereignty and security
concerns of the host country.
forward by C. Rajamohan ("Picking up the tab for peace")
To be effective, India will need to step up cooperation with major powers and
regional partners like the African Union, as well as go beyond troop contribution
to provide training, logistical and operational support, and conflict mediation
support both through bilateral and multilateral
processes.
It will also need to expand domestic defense capabilities and strengthen military
diplomacy. The recent agreement between the United States and India on jointly
training peacekeepers from six African nations is indicative of a changing Indian
approach to peacekeeping
Report
Brahimi Report, published in 2000, was a landmark assessment of United Nations

peacekeeping perations. It highlighted several key issues and made recommendations
for improving the effectiveness fUN peacekeeping. Here are some of the report's
highlights in detail:
• Comprehensive Approach: The report emphasized the need for a comprehensive

approach to peacekeeping, recognizing that political, military, and humanitarian
efforts should be integrated. It emphasized the importance of addressing root
causes of conflict, promoting good governance, and facilitating post-conflict
reconstruction and development.
• Protection of Civilians: The report emphasized the importance of protecting

civilians in conflict zones. It highlighted the need for peacekeeping missions to
have clear guidelines and resources to effectively protect civilian populations
from violence and human rights abuses. This included developing strategies to
prevent and respond to sexual exploitation and abuse by peacekeeping personnel.
Quality and Capacities: The report stressed the importance of having well-trained
and properly equipped peacekeeping forces. It recommended enhancing the training
and professionalism of peacekeepers, improving the recruitment and selection
processes, and ensuring adequate resources for peacekeeping missions. The report
called for increasing the pool of qualified personnel available for peacekeeping
operations.
Mandate Clarity and Realism: The report emphasized the need for clear and
achievable
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mandates for peacekeeping missions. It called for realistic expectations and

adequate resources to implement the mandates effectively. The report recommended
regular reviews and adjustments of mandates to reflect evolving situations on the
ground.
• Cooperation and Coordination: The report underscored the importance of

cooperation and coordination among all stakeholders involved in peacekeeping
efforts. It called for better coordination between the UN, member states, regional
organizations, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to ensure effective
collaboration and sharing of responsibilities.
The Brahimi Report served as a catalyst for significant reforms in UN peacekeeping.

Its recommendations led to the establishment of the Peacebuilding Commission, the
creation of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and the Department of
Field Support (DFS) within the UN Secretariat, and improvements in training and
oversight mechanisms. It highlighted the challenges and shortcomings of
peacekeeping and paved the way for subsequent initiatives to strengthen and improve
UN peacekeeping operations.
INDIA AND UNSC PERMANENT SEAT [Continued from Unit 9, Part A]
The establishment of the United Nations (UN) permanent members, also known as the
P5 or the "Big Five," dates back to the formation of the organization itself. The
UN was founded in 1945 following World War II with the primary goal of promoting
international peace and security. The selection of the permanent members and their
privileged status within the UN was outlined in the UN Charter, the organization's
founding document. The Charter granted permanent membership and veto power in the
UN Security Council to five countries: the United States, the Soviet Union (later
replaced by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, and China.
These countries were chosen based on their status as major powers at the time and
their involvement in the war against the Axis powers during World War II. The
intention behind establishing permanent members was to ensure that the most
influential and powerful nations had a central role in international decision-
making and maintaining global peace.
The permanent members have the authority to veto any substantive resolution brought
before the Security Council, which can hinder the adoption of measures or actions
even if they have the support of a majority of member states. This veto power was
intended to prevent any single nation from dominating the decision-making process
and to ensure that the major powers have a stake in the decisions made by the
Security Council.
Advantages of Being a P5
Veto Power: Permanent members can veto resolutions, allowing them to protect their
national interests. Example: Russia and China vetoed multiple resolutions related
to the Syrian conflict. ⚫ Global Influence: They have significant influence in
shaping international discussions and agendas. Example: The United States played a
pivotal role in the negotiations of the Paris Agreement on climate change.
Decision-Making Authority: They have a central role in decision-making within the

Security Council. Example: The United Kingdom and France led the authorization of
military intervention in Libya in 2011.
Legitimacy and Prestige: Permanent members enjoy a higher level of legitimacy and
prestige in the international community. Example: China's permanent seat reflects
its growing economic and political power on the global stage.

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. Long-Term Engagement: Permanent membership provides stability and allows for

long-term engagement in global affairs. Example: The United Kingdom's permanent
seat ensures its consistent involvement in addressing global challenges and shaping
international norms.
otes by Scholars
Shashi Tharoor: India's global relevance and contributions in various areas make a
strong case for its permanent seat at the UN. Its consistent support for
multilateralism and its ability to bridge divides make it an essential voice in
shaping global affairs.
. Ramachandra Guha: There is a need for internal development rather than be in the
race for super stardom.
Raghuram Rajan: "India's rise as a major power demands a recalibration of global

institutions, including the UN Security Council. Its population, economic
potential, and contributions to peacekeeping make it a deserving candidate for
permanent membership.
. C. Rajamohan: India is a legitimate candidate for a permanent seat at the UN

Security Council. Its growing global influence, economic strength, and commitment
to multilateralism make it a natural choice for expanded membership.
other nations
France: France recognizes India's legitimate aspiration to become a permanent

member of the UN Security Council. India's contributions to peacekeeping, its
economic strength, and its commitment to international cooperation make it a
valuable candidate for permanent membership. (Emmanuel Macron)
dia's Claim to a Permanent Seat
Association with the UN: India, a founding member of the UN, actively participates
in UN initiatives and has a strong record of engagement. It has been offered a
permanent seat in the past but declined due to Cold War politics. India has served
multiple terms as a non-permanent member. Notably, it has a significant number of
peacekeepers deployed, surpassing even some P5 countries. ⚫ India's intrinsic
value: India's case for a permanent seat at the UNSC is bolstered by its status as
the largest democracy and second-most populous country. Its growing economy and
nuclear weapons capability further strengthen its claim. India's active engagement
in global politics, sustainable development, and its inclusion in international
export control regimes demonstrate its expanding international profile. The support
for India's bid comes from the G4 countries, a majority of the current permanent
members of the UNSC, and a majority of countries in the UN General Assembly.
• Leader of Global South: India's prominent position among Third World nations is
evident through its leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement and G-77 group.
Therefore, granting India a permanent seat at the UNSC would enhance its status as
a moralistic force for developing countries and contribute to a more democratic
composition of the Security Council.
World's Largest Democracy: India's functioning democracy is a significant

credential that strengthens its case for a permanent seat at the UN. As the world's
largest democracy, India has a robust democratic system, free and fair elections,
and a strong commitment to the rule of law. India's democratic credentials
demonstrate its ability to represent diverse perspectives and effectively
contribute to global decision-making processes within the UN.
Contribution to Peacekeeping: India's substantial contribution of troops and its

proven capabilities in peacekeeping operations highlight its readiness and
effectiveness in addressing global security challenges. This experience and
expertise make India a valuable candidate for a permanent seat at the UN, as it can
contribute to shaping peacekeeping policies and strategies on basis.
a long-term
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Military Strength: India's robust military capabilities serve as a significant

credential for its bid for a permanent seat at the UN. With the world's second-
largest standing army and advanced military technologies, India possesses the
capacity to contribute effectively to global peace and security. India has a long
history of participating in UN peacekeeping missions and has consistently been one
of the largest contributors of troops.
Issues to India's membership
Reform deadlock: The process of expanding the UN Security Council and granting
permanent seats has faced resistance and a lack of consensus among member states.
Various proposals for reform have been put forth, but disagreements over criteria,
representation, and veto power have hindered progress.
• Opposition from existing permanent members: The current permanent members, who
hold veto power, may be reluctant to share their privileged status. They may
perceive the addition of new permanent members as a potential dilution of their
influence and decision-making authority.
⚫ Geopolitical rivalries: The complex web of geopolitical rivalries and power

dynamics within the international system has hindered the consensus necessary for
UN Security Council reform. Competing interests among major powers have made it
difficult to reach a consensus on the expansion of permanent seats.
⚫ Lack of regional consensus: Some countries within India's region, such as

Pakistan and China, have expressed reservations about India's bid for a permanent
seat. Regional dynamics and historical conflicts play a role in shaping positions
on UN Security Council reform.
• Procedural challenges: The process of amending the UN Charter to expand the

Security Council and grant permanent seats requires a high threshold of support and
agreement among member states. The complexity and lengthy nature of the reform
process have made it difficult to achieve significant progress.
Non Signatory to NPT: India's non-signatory status to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation

Treaty (NPT) is one of the factors that has hindered its progress towards obtaining
a permanent seat at the UN Security Council. The NPT is a multilateral treaty aimed
at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, promoting disarmament, and
facilitating the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The existing permanent members of
the UN Security Council are all recognized nuclear-weapon states under the NPT.
They argue that adherence to the NPT demonstrates a commitment to non-proliferation
and nuclear disarmament, which are seen as important criteria for permanent
membership.
• Opposition from Coffee Club: Uniting for Consensus (UfC), nicknamed the Coffee
Club, is a movement that developed in the 1990s in opposition to the possible
expansion of permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. Under the
leadership of Italy, it aims to counter the bids for permanent seats proposed by G4
nations (Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan) and is calling for a consensus before
any decision is reached on the form and size of the United Nation Security Council.
Uniting For Consensus (Coffee Club)
The "Coffee Club," also known as the Uniting for Consensus (UfC) group, is a bloc
of countries that have come together to oppose the bid of the G4 countries (Brazil,
Germany, India, and Japan) for permanent seats on the United Nations Security
Council (UNSC). The Coffee Club consists of various countries, including Italy,
Argentina, Pakistan, South Korea, and others.
The main contention of the Coffee Club is against the idea of adding more permanent
members to the UNSC. They argue that such an expansion would lead to an imbalance
of power and compromise the principles of representation, democracy, and
accountability. Instead, they advocate for an expansion of

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non-permanent seats, which they believe would provide a more equitable and
inclusive representation of different regions and countries.
The premise of the Coffee Club is based on the belief that the UNSC should undergo
reforms that ensure greater transparency, fairness, and effectiveness. They
emphasize the need to involve a larger number of countries in decision-making
processes and voice concerns about the concentration of power in a few permanent
members. The Coffee Club contends that UNSC reforms should be guided by a
democratic and consultative approach, taking into account the interests and
perspectives of a wide range of nations.
Thus, the Coffee Club presents an alternative perspective to the G4 countries'

pursuit of permanent seats, advocating for a more comprehensive and inclusive
approach to UNSC reforms.
India's Strategies in seeking the Permanent Seat
Diplomatic Outreach: India has engaged in extensive diplomatic efforts to garner

support for its bid. It has held bilateral meetings, participated in multilateral
forums, and actively engaged with other member states to gain their endorsement.
For instance, India has collaborated with countries like Brazil, Germany, and Japan
as part of the G4 group to collectively advocate for UNSC reforms and their
inclusion as permanent members.
⚫ Regional Alliances: India has leveraged its regional influence and alliances to
strengthen its case for a permanent seat. As a founding member of the Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM) and a key member of the Group of 77 (G77), India has garnered
support from other developing nations. It has highlighted its commitment to
representing the interests of the Global South and emphasized the need for
equitable representation in the UNSC.
• Active Participation in UN Initiatives: India has actively participated in

various UN initiatives and demonstrated its commitment to global issues. It has
contributed troops to UN peacekeeping missions, engaged in climate change
discussions, and supported the implementation of sustainable development goals.
India's proactive engagement showcases its willingness to play a responsible role
in international affairs, thereby strengthening its credentials for a permanent
seat.
⚫ Soft Power Projection: India has projected its soft power globally to enhance
its influence and garner support for its bid. It has emphasized its rich cultural
heritage, contributions to art, literature, music, and spirituality, as well as its
vibrant democracy and pluralistic society. By showcasing its diverse and inclusive
identity, India aims to establish itself as a natural choice for a permanent seat
based on its values and principles.
⚫ Engaging with the P5: India has actively engaged with the existing permanent
members of the UNSC, known as the P5 (United States, China, Russia, France, and the
United Kingdom). It has sought their support and recognition of India's global
stature and contributions. India has emphasized that its inclusion as a permanent
member would enhance the Council's representativeness and effectiveness in
addressing contemporary global challenges.
Support for India's Seat
G4 Group: India is part of the G4 group, along with Brazil, Germany, and Japan,
which collectively advocate for UN Security Council reform and seek permanent
membership for themselves. These countries have supported each other's bids and
have jointly proposed a common position on expanding the Security Council.
⚫ African Union: The African Union has expressed its support for India's inclusion
as a permanent member of the Security Council. India has maintained strong
diplomatic ties with African nations and has actively engaged in development
cooperation with the continent,

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which has led to increased support from African countries. ⚫ Regional Support:
Many countries in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and other regions have voiced their
support for India's bid. These countries recognize India's regional leadership, its
contributions to peacekeeping operations, and its potential to address global
challenges. Non-Aligned Movement: As a founding member and active participant in
the Non-Aligned Movement, India enjoys support from numerous member states. This
movement represents a significant group of countries that advocate for a more
equitable and inclusive UN, supporting India's case for permanent membership. • P5:
The p5 itself except China have all backed proposals for reforms at the UNSC and
supported India's bid for a permanent seat through those reforms.
What should be India's strategy - Scholar's perspective / Suggestions
1. RC Guha:
• Emphasizes the importance of internal development and advises against a race for
super stardom.
⚫ Suggests that India should focus on its own growth and progress rather than
solely seeking global recognition.
2. C Rajamohan:
Warns against allowing India to be bargained by Western countries in exchange for

permanent membership in the UNSC.
Cites the example of India's submission of its Intended Nationally Determined

Contributions (INDC) in the context of climate change negotiations, where
compromises may have been made for the sake of pursuing UNSC membership.
3. Prof Ramesh Thakur:
• Advocates for non-cooperation with the UN to make it realize the importance of

India's role. • Suggests that India should actively engage with forums like the
G20, which he believes should ideally function like the UNSC.
4. Chinmay Ghare Khan:
• Encourages a realistic approach towards the UNSC and its reform.
• Proposes pursuing practical reforms such as seeking semi-peripheral membership

rather than pushing for immediate permanent membership.
India is widely recognized as an emerging global power, and there is a clear demand
for greater inclusivity and democracy in international organizations, such as the
United Nations. In light of these factors, India is asserting its justified
position in the evolving framework of global governance, which encompasses the
United Nations Security Council.
The support received from various countries and regional groupings demonstrates the
recognition of India's contributions and potential in addressing global challenges.

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UNIT 7: INDIA AND THE NUCLEAR QUESTION: CHANGING PERCEPTIONS AND POLICY
Is India's nuclear doctrine a viable one? (150 words) (2013) Discuss the grounds
for India's opposition to NPT. (2014)
In 1998, India declared itself as a nuclear weapon state. India refuses to sign NPT
and CTBT. What would be the implications for India's nuclear policy if it signs
both treaties? (2015) Critically analyze India's nuclear policy. (2016)
Explain the socio-economic impacts of the arms race and identify the obstacles In
the way of disarmament. (2016)
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) still needs to achieve the ultimate
objective of Global Nuclear Disarmament. Discuss the deficiency in the provision of
NPT. (2017) ⚫ Given the recent developments in the region, do you think there is a
need to change India's 'No First Use (NFU)' nuclear policy? (2019)
Discuss the efficacy of India's 'no-first-use policy (nuclear weapons) in the

context of the evolving strategic challenges of its neighbours. (2020)
• Examine the evolution of India's role in the global nuclear order. (2021) Discuss
the reasons behind India's refusal to sign the nuclear non-proliferation treaty
(NPT). (2022)
In 1947, when India emerged as a free country to take its rightful place in the
comity of nations, the nuclear age had already dawned. Our leaders then took the
crucial decision to opt for self-reliance, and freedom of thought and action. We
rejected the Cold War paradigm whose shadows were already appearing on the horizon
and instead of aligning ourselves with either bloc, chose the more difficult path
of non-alignment.
Background
Indigenous Development
Peaceful Nuclear Program: India's pursuit of nuclear technology began in the 1950s
with the establishment of its peaceful nuclear program. The focus was on utilizing
nuclear energy for various peaceful purposes, including power generation,
agriculture, and healthcare.
• Under the leadership of Dr Homi J. Bhabha, often referred to as the father of

India's nuclear
program, India made significant strides in developing indigenous capabilities in

nuclear science and technology. The establishment of institutions such as the
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) played a crucial role in conducting research,
development, and training in various nuclear disciplines.
One of the major milestones of India's peaceful nuclear program was the
commissioning of the Tarapur Atomic Power Station in 1969, marking the country's
entry into the League of nuclear power producers.
⚫ Pokhran-I: In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test, codenamed Pokhran-1.
This test, also known as the "Smiling Buddha," demonstrated India's nuclear
capabilities and marked its entry into the nuclear club.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): India, being a non-signatory of the NPT,

maintained its stance on not joining the treaty due to concerns over its
discriminatory nature. India argued that the NPT perpetuated a divide between
nuclear-weapon states and non-nuclear-weapon states.

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Pokhran-II: In 1998, India conducted a series of nuclear tests, known as Pokhran-

II, which included both nuclear weapon tests and a thermonuclear test. These tests
drew international attention and sparked debates on India's nuclear ambitions.
• Nuclear Doctrine: In 2003, India declared its nuclear doctrine, which outlined
its policy on the use of nuclear weapons. India's doctrine emphasizes a "credible
minimum deterrence" posture, stating that nuclear weapons are solely for self-
defence and as a deterrent against nuclear threats. ⚫ Civil Nuclear Cooperation:
In 2008, India reached a landmark civil nuclear cooperation agreement with the
United States, known as the Indo-US Nuclear Deal. This agreement granted India
access to civilian nuclear technology and fuel, despite its status as a non-NPT
country
Why India acquired nuclear weapons
The acquisition of nuclear weapons by India can be attributed to a combination of

factors. • Security concerns: India's acquisition of nuclear weapons was driven by
its security considerations, particularly the need to establish a credible
deterrent vis-à-vis China and address perceived threats from Pakistan's nuclear
capabilities.
• Disappointment with non-proliferation regime: India's dissatisfaction with the

global nonproliferation regime, which it viewed as discriminatory, contributed to
its decision to pursue nuclear weapons independently.
Loss of nuclear umbrella: With the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the
consequent loss of security assurances, India sought to develop its own nuclear
capabilities to fill the gap left by the absence of a protective nuclear umbrella.
Domestic and ideological factors: Domestic political considerations, including

right-wing ideology, played a role in shaping India's nuclear ambitions. The desire
for global recognition and prestige also motivated Indian scientists and
policymakers.
⚫ Geopolitical and regional dynamics: The changing geopolitical landscape, coupled

with India's quest for regional influence, further propelled its decision to
acquire nuclear weapons as a means of asserting its strategic autonomy and
enhancing its position in international affairs.
Scholar's view on India's acquisition of nuclear weapons
C. Rajamohan, in discussing the appropriateness of acquiring nuclear weapons,

points out that India's contradictory goals of peace and global power led to it
becoming a "reluctant nuclear power." This implies that India sought to balance its
aspirations for peace and global influence, ultimately deciding to pursue nuclear
weapons as a calculated risk.
. Manu Mathai's work, titled "Nuclear Power, Economic Development, Environment, and
Disarmament," likely explores the interplay between these factors and their impact
on India's nuclear program. It may delve into the considerations of nuclear power
in relation to economic development, environmental concerns, and disarmament
efforts.
Nehru's emphasizes that India will defend itself by any means necessary if
threatened. This suggests that India's decision to acquire nuclear weapons was
driven by the imperative to safeguard its national security in the face of
potential threats.
Disarmament for India
India's relationship with nuclear disarmament goes back a long way. Ever since
independence, Indian governments have not let go of any opportunity, whatever the
forum, to press upon the international community the urgent need for universal and
time-bound nuclear disarmament. In fact, even before India attained independence,
Jawaharlal Nehru had stated in 1940, "Both because of our adherence to the
principle of non-violence and from practical considerations arising from

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our understanding of world events, we believe that complete disarmament of all

nation states
should be aimed at, as in fact an urgent necessity, if the world is not to be

reduced to barbarism" The moral tone set by Gandhi and Nehru has largely directed
the Indian posture on nuclear disarmament for a good part of India's independent
history. From the 1950s, when Nehru had pioneered proposals for worldwide nuclear
disarmament, including the ideas of a nuclear test ban treaty and a freeze on the
production of fissile material, to the 1982 "Programme of Action on Disarmament"
and later, the 1988 Rajiv Gandhi "Action Plan for Ushering in a Nuclear Weapon Free
and Non-violent World Order", and then the 1993 resolution for securing an early
global ban on the production of fissile material, India's official nuclear policy
has remained guided by the desire to attain a state of universal nuclear
disarmament.
⚫ Change in Nuclear Policy: the debate on nuclear disarmament within India cannot
be described as having grown into a monolith. Rather, voices of dissent to the
official position had begun to be heard as far back as the early 1960s after
India's defeat at the hands of the Chinese and then the demonstration of Chinese
nuclear capability. Both these developments gave rise to a pro-bomb lobby, though
its reach remained limited. Over the next two decades, both sides, pro-bomb and
anti-bomb, shared the room for manoeuvrability as the official Indian position
remained one of nuclear ambiguity. The sense of idealism and the principled
approach was adequately balanced by the belief that national security
considerations demanded the availability of all options.
NUCLEAR TREATIES AND INDIA
Non-Proliferation Treaty
The Non-Proliferation Treaty is a landmark international treaty whose objective is

to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote
cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the goal of
achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament.
The Treaty represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the
goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States. Opened for signature in 1968, the
Treaty entered into force in 1970.
The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even
though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the
signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty
indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995.
Causes leading to the Treaty
1. Nuclear Arms Race: The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union
intensified the nuclear arms race, with both countries rapidly expanding their
nuclear arsenals. This arms race raised concerns about the spread of nuclear
weapons to other states and the potential for nuclear proliferation.
Example: The development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) by both

superpowers further escalated the arms race, heightening concerns about the
potential proliferation of these advanced delivery systems.
2. Global Concerns: The impact of nuclear weapons testing on the environment and
human health became a significant concern. The fallout from atmospheric nuclear
tests, such as the testing conducted by the United States in the Pacific and the
Soviet Union in Kazakhstan, raised awareness about the dangers of nuclear weapons
beyond military implications.

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3. Atoms for Peace Program: The Atoms for Peace program, initiated by U.S.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953, aimed to encourage the peaceful use of
nuclear energy. It provided assistance to countries seeking to develop civilian
nuclear power programs, such as India, which received support for its first
research reactor, Apsara, in 1956.
4. Eighteen-Nation Disarmament Committee (ENDC): The Eighteen-Nation Disarmament

Committee, established in 1962, played a crucial role in shaping the discussions on
nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation. It served as a forum for negotiations
among participating countries, which eventually led to the drafting of the NPT.
5. Risk to Global Peace and Security: The proliferation of nuclear weapons was seen
as a threat to global peace and security. More countries possessing nuclear weapons
could lead to an increase in regional conflicts, nuclear arms races, and the
potential use of nuclear weapons, which could have catastrophic consequences.
6. Balance of Power: The NPT aimed to prevent an imbalance of power among states by
discouraging the acquisition of nuclear weapons by non-nuclear-weapon states. The
treaty sought to maintain a balance where only a limited number of states possess
nuclear capabilities, ensuring a level playing field and reducing the risk of
conflicts driven by nuclear asymmetry.
7. Non-Discrimination and Equality: The NPT enshrined the principles of non-

discrimination and
equality among states. It recognized the rights of non-nuclear-weapon states to

access peaceful nuclear technology for development purposes, while placing
obligations on nuclear-weapon states to work towards disarmament and refrain from
assisting others in acquiring nuclear weapons.
Immediate Causes
Cuban Missile Crisis: In 1962, the discovery of Soviet missile installations in

Cuba led to a tense standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union. The
crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear war and highlighted the urgent
need to prevent similar confrontations and mitigate the risks associated with
nuclear weapons.
India's Nuclear Program: In the 1960's India's nuclear weapons program, coupled
with the existing nuclear arsenals of major powers like the United States and the
Soviet Union, created fears of a nuclear arms race. There was a concern that if
more countries acquired nuclear weapons, it could lead to a destabilizing
proliferation cascade.
Key Highlights of the Non-Proliferation Treaty
Non-Proliferation Objective: Primary objective of NPT is to prevent spread of

nuclear weapons and to achieve disarmament. It seeks to limit possession of nuclear
weapons to the five recognized nuclear-weapon states (NWS) while promoting the
peaceful use of nuclear energy. Three Pillars: The NPT is based on three pillars:
non-proliferation, disarmament, and peaceful use of nuclear energy. These pillars
are interconnected and mutually reinforcing.
Nuclear-Weapon States (NWS): The NPT recognizes five nuclear-weapon states (the
United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) that possessed
nuclear weapons before January 1, 1967. These states are allowed to possess nuclear
weapons but are obligated to work towards disarmament.
Non-Nuclear-Weapon States (NNWS): Non-nuclear-weapon states commit to not acquiring

nuclear weapons and to accepting International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
safeguards on their nuclear activities. They have the right to develop nuclear
energy for peaceful purposes.
Safeguards and Verification: The NPT requires all non-nuclear-weapon states to

conclude safeguards agreements with the IAEA to ensure that their nuclear
activities are used exclusively for peaceful purposes. Safeguards involve
inspections and monitoring to verify compliance.

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In light of perceived strategic challenges from both China and Pakistan, India
chose to be excluded from the NPT and go ahead with developing nuclear deterrents.
⚫ Domestic Political Imperatives and Prestige: The timing and rhetoric of India's
nuclear test were influenced by domestic political factors, such as the declining
popularity of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The claim of a "peaceful nuclear
explosion" helped justify the action as not violating existing legal instruments.
⚫ Shift in Global Perception: The Indo-U.S. nuclear deal brought about a shift in
the global perception of India's nuclear status. It highlighted India's rising
stature as a responsible nuclear power and a potential partner in non-proliferation
efforts. Some argued that the deal made the NPT less relevant for India, as it
provided India with similar benefits and recognition without the need to join the
treaty.
Disparities within the NPT regime
The NPT distinguishes between nuclear-weapon states (NWS) and non-nuclear-weapon

states (NNWS), creating a disparity in rights and obligations.
Nuclear-Weapon States(NWS): The NPT recognizes five countries as nuclear-weapon

states: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China. These
states are allowed to possess nuclear weapons and are acknowledged as legitimate
nuclear powers.
India's case
China was the last Permanent member to test its first weapon in 1964, while India
did so in 1974. Between those dates, in 1970 the NPT came into effect. Under its
terms, China became recognised as one of the world's five 'weapon states', and
India was excluded from such status. Thus, India was left with the choice of
remaining outside the NPT or giving up any possibility of maintaining a nuclear
weapon.
India's stance on the NPT and why it has not joined it
Security Concerns: India's decision was driven by security considerations,

particularly perceived threats from Pakistan and China, as well as concerns about
the United States' actions during the 1965 and 1971 wars. The demonstration of a
nuclear weapons capability in the 1974 test allowed India to effectively hedge in
an asymmetric international system and a regional strategic environment where it
felt cornered.
Autonomy and Freedom of Action: India prioritized maintaining political autonomy

and freedom of action in its foreign policy choices. Joining the NPT's grand
bargain, which restricts policy options in exchange for access to peaceful uses of
nuclear energy, was seen as limiting India's strategic flexibility in a security
environment marked by uncertainties.
Treaty's Non-Proliferation Obligations: The NPT places obligations on non-nuclear-

weapon states to refrain from developing or acquiring nuclear weapons. India, as a
country with an established nuclear weapons program, would be required to dismantle
its nuclear arsenal and submit to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
safeguards. India has concerns about these non-proliferation obligations and the
potential impact on its nuclear program.
Global Disarmament Bias: According to India, the NPT only addresses horizontal
proliferation (Nuclear States transfering to non nuclear states) while it does not
address the concerns of vertical proliferation (Nuclear States limiting and
disarming their arsenals within a stipulated time). Thus this creates a world of
nuclear "haves" and "have nots".
⚫ Non-Nuclear-Weapon States (NNWS): The remaining countries that have joined the
NPT are categorized as non-nuclear-weapon states. They are committed to refraining
from developing or acquiring nuclear weapons and have the right to access peaceful
nuclear technology for

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civilian purposes.
The NNWS are forbidden from getting nuclear weapons, although the NWS are in
possession of them, which gives rise to the perception of inequality. This
distinction has drawn criticism for maintaining a nuclear hierarchy and favouring a
small number of nuclear-capable nations.
Critics claim that the NPT strengthens a two-tiered system in which the NNWS are
subject to rigorous non-proliferation responsibilities while the NWS maintain their
nuclear arsenals without making any progress towards disarmament. Fairness and
equal security are believed to be incompatible with this unequal treatment.
Some claim that the NPT does not effectively handle the NWS's disarmament
commitments. Progress in lowering nuclear stockpiles has been slow despite parties'
duties under Article VI of the treaty to pursue discussions for nuclear disarmament
in good faith. The legitimacy and effectiveness of the NPT in attaining its goals
of disarmament are threatened by this apparent imbalance.
Concerns have also been expressed about the availability of peaceful nuclear
technology. The NNWSin particular developing nations, believe that the obstacles to
gaining access to nuclear technology for peaceful uses are excessively great in
comparison to the advantages that the NWS enjoys. The divide between nuclear-weapon
states and non-nuclear-weapon states is the root of the inequity
the NPT, which has been criticised for creating a nuclear hierarchy, making little
progress towards disarmament, and limiting access to peaceful nuclear technology.
The alleged injustices in the have been the focus of these discussions and
proposals for change.
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) still needs to achieve the ultimate
objective of Global Nuclear Disarmament. Discuss the deficiency in the provision of
NPT. (2017)
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is an international treaty aimed at
preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, promoting disarmament, and facilitating
the peaceful use of nuclear energy. However, critics argue that the NPT has failed
to achieve its ultimate objective of global nuclear disarmament.
Challenges in the Treaty
⚫Lack of Binding Disarmament Obligations: One major criticism of the NPT is that
it lacks binding disarmament obligations for the nuclear-weapon states (NWS)
recognized under the treaty.
• Scholars like Zia Mian argue that the absence of a specific timeline or concrete
commitments for disarmament has allowed the NWS to retain and modernize their
nuclear arsenals, undermining the ultimate objective of nuclear disarmament.
Unequal Bargain: Critics argue that the NPT primarily focuses on horizontal
proliferation (preventing new states from acquiring nuclear weapons), but it has
been less effective in addressing vertical proliferation (reducing the arsenals of
existing nuclear-weapon states). This limitation undermines the goal of global
disarmament.
o Scholars like Tariq Rauf assert that this disparity in obligations undermines the
credibility and effectiveness of the NPT.
⚫ Ambiguities and Interpretations: The NPT's language contains ambiguities and

different interpretations, leading to disagreements on its implementation and
obligations. o Scholars argue that these ambiguities have allowed states to exploit
loopholes or adopt
selective compliance, undermining the effectiveness and universality of the treaty.

Inadequate Safeguards: The NPT relies on the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) to monitor and verify compliance with non-proliferation obligations.

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o Critics argue that the safeguards are not foolproof and can be circumvented or
manipulated by states pursuing covert nuclear programs. Scott D. Sagan argue for
strengthening the IAEA's resources and authority to address these deficiencies. •
Lack of Universal Membership: Not all countries have joined the NPT, which limits
its effectiveness and the scope of disarmament efforts.
• Scholars argue that achieving global nuclear disarmament requires broader

participation and engagement from all states, including those outside the NPT
framework.
⚫ Geostrategic Challenges: The geopolitical dynamics among nuclear-armed states

and regional tensions have posed challenges to the disarmament efforts envisioned
by the NPT. 。 Scholars point out that the security concerns and distrust among
nuclear-armed states have hindered progress towards disarmament.
• Dual-use Technology Loopholes: Critics argue that the NPT does not adequately
address the issue of dual-use technologies, which can be used for both civilian and
military purposes. This loophole allows states to develop civilian nuclear programs
that can potentially be diverted for military purposes, undermining non-
proliferation efforts. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) has faced
criticism for its deficiencies, which have hindered the achievement of the ultimate
objective of global nuclear disarmament. Addressing these deficiencies and
strengthening the treaty's provisions and enforcement mechanisms is crucial to
revitalizing efforts towards nuclear disarmament and enhancing global security.
Still No Prospect of Nuclear Disarmament: The NPT has failed to achieve nuclear
disarmamentlacking progress. A formula for reducing nuclear holdings is needed,
considering proportional reductions based on current arsenals. Challenges arise in
including China in arms control talkswhile different approaches are required for
remaining possessors. Specific negotiations regional zones free of weapons of mass
destruction may be necessary.
⚫ Horizontal proliferation: The NPT has not been effective in preventing the
spread of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear weapon states. Countries like North Korea
have pursued nuclear weapons capabilities despite being signatories to the treaty.
⚫ Vertical proliferation: The treaty has not prevented the modernization and
advancement of existing nuclear arsenals by nuclear weapon states. The possession
and development of more sophisticated nuclear weapons continue, undermining
disarmament efforts.
Inequality among states: The NPT has been criticized for creating a divide between
nuclear weapon states and non-nuclear weapon states. Non-nuclear weapon states
argue that the treaty perpetuates a hierarchy where certain countries are
privileged to possess nuclear weapons while others are not.
Lack of enforcement mechanisms: The NPT lacks strong enforcement mechanisms to

ensure compliance and address violations. This has limited its effectiveness in
deterring non-compliance and holding violators accountable.
Challenges
Quotes of Experts
Amb. Rakesh Sood: NPT has reached the limits of its success, citing the absence of
a fixed timeline for achieving nuclear disarmament. Additionally, he points out
that the treaty does not effectively stigmatize possession of nuclear weapons but
rather focuses on the accumulation of such weapons. He also contend that the NPT
falls short in its commitment to disarmament as it permits the use of

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nuclear technology for civilian purposes, which some view as not being a
wholehearted attempt to eliminate nuclear weapons.
Beatrice Fihn, Executive Director of the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear

Weapons (ICAN): "The NPT is a flawed treaty that has failed to deliver on its
promise of disarmament. It has entrenched the status quo of nuclear haves and have-
nots."
Hans Blix, former Director-General of the International Atomic Energy Agency

(IAEA): "The NPT's non-proliferation regime is outdated and ineffective. It has not
prevented the proliferation of nuclear weapons, as seen in the cases of North Korea
and Iran."
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty to ban

nuclear weapons test explosions and any other nuclear explosions, for both civilian
and military purposes, in all environments. It was adopted by the United Nations
General Assembly on 10 September 1996 but has not entered into force, as eight
specific nations have not ratified the treaty.
Obligations
Each State Party undertakes not to carry out any nuclear weapon test explosion or
any other nuclear explosion, and to prohibit and prevent any such nuclear explosion
at any place under its jurisdiction or control.
Each State Party undertakes, furthermore, to refrain from causing, encouraging, or

in any way participating in the carrying out of any nuclear weapon test explosion
or any other nuclear explosion.
The Treaty was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996.
It opened for signature in New York on 24 September 1996, when it was signed by 71
states, including five of the eight then nuclear-capable states. As of January
2023, 177 states have ratified the CTBT and another nine states have signed but not
ratified it.
Ban on Nuclear Testing: The CTBT prohibits all forms of nuclear explosions,
including those for military and civilian purposes. It aims to put an end to the
testing of nuclear weapons worldwide. Comprehensive Verification Regime: The treaty
establishes a comprehensive verification regime to monitor compliance with the ban.
It includes a global network of monitoring stations that detect and analyze various
types of data, such as seismic, hydroacoustic, infrasound, and radionuclide, to
ensure that no nuclear tests take place.
Status
Key Highlights of CTBT
Entry into Force Requirement: The CTBT requires ratification by 44 specific

countries listed in Annex 2 of the treaty, including countries with nuclear
capabilities, for it to enter into force. These countries must ratify the treaty
for it to have full legal effect.
Non-Proliferation and Disarmament: The CTBT contributes to non-proliferation

efforts by hindering the development and improvement of nuclear weapons technology.
It strengthens the norm against nuclear testing and supports global disarmament
initiatives.
International Cooperation: The treaty promotes international cooperation in areas

related to nuclear disarmament, non-proliferation, and the peaceful uses of nuclear
energy. It encourages states to share data, collaborate on monitoring activities,
and exchange information to ensure treaty compliance.

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Support for the CTBTO: The CTBT establishes the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban
Treaty Organization (CTBTO) to implement the treaty's provisions. The CTBTO is
responsible for maintaining the verification system, conducting inspections, and
facilitating international cooperation on nuclear test monitoring
Why India has not joined CTBT
Complex Issue: India's principled opposition drew from its emphasis on universal
and complete nuclear disarmament in a time-bound manner. India has traditionally
believed this to be the end goal with the test ban just being a path to get there.
But it did not insist on a complete disarmament clause in 1994, acknowledging that
it was a "complex issue."
• Verification and Monitoring Concerns: India has raised concerns about the
verification and monitoring mechanisms of the CTBT. It believes that the current
monitoring system may not be able to detect covert or low-yield nuclear tests with
absolute certainty. India has called for further development and refinement of the
treaty's verification regime to address these concerns.
• Computerised Testing: The advent of computerized testing has raised some

questions about the relevance of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT).
Critics argue that
advancements in computer simulations and virtual testing have made physical nuclear
testing unnecessary for weapon development and verification purposes. They claim
that these technological capabilities undermine the need for a treaty that
prohibits nuclear testing altogether. ⚫ Challenge to India's Nuclear Programme:
Would hinder India's strategic nuclear programme development for energy needs given
its growing population and requirement of clean energy
Nuclear Suppliers Group and India
The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is a multilateral export control regime

consisting of 48 participating countries. The NSG was established in 1974 in
response to India's first nuclear weapons test, known as "Smiling Buddha," which
demonstrated its nuclear capabilities. The primary objective of the NSG at its
inception was to respond to nuclear proliferation challenges and strengthen non-
proliferation efforts worldwide. The NSG guidelines govern the transfer of nuclear
items and technologies, including nuclear reactors, fuel, and other sensitive
nuclear materials.
Major Objectives of NSG
The NSG aims to ensure that nuclear exports are carried out with appropriate
safeguards, physical protection, and nonproliferation conditions, and other
appropriate restraints. The NSG also seeks to restrict the export of sensitive
items that can contribute to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. India's Case for
joining
Integration into Global Nuclear Governance: Joining the NSG would provide India
with a seat at the table in shaping global nuclear norms, regulations, and export
controls. It would allow India to participate in decision-making processes
regarding nuclear commerce and contribute its expertise to non-proliferation
efforts.
India's Nuclear Commitments: Joining the NSG would further demonstrate India's
commitment to nuclear non-proliferation and strengthen its standing as a
responsible nuclear
power.
⚫ Energy Security and Climate Change:Joining the NSG will give India better access
to low- cost, clean energy-important for its economic growth. It will let India cut
its emissions and bring down air pollution from coal-fired power plants.
• India's Thorium Export: NSG membership would put India on an unyielding footing
to propose the idea of plutonium trade for its thorium programme that has been
holding back in the wings.

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• Access to Technology: It would facilitate India's access to high technology for

economic development and permit Indian companies to enter joint ventures in the
area of high-tech manufacturing.
Main Challenge to India's membership
Non Signatory to NPT: Since, India has not yet signed on any of the major non-
proliferation treaties particularly the NPT, therefore, technically India faces a
host of challenges ranging from questions about its credibility
⚫ Chinese Opposition: China which has vetoed India's membership. The reason for
which China has been vetoing India's entry into the NSG is the issue of Pakistan's
entry. China wants that if India is allowed in the NSG then Pakistan should also
have access to the same. Why India does not need to join NSG?
Nuclear Cooperation Agreements: India has already entered into bilateral nuclear
cooperation agreements with several countries, including the United States, France,
Russia, and Australia. These agreements allow for nuclear trade, technology
transfer, and collaboration in areas such as civil nuclear energy, research, and
development. India believes that these bilateral agreements are sufficient to meet
its nuclear requirements.
Non-Proliferation Credentials: India asserts that it has a robust non-proliferation

record and has implemented effective export controls and safeguards to prevent the
proliferation of nuclear technology or materials. It argues that its non-
proliferation commitments and actions are on par with NSG guidelines, even though
it is not a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT).
NSG's Ineffectiveness: Critics of the NSG argue that the group has been ineffective
in curbing nuclear proliferation. They argue that countries like North Korea and
Pakistan, which have not adhered to non-proliferation norms, were able to acquire
nuclear weapons despite being outside the NSG framework. Therefore, India questions
the effectiveness and relevance of the NSG in addressing global proliferation
challenges.
INDIA'S NUCLEAR DOCTRINE
Credible Minimum deterrence Non-Use Against Non-Nuclear Weapons States No First Use
Pillars of India's Nuclear Doctrine Massive Retaliation to any first strike
India's Nuclear Doctrine 2003
1. India's nuclear doctrine can be summarized as follows:
Building and maintaining a credible minimum deterrent;
A posture of "No First Use" nuclear weapons will only be used in retaliation
against a nuclear attack on Indian territory or on Indian forces anywhere;
⚫ Nuclear retaliation to a first strike will be massive and designed to inflict

unacceptable damage.

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⚫ Nuclear retaliatory attacks can only be authorised by the civilian political

leadership through the Nuclear Command Authority.
Non-use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states;
. However, in the event of a major attack against India, or Indian forces anywhere,
by biological or chemical weapons, India will retain the option of retaliating with
nuclear weapons; A continuance of strict controls on the export of nuclear and
missile related materials and technologies, participation in the Fissile Material
Cutoff Treaty negotiations, and continued observance of the moratorium on nuclear
tests.
Continued commitment to the goal of a nuclear weapon-free world, through global,

verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament.
2. The Nuclear Command Authority comprises a Political Council and an Executive
Council. The Political Council is chaired by the Prime Minister. It is the sole
body which can authorize the use of nuclear weapons.
3. 3 The National Security Advisor chairs the Executive Council. It provides inputs
for decision-making by the Nuclear Command Authority and executes the directives
given to it by the Political Council. 4. The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS)
reviewed the existing command and control structures,
the state of readiness, the targeting strategy for a retaliatory attack, and
operating procedures for various stages of alert and launch. The Committee
expressed satisfaction with the overall
preparedness. The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) approved the appointment of a

Commander- in-Chief, Strategic Forces Command, to manage and administer all
Strategic Forces. 5. The CCS also reviewed and approved the arrangements for
alternate chains of command for retaliatory nuclear strikes in all eventualities.
No First Use Policy
Meaning: A so-called NFU pledge, first publicly made by China in 1964, refers to
any authoritative statement by a nuclear weapon state to never be the first to use
these weapons in a conflict, reserving them strictly to retaliate in the aftermath
of a nuclear attack against its territory or military personnel. These pledges are
a component of nuclear declaratory policies.
India's Case
India's No First Use (NFU) policy is a key pillar of India's nuclear doctrine.
Under the NFU policy, India declares that it will not be the first to use nuclear
weapons in any conflict. This policy signifies India's commitment to using nuclear
weapons solely as a deterrent and not as an offensive tool.
The NFU policy was first articulated by India in 1998 after it conducted its
nuclear tests. It is a reflection of India's stance on nuclear weapons, emphasizing
restraint and responsible behaviour. The policy is intended to promote stability in
the region and prevent the escalation of conflicts to the nuclear level.
• However, India's NFU policy does come with some caveats. It states that the use
of nuclear weapons by India would be contingent upon a nuclear attack on its
territory or on its forces anywhere. This means that India reserves the right to
retaliate with nuclear weapons in response to a nuclear attack.
The NFU policy is aimed at maintaining strategic stability and avoiding the risk of
accidental or unintended nuclear escalation. It is seen as a confidence-building
measure and a demonstration of India's commitment to global disarmament efforts.
India's NFU policy has been reaffirmed by successive governments, highlighting its
importance in India's nuclear posture.

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Criticism of NFU
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Ambiguity and Lack of Clarity: "India's NFU policy lacks clarity and is
intentionally ambiguous, leaving room for interpretation and potential
miscalculations." Critics argue that the policy does not clearly define the
specific circumstances under which India would abandon its NFU pledge. Strategic
Vulnerability: India's NFU policy exposes the country to strategic vulnerabilities,
particularly in the face of potential surprise nuclear attacks or changing security

dynamics.
⚫ Changing Security Environment: India's NFU policy needs to be re-evaluated in

light of the evolving security environment and emerging nuclear doctrines of other
countries." Critics argue that regional dynamics and the development of new nuclear
strategies by other states may require a reassessment of India's stance on NFU.
• Lack of Flexibility: India's rigid adherence to the NFU policy limits its
strategic options and hampers its ability to respond effectively to emerging
threats.
⚫ Credibility and Deterrence: "The credibility of India's NFU policy is

questionable, as adversaries may doubt India's commitment to refrain from first use
in a conflict scenario." It may be seen that the policy may not effectively deter
potential nuclear threats due to doubts about India's willingness to adhere to it.
Recent Challenges to Maintaining the No First Use Policy
With the adversarial nature of relations with China and Pakistan in recent years,
India's security equations have changed tremendously in the neighbourhood. Due to
this critics have questioned the relevancy of maintaining a No First Use policy
especially as it puts the entire Indian population under the threat of a "First
Use". Thus there is an ongoing debate on maintaining the stance or removing it
altogether.
⚫ Pre-emptive Preparedness: Experts believe that should India and Pakistan go to

war, India would ready its nuclear force for preemptive strikes. Moreover, having
already been granted recognition of its right to a nuclear program through the 2005
Indo-U.S. nuclear deal, New Delhi has less incentive for caution.
⚫ Deterring Chinese Aggression: China and India are embroiled in military

scuffling in the Western Himalayas, where the Chinese army has sliced off
significant chunks of Indian territory. Given the disparity between New Delhi's
conventional military power and Beijing's, publicly adopting a first-use doctrine
would communicate both power and resolve on India's part. Higher Cost of
Conventional Deterrence: New Delhi has opted for a conventional buildup along the
border with China. But that has put enormous strain on its underequipped and
overstretched armed forces, as well as its underperforming economy. Diplomatically,
too, building up
conventional deterrence has been costly.
Quotes by Experts on NFU of India Against
C. Rajamohan: In his book, Crossing the Rubicon he says that India's nuclear
doctrine shows India's Nuclear Abhorrence.
Bharat Karnad: "NFU may be useful as political rhetoric but it is a liability in

serious war planning. It requires India to first absorb a nuclear attack before
responding in kind." ⚫ Lt. Gen. BS Nagal: He says that there is a point in
accepting so much damage in the first place. NFU puts the population under huge
threat and thus calls NFU a formula for disaster.
For
Manpreet Sethi: No need for expensive nuclear infrastructure and the onus of
escalation is on the adversary. This also makes a no need to keep nuclear forces on
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Navy Chief Arun Prakash: NFU was adopted, not merely as a token of nuclear
restraint and responsible conduct, on India's part, but also because it is, by far,
the least burdensome and inexpensive form of nuclear-deterrence.
in Favour of Maintaining NFU
First, Conventional and Nuclear forces readiness does not have to be maintained so
forces and equipment can be in a relaxed posture; nuclear forces can be maintained
in a de-mated condition waiting for orders from higher echelons to go to a higher
alert status, thus ensuring that command and control stay firmly with the civilian
political leadership,
• Since there is a no-first-use alert requirement, the chances of reacting to a

false alarm are nullified. Third, the onus of taking the decision to escalate to
nuclear use lies on the adversary and not on the party having an NFU doctrine.
Fourth, a first-use would result in international opprobrium and weigh heavily on a

country with a first-use posture.
Fifth, a first-use posture still requires a country to have survivable second-

strike capability as there is nothing such as a "splendid" first strike implying
100% decapitation of the adversary's assets and leadership.
"India's NFU policy has been a source of reassurance and stability in South Asia,
helping to prevent an escalation of tensions and providing a foundation for
diplomatic negotiations." Ambassador Sarah Williams, Diplomatic Relations
Specialist
Credible Minimum Deterrence
Credible Minimum Deterrence is composite posturing adopted by some nuclear-armed

states (especially India and Pakistan) to convey a non-aggressive and defensive
nuclear posture by projecting a nuclear arsenal that fulfils the bare needs of
defence and security. Accordingly, it implies that the nuclear arsenals will be
minimal enough to provide credible deterrence against adversaries. While 'minimum'
(the number of warheads and delivery systems at a given point of time) can be
dynamically driven by the strategic environment (perceived strength or build-up of
rival arsenals), the question of 'credibility' is based on perceptions whether the
adversary has been 'effectively deterred' or whether the capability to impart
'unacceptable damage' has been convincingly conveyed to the adversary. India and
Pakistan have both seen their deterrence goalposts being constantly shifted as a
result of their mutual security dilemmas, as also the strategic modernisation
pursued by China.
K. Subramanyam: According to him, "credibility is a function of how well command

and control functions and the essence of deterrence is to have a command-and-
control chain from the political level to the implementing level that demonstrates
its "survivability under the worst conditions of decapitation attack."
Dr Rajan Gupta (Nuclear Policy Analyst): Credible minimum deterrence is about

maintaining a nuclear arsenal that is adequate to deter potential adversaries,
ensuring the security and sovereignty of the nation without engaging in an
unnecessary arms race."
Advantages of CMD
Enhanced National Security: Credible minimum deterrence is believed to enhance a

nation's national security by ensuring that potential adversaries are deterred from
launching a nuclear attack due to the credible threat of retaliation.

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• Reduced Risk of Nuclear Escalation: By maintaining a modest and survivable

nuclear arsenal, credible minimum deterrence aims to prevent the escalation of a
nuclear conflict, thereby reducing the risk of catastrophic consequences.
⚫ Cost-effectiveness: Adopting a policy of credible minimum deterrence allows a

country to focus its resources on other vital sectors such as economic development,
healthcare, education, and infrastructure, rather than engaging in an expensive
arms race.
Non-provocative Posture: Credible minimum deterrence promotes a non-provocative

posture, emphasizing defensive rather than offensive capabilities. This can
contribute to regional stability and reduce the likelihood of a preemptive strike
by potential adversaries.
⚫ Global Peace and Stability: The maintenance of a credible minimum deterrence

posture can contribute to global peace and stability by discouraging the
proliferation of nuclear weapons and promoting responsible behaviour among nuclear-
armed states.
Scholar's view
C. Raja menon -A mismatch of nuclear doctrine.- Pakistan is developing Tactic

weapons and Asymmetric response As deterrence optimists, moderates are generally
less concerned about the quantity or quality of nuclear weapons.
Subrahmanyam wrote that what matters is not so much the "exchange ratio" of damage
suffered by both sides, but how much punishment an adversary calculates that it can
accept.
Criticism
Limited Effectiveness: Some argue that CMD may not be effective against non-nuclear
threats or emerging unconventional threats, such as cyber warfare or asymmetric
attacks. It is criticized for focusing solely on nuclear capabilities without
addressing evolving security challenges. Psychological and Perception Battle:
Deterrence is described as a psychological and perception
battle rather than a physical competition, thus a rival national may not be
convinced of the deterrence and thus CMD will fail to deter any possible strike.
Minimum Capability: The concept of "minimum deterrence" refers to the minimum

capability that the target entity (B) must possess in order to retaliate and cause
unacceptable damage to the aggressor entity (A) even after a full-force attack.
This minimum capability is considered during capability development and resource
allocation.
Scholar's criticism
Bharat Karnad disagrees with the very notion of "minimum" nuclear deterrence, which
he calls "a real military liability." Karnad visualizes a much grander role for
nuclear weapons in India's rise as a great
power.
Satish Chandra, has argued that maintaining the credibility of India's threat of
"unacceptable damage" requires that the size of India's nuclear arsenal be a
function of its threat perceptions, suggesting that size has to be open-ended and
not fixed. Chandra had argued that, in light of long-standing China-Pakistan
collusion, India should seek a capability sufficient to inflict "unacceptable
damage on both Pakistan and
China."
Jayant Prasad - We should change it to Minimum Credible Deterrence,
India's Impact on Global Nuclear Order
Non-Proliferation Norms: India's status as a non-nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

(NPT) nuclear-armed state challenged the established non-proliferation norms. It
sparked debates about the fairness and effectiveness of the NPT, highlighting the
need for inclusivity and addressing the concerns of non-NPT nuclear-armed states.

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⚫ Nuclear Testing: India's nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998 had repercussions on the
global nuclear order. These tests led to international condemnation and increased
focus on non-proliferation efforts. They also triggered discussions on nuclear arms
control and the need to prevent further proliferation.
⚫ Nuclear Safeguards: India's engagement with the International Atomic Energy

Agency (IAEA) and its adherence to IAEA safeguards agreements have influenced the
global nuclear order. India's cooperation with the IAEA in implementing nuclear
safeguards and its commitment to non-proliferation norms have helped strengthen the
global nuclear non-proliferation regime.
⚫ Civil Nuclear Cooperation: India's civil nuclear cooperation agreements with

countries like the United States have reshaped the global nuclear order. The 2008
U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement, which granted India access to civilian nuclear
technology and fuel, signalled a shift in international perceptions and recognition
of India as a responsible nuclear power.
Calls for Disarmament: India has been vocal about the need for global nuclear
disarmament. It has advocated for comprehensive disarmament and has emphasized the
importance of nuclear- weapon states taking concrete steps towards disarmament.
India's stance has contributed to discussions and initiatives aimed at nuclear
disarmament at the global level.
⚫ Nuclear Suppliers Group: The NSG was established as a response to the Indian
nuclear test conducted in 1974. The aim of the NSG is to prevent the proliferation
of nuclear weapons by controlling the export of nuclear-related materials and
technologies. While the Indian test did contribute to the formation of the NSG, the
primary motivation behind its establishment was to strengthen global non-
proliferation efforts in general.
In a neighbourhood of strategic rivalry, India's nuclear capability serves as a

reminder to all aggressors of India's resolve against any misadventure against its
sovereignty. Although it is said that India's best security interests are served in
a nuclear-free world, the
current geopolitical tensions mandate India maintain a nuclear weapon as a credible

deterrent.

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UNIT 8: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY
Russian-Ukraine Crisis has cast a dark shadow on the energy needs of the member
states of the European Union (2022)
"Ukraine crisis is a product of power politics and geo-politics." Comment. (2014)

UKRAINE CRISIS
With Russian attacks now focused on the east of the country, the war in Ukraine has
entered a new phase. Responses in the rest of the world range from hesitancy in
Germany, fear in Taiwan-of China doing something similar-and ambivalence in wider
Asia.
Story so far
⚫ AA with EU: In 2013, Ukraine's then-President, Viktor Yanukovich, decided

against signing an association agreement (AA) with the European Union (EU),
sparking major pro-European protests in Ukraine. He was impeached by the parliament
• Crimean annexation: In March 2014, Russia annexed Crimea, an autonomous peninsula

in southern Ukraine with strong Russian loyalties, on the pretext that it was
defending its interests and those of Russian-speaking citizens. The EU, the United
States and other countries imposed sanctions on Russia.
Shortly afterwards, pro-Russian separatists in Ukraine's Donetsk and Luhansk

regions declared their independence from Kiev, prompting months of heavy fighting.
Minsk Protocol I: In 2014, a peace plan for eastern Ukraine (the Minsk Protocol I)
was signed. However, the agreement quickly broke down, with violations by both
sides. Its provisions included prisoner exchanges, deliveries of humanitarian aid
and the withdrawal of heavy weapons 'Minsk II' agreement: Russia, Ukraine, the
Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the leaders of two
pro-Russian separatist regions signed a 13-point agreement in February 2015 in
Minsk. France, Germany, Ukraine and Russia (the 'Normandy Four') agreed to a new
ceasefire for the implementation of the agreements
Belarus Areas under martial low Poland Romania Klev Moldova Crimea Russia Marianols

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Reasons for the war
⚫ NATO membership: For Russia, Ukraine should not join NATO as a member. But it is
essential for Ukraine's national security policy, especially after the Russian
annexation of Crimea in 2014.
• Marginalization of Russian identity: In 2019, Ukrainian language was made

mandatory for public sector workers with a special status. Russian language was not
included in exceptions for minority languages.
⚫ Failure of international institutions: UN was made after WWII to keep a check so

that there would be no 3rd WW, while it's the failure of international
organisations collectively to check tensions in Euro-Asia region.
2. Economic
⚫ Integration with EU: Ukraine wants to join European Union (EU) for early
integration of its political and economic relations with EU which Russia doesn't
want Ukraine to do. Euromaidan Movement: It was sparked by the Ukrainian
government's decision to suspend the signing of an association agreement with the
European Union, instead choosing closer ties to Russia and the Eurasian Economic
Union.
⚫ Eurasian Economic Community: Russia want Ukraine to join Eurasian Economic

Community (EAEC), which is a free trade agreement for post-Soviet states, so that
Russia can control the resource rich Ukraine
3. Geostrategic
Warm weather port: Ukraine's reunification with Russia solves the problem of the
Black Sea Fleet, which Ukraine's new leaders vowed to shut down and for which there
is no other basing location that does not freeze in winter.
⚫ Boost to Russian Navy: Russia retains strategic grip on the region and ability
to project its naval power to the Mediterranean and beyond.
Importance of ports in Black sea: In the event of a war, the Russian navy cannot
get out to the Baltic Sea either because NATO controls the Skagerrak Strait, which
connects to the North Strait. If Russia gets past the Skagerrak, the GIUK Gap
(Greenland, Iceland, UK) in the North Sea will prevent its advance to the Atlantic.
Limitations of Global Mechanisms
UNSC Veto: The veto power of Russia has prevented and effectively paralysed the UN
from taking any action against aggressive Russia.
Extreme Brinkmanship: Russia's disregard for global action against it has also made
things difficult s nothing has effectively worked in deterring Russia.
•Failure of Multilateralism: The issue can also be seen due to the failure of US
led NATO in assuring Russians regarding their border insecurities.
• Precedent of Crimea: The Crimean annexation went without much impact on Russia
and set the base for the current Ukraine annexation.
Polarised View: The issue of the invasion has also seen different opinions where
many nations
have blamed NATO and its expansion for the issue thus polarising the debate.
Russian Energy Exports: Russian Oil and Gas exports especially to Europe have been
Russia's bargaining chip and too many economic sanctions can cause an energy crisis
in Europe.

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1. Political
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Response from world nations

1. Europe and US
PSIR
No boots-on-ground support: With Ukraine yet to become a NATO member, the response
from the U.S. and the European allies is driven by sanctions against Russia and
providing military hardware, cash, and diplomatic support to Ukraine.
⚫ Sanctions: Resolutions against Russia at the United Nations General Assembly

(UNGA), UN Security Council (UNSC), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) etc.,
use of sanctions and diplomacy to put pressure on others, including India
⚫ Energy dependency: Europe, especially Germany and France, are still dependent on
natural gas from Russia without which these nations cannot survive winter. Hence,
they cannot stop gas purchases from Russia.
• Effect of Covid-19: Putting sanction on Russia affects global economy and Europe
in particular due to their energy needs. Europe don't want to take such a huge risk
when its economy is already shattered due to the lockdowns during the pandemic.
⚫ Russia-China 'axis': Cornering Russia beyond a limit will make it dependent on

China and China can exploit the situation against the west.
2. Chinese
⚫ Justified Russia: China rejected calling Russia's moves on Ukraine an "invasion"

and urged all sides to exercise restraint.
Abstention: China abstained on US-sponsored UNSC resolution that "deplores in the

strongest terms" Russia's "aggression" against Ukraine, along with the United Arab
Emirates (UAE). 3. India
• Independent response: India has maintained an independent response based on its

national interest and principles rather than pressure of any nation. India
abstained from voting in all resolutions.
⚫ India's principles: These principles work towards a safe and sustainable

solution based on international norms and principles.
o Immediate cessation of violence and hostilities
o Return to the path of Dialogue and Diplomacy
。 Global order is anchored on law, UN Charter and Respect for territorial integrity
and sovereignty of all states
o Humanitarian Access to a conflict situation
o Humanitarian Assistance
o Touch with leadership of both Russia and Ukraine
Humanitarian assistance: It does not vilify any side but provides humanitarian
relief and assistance to people rather than arms to them.
o Example: India sent 90 tonnes of humanitarian assistance to Ukraine. • Strategic

autonomy: It highlights strategic autonomy in times of a global upheaval and to
reach a peaceful resolution through shared responsibility.
Analysis of India's Stategic Autonomy
India's strategic autonomy in the context of Ukraine refers to its independent

decision-making and neutrality in the conflict, based on its own national interests
and priorities. •Maintaining relations with Russia: The primary strategic benefits
of its relationship with Russia were to keep Moscow neutral when New Delhi and
Beijing clashed and an inexpensive

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military supply chain." - Highlights India's strategic reasons for maintaining its
relationship with Russia and staying neutral in the Ukraine conflict.
• Making US and the West understand India's own geopolitical threats: "India
required the US, its primary partner in a larger strategic response to China, to
accept its neutrality. Demonstrates India's need for the US to understand and
accept its position on Ukraine, given their partnership in countering China.
• Maintaining its Energy Security: India began buying discounted Russian oil and
fertilizer to mitigate the social and economic damages. Shows how India utilized
economic measures, such as purchasing discounted Russian oil and fertilizer, to
address the economic challenges caused by the Ukraine war.
⚫ Geopolitical Implications Assessment: India assessed the geopolitical

implications of the war, including Russia's relationship with China and the
response of other nations such as the United States and European countries. This
evaluation demonstrated India's independent analysis and decision-making process in
determining its own strategic interests and partnerships.
⚫ Encouraging the West to also identify China as a common threat: India will
observe whether Germany and other European nations rebuild their military
capabilities and begin treating China as a strategic threat because of the Ukraine
war." - Highlights India's interest in how European nations respond to the Ukraine
war and whether they consider China as a strategic threat. ⚫ Engagement in
Diplomatic Efforts: India actively engaged in diplomatic efforts to help bring
the war to a close by privately and later publicly pressing Russia to consider
negotiations with Ukraine. This proactive approach highlighted India's independent
diplomatic engagement and its willingness to contribute to conflict resolution
efforts. These efforts also highlight how India's interests are best served in a
climate of peace between Russia its long time defence partner and the West - its
new markets and closer allies.
Effects on India
1. Diplomatic
⚫ To maintain balance between Russia and US: India's position on the ongoing
Ukraine crisis undergirded by the desire to keep clear of the crosshairs of big
power rivalry is reminiscent of its quintessential 'strategic autonomy'.
Emerging differences: But shadows of ongoing Ukraine crisis loom large over its
relationship with western world because of differing perception. E.g.
India vs EU and UK: EU and UK have cordial relationship with India with ongoing
trade, climate change and Indo-pacific as areas of common interest. But expectation
gaps have increased because of different perspectives on Ukraine crisis.
o India-USA: USA wants to nudge India away from Russia and shift towards USA on
major areas such as defence and oil.
2. Military
• Arms trade with Russia: Russia remains the major arms supplier of India, but the
war has once again increased US threats of application of CAATSA. As per SIPRI
data, Russia contributed 46% of India's total arms imports in 2017-21 (69% in 2012-
16). ⚫ S-400 delivery and US waiver: The crisis comes precisely as India's
purchase of the Russian S-400 missile system is under way- and India hopes for a
waiver of U.S. sanctions on this. Conflict will complicate both the delivery of the
system, and the possibility of a presidential waiver.
3. Strategic

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⚫ World War scenario: Any conflict- where the U.S. and its European allies are
ranged against Russia will impact the whole world- economically and in terms of
security, and India, as a partner to both Moscow and Washington will either have to
take sides, or be prepared to deal with unhappiness from both sides.
Moves focus from China: Just as U.S. and Europe had grown more focussed on their
Indo- Pacific strategy that puts India centre-stage, and India grapples with
Chinese aggression and land-grab at the Line of Actual Control, and 100,000 troops
along the boundary on both sides, the world's attention is diverted from China to
Russia.
Brings Russia China closer: The Crisis will make Moscow more dependent on friends
like China and build a regional bloc of sorts that India is not a part of. Russia
is already averse to the Indo-Pacific concept and the Quad as a revival of Cold War
bloc politics and views them as being against its Asia-Pacific interests..
4. Economic
India's Investment in Russia: India's plans in Russia's energy sector and in the
development of its Far East, in general, would become problematic, especially by
the reluctance of the private sector to fall afoul of the complex US sanctions.
o Example: The new sanctions could exclude Russia from the Swift payments system.
⚫ Gas Prices: Gas prices have increased over 50% this year after a fivefold rise
last year. This price rise increases India's import bill and the current account
deficit.
⚫ Oil Prices: Sanctions on Russia have pushed oil prices to above US$100/barrel.
With India being the 3rd largest oil importer after China and USA, every 1-dollar
price rise increases India's import bill by 10,700 crore on annualized bases.
⚫ Agriculture: The conflict has opened new opportunities for India in wheat export
and on the other hand it has caused hardships over fertilizer availability and
sunflower oil as Ukraine accounts for 1.4 MT of India's imports out of total 1.9 MT
import every year.
Metals: Russia is a major producer of Titanium, Palladium, Scandium, Rough Diamond

etc. Due to war and sanctions, it will have negative impact on India's diamond
industry (reduced imports) and supply chain issues for semiconductor industry,
automobile companies etc.
Flight of capital: Foreign portfolio investors have been selling their holdings in
Indian equities over the last four months. This outflow is likely to continue over
the coming days. As FPIS pulled out, domestic institutions emerged as net
investors.
Export Concerns: Russia and Ukraine are major export destinations of Indian
pharmaceutical industry. Also, Russia accounts for 18% of Indian tea exports.
Global challenges
1. Diplomatic
⚫ Deteriorating relations with USA: The conflict in Ukraine risks further

deterioration of U.S.- Russia relations and greater escalation if Russia expands
its presence in Ukraine or into NATO countries.
⚫ Shift NATO focus to Europe again: An escalating crisis in Ukraine threatens to

upend recent efforts by the United States and NATO to shift the alliance's
attention to the security challenge posed by China, and would push it back toward
its traditional role of protecting Europe and, by extension, North America.
Global peace: The conflict has heightened tensions in Russia's relations with both
the United States and Europe, complicating the prospects for cooperation elsewhere
including on issues of terrorism, arms control, and a political solution in Syria.

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• Imposed sanctions: The West imposed sanctions on Russia after the seizure of
Crimea and could add painful new measures, such as preventing it from pumping
Russian gas through the newly built Nord Stream 2 pipeline to Germany.
2. Economic
Energy crisis: In any conflict- Europe worries Russia will turn down gas and oil
supplies- driving energy prices up.
⚫ Oil surge: Brent crude surged past $104 a barrel in the wake of the fresh
sanctions on Russia, one of the top global producers of oil, gas, metals and
agricultural products. ⚫ Agriculture: Russia and Ukraine are major global
suppliers of some commodities (see image). Also, Russia accounts for 15% of global
nitrogenous fertilizer trade and 17% of global potash fertilizer trade.
⚫ Stock market crisis: Reacting to the plans announced by the US and EU nations to
sanction Moscow's central bank and cut off some financial institutions from the
SWIFT messaging system, Russia's central bank ordered professional stock market
participants "to suspend the execution of all orders by foreign legal entities and
individuals" to sell Russian securities.
• Bank run: The US, EU, United Kingdom and Canada had announced that the assets of
Russia's central bank will be frozen, which would make it difficult for it from
selling them overseas to support its own banks and companies.
• Consumer goods shortage: The impact of some of these measures would clearly end
hurting middle class Russians, given that the country remains highly dependent on
the West for many of its consumer goods.
⚫ Shortages of essential metals: The price of palladium, used in automotive

exhaust systems and mobile phones, has been soaring amid fears that Russia, the
world's largest exporter of the metal, could be cut off from global markets.
⚫ Financial turmoil: Global banks are bracing for the effects of sanctions
designed to restrict Russia's access to foreign capital and limit its ability to
process payments in dollars, euros and other currencies crucial for trade.
3. Regional challenges
Europe: Relations likely to expand towards Africa and Asia-pacific to diminish its
dependence on Russia for oil and other commodities.
⚫ Caucasus and Central Asia: Close neighbours of Russia-Ukraine; it will enhance

trade difficulties for them.
。 Example: 5 central Asian countries are landlocked and freely floating naval mines
are reported from Black Sea- maritime access of Caucasus.
Western Hemisphere: Facing high inflation pressure, higher oil prices can cause
instability in Central American and Caribbean region. The exporters of oil, metals
and agriculture products like Brazil, Chile etc. might mitigate the impact.
• Sub-Saharan Africa: Already in hard phase of minimum policy space due to

pandemic, the dependence on wheat imports from Russia or Ukraine will intensify
socio-economic pressures. • Middle East and North Africa: The rising food prices
will give rise to food insecurities with risks of political instability similar to
Arab Spring.
o Example: Egypt imports 80% of its wheat from Ukraine.
• Indo-Pacific: The growing Chinese aggression (e.g., Taiwan) makes the region
vulnerable to unilateral changes to the status quo with force.

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Impact of the War on Europe's Energy Policies
Preparation for Supply Disruptions: The European Union (EU) started preparing for
potential supply disruptions from Russia since 2009 when a gas cut off to Ukraine
affected gas supplies to EU member state Bulgaria. This led to the development of
EU energy plans, strategies, and unions to address energy security concerns.
EU Energy Policies: The EU implemented measures such as connecting energy grids and
pipelines across countries, creating regional markets, and cultivating alternative
energy sources to prevent individual countries from being cut off by any one
supplier and to cushion against price pressure.
⚫ Linking Energy Grids: Connecting energy grids played a crucial role. For
example, the Greece- Bulgaria gas pipeline interconnector opened in 2022, allowing
Bulgaria to continue receiving gas from Azerbaijan through the Trans-Adriatic
pipeline. Other countries, including Poland, Lithuania, and Germany, constructed
liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminals to import gas from the United States and
other sources.
Balancing Energy Dependence: Prior to the war, the EU had a split approach to
energy dependence on Russia. Some countries, like Poland, prioritized reducing
energy dependence, while others, like Germany, focused on maintaining a flow of
cheap Russian gas. The war prompted EU leaders to reconsider the reliance on
Russian gas.
RePowerEU Strategy: In March 2022, the EU swiftly decided to ban most Russian
fossil fuels from EU markets and replace them with renewable energy sources. The
RePowerEU strategy aimed to replace Russian fossil fuel imports with alternative
and renewable sources while promoting energy savings.
Energy Savings: The European Commission called for a 15% reduction in energy usage
across EU member states. This led to various measures, including adjusting heating
temperatures in buildings, reducing shower time, implementing speed limits, and
incentivizing the installation of electric heat pumps.
⚫ Capping Prices: European governments implemented measures to insulate households

and companies from surging fossil fuel prices. This included price caps, subsidies,
windfall taxes on energy companies, and agreements with G7 countries to cap prices
of Russian crude oil.
Diversifying Energy Supplies: The EU accelerated efforts to diversify energy

supplies. This involved the completion of gas pipeline interconnectors, the
construction of LNG terminals, building new pipelines for alternative gas sources,
and exploring energy deals with other countries such as Qatar.
⚫ Accelerating the Green Transition: The war accelerated the EU's green energy
transition. The RePowerEU strategy aimed to more than double the share of renewable
energy to 45% by 2030, primarily through wind and solar. It also called for
increased investment in hydrogen, biomethane, and other renewable sources
Resurgent Coal and Nuclear: In the short term, Europe's transition away from
Russian fossil fuels may require increased use of coal and nuclear energy. Germany
delayed its exit from nuclear energy, and Poland deregulated its coal industry to
compensate for the ban on Russian coal.
Way Forward
• Handle Financial Volatility from inflation, mounting trade costs and disruption
by reconfiguring the complex global supply chain for sustainable development. ⚫
Overcome social impacts by improving overall prosperity to emerge as a stronger
geopolitical
actor.

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• Reduction of its dependence on other nations for its defence and critical supply
needs i.e., taking forward the idea of Atmanirbhar Bharat.
• Work towards end of Cold War Mentality by engaging with all major stakeholders on
multiple forums and making efforts to strengthen global institutions.
⚫ Building upon the UN Charter, international law and respect for sovereignty and
territorial integrity to ensure a common and sustainable legal order.
Factors shaping the future of the crisis
Outside support for Ukraine: The success of Ukraine's war effort depends on outside
aid since Ukraine lacks the indigenous capacity to arm itself. Western countries,
such as NATO members, have stepped up to provide weapons systems and support, but
maintaining sustained aid and commitment is crucial.
⚫ Resilience of the Ukrainian people: The Ukrainian population has shown

resilience and determination in the face of a brutal enemy. Despite suffering
casualties and displacement, Ukrainians continue to fight for their country.
Efforts to support their resilience include providing humanitarian assistance, work
programs for refugees, education for children, and mental health support.
⚫ Cohesion in the Russian military: The Russian military has faced challenges such
as faulty equipment, lack of winter gear, and reported internal conflicts. The
combination of battlefield losses, growing crises at home, income inequality, and
societal cleavages can undermine military cohesion. Conditions exist for potential
mutinies or protests within the Russian military, which could impact Russia's
military performance.
Nuclear threats: Russian President Vladimir Putin has relied on nuclear threats as
a coercive tactic and deterrent against NATO intervention. The possibility of
tactical nuclear weapons use in key strategic regions, such as Kherson, raises
significant concerns. Efforts to deter the use of nuclear weapons in Ukraine
require international cooperation, risk reduction measures, and crisis
communication channels.
• Endgame scenarios: The war is unlikely to be resolved through a genuine

compromise or negotiated peace agreement. The most probable outcome is one side
collapsing in exhaustion, leading to a temporary ceasefire but setting the stage
for future conflict. The collapse could be driven by factors such as outside
support for Ukraine, Ukrainian resilience, internal strains in Russia, and a united
front against nuclear threats.
Quotes
Pramit Pal Chaudhary: "The primary strategic benefits of its relationship with
Russia were to keep Moscow neutral when New Delhi and Beijing clashed and an
inexpensive military supply chain."
⚫ S. Jaishankar: We are often asked whose side we are on. And our answer, each
time, is straight and honest. India is on the side of peace and will remain firmly
there. MEA: The territorial integrity and sovereignty of Ukraine must be respected.
Any unilateral
actions that undermine these principles are of great concern to us.
⚫ Stockholm International Peace Research Institute: "The conflict underscores the

importance of finding a diplomatic solution and addressing the underlying
grievances and aspirations of the people in Ukraine, while also addressing Russia's
security concerns."
Brookings Institute: The Russia-Ukraine conflict has far-reaching implications for

regional stability, the balance of power in Europe, and the future of international
norms and principles governing state behavior

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AFGHANISTAN
PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS To what extent is India's policy in regard to Afghanistan

dictated by a vision of 'Global South', rather than compulsion? (2009) Afghanistan
is a litmus test for India's ascendance as a regional and global power." Discuss.
(2014)
Do you think that India's capacity building role in Afghanistan has shrunk the
strategic space for Pakistan there? Discuss. (2018)
"The war in Afghanistan is crucial from the point of view of India's national
security. If the Americans withdraw and Jihadis emerge with a sense of
triumphalism, India will face increasing onslaught of terrorism." Comment. (2020)
How does the recent takeover of Afghanistan by Taliban impact India's strategic
interests? (150 words) (2021)
In August 2021, the Taliban swiftly captured major cities in Afghanistan,
culminating in the takeover of Kabul, the capital. The Afghan government and
security forces collapsed, leading to
President Ashraf Ghani's departure from the country. Return of Taliban rule: The
Taliban, an Islamist extremist group, previously ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to
2001. Their return to power raised concerns about the status of human rights,
women's rights, freedom of expression, and minority rights in the country.
Economic development Humanitarian assistance Pillars of India-Afghanistan

Development Partnership Capacity building Infrastructure development Development
Assistance Connectivity enhancement
Aspects of India- Afghanistan Relations
Historical and Cultural Links: India and Afghanistan share a strong relationship
based on historical and cultural ties.
⚫ Strategic Partnership Agreement: A strategic partnership agreement was signed

between India
and Afghanistan in 2011, solidifying their cooperation. India's Policy Objectives:

India's policy towards Afghanistan aims to create a democratic, stable, and strong
Afghanistan. India has been committed to the reconstruction and development of
Afghanistan since the Bonn conference in 2001.
Counterbalancing Pakistan: India's approach towards Afghanistan is influenced by

the desire to prevent Pakistan from dominating Afghanistan and using it as a
counterweight to India's influence

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in South Asia. India's ties with Afghanistan are also driven by its regional and
global ambitions. India sees an opportunity to disrupt Pakistan's policy of
"strategic depth" in Afghanistan and has prioritized engaging with nationalist
Taliban factions.
⚫ Developmental assistance: India has contributed $3 billion to Afghanistan's

socio-economic development, making it the fifth-highest contributor overall and the
highest in the region. India's developmental assistance includes technical support
to Afghan forces, duty-free access to the Indian market for Afghan exports,
infrastructure projects like the Salma dam and new parliament
building, scholarships for Afghan students, and aid across all of Afghanistan's
provinces.
New Development Partnership: The Indian government has launched a "New Development
Partnership" with Afghanistan, focusing on infrastructure development, capacity
building, and human resources.
Investment and Economic Cooperation: Indian companies are investing in the mining
sector in Afghanistan's Hajigak province. The India-Afghanistan Foundation has been
established to enhance economic, educational, cultural, and technical cooperation.
. Cricket Diplomacy: India has allotted four cricket grounds to the Afghanistan
Cricket Board in India and is involved in building cricket stadiums in Afghanistan,
promoting sports diplomacy. High Impact Community Development Program: India
undertakes small to medium-scale projects in education, water management,
agriculture, and government buildings through the High Impact Community Development
Program.
⚫ COVID-19 Support: During the COVID-19 pandemic, India exported wheat, pulses,
biscuits, as well as medical supplies such as HCQ, diagnostic kits, and PPES to
ensure food security and generate goodwill.
⚫ Regional Connectivity Initiatives: India and Afghanistan are partners in

regional connectivity initiatives such as the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-
India (TAPI) gas pipeline and the International North-South Transport Corridor
(INSTC).
Importance of Afghan Peace to India
1. Economic Interests:
• Bilateral trade: Afghanistan is an important trade partner for India as trade

crossed US$1.5 billion (2019-20).
India's share: India has a fair share in Afghan exports> 40.6%, which is
considerable amount. ⚫ Regional donor: India is top regional donor to Afghanistan,
India has executed many projects for the overall development for a peaceful
Afghanistan.
Energy Security: TAPI Gas Pipeline, also known as Trans Afghan Pipeline and Peace
Pipeline, will transport natural gas.
• Mineral Security: Afghan's vast mineral wealth (Hajigak mines) will help India
with the much-needed raw materials.
Market: Afghanistan is a sizable market for Indian exports.
2. National Security:
Extremism: Ideological ties between extremist groups in India and in Afghanistan.

Containment of Pakistan: Being a neighbour of Pakistan, it is important for India
to engage with Afghanistan.
Militancy Support: Afghan based militants are often in close proximity to Kashmiri
militants. 3. Strategic Interests:
Policy: The Strategic Partnership Agreement was signed in 2011 to enhance

cooperation between both nations.

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Neighbourhood First Policy: Afghanistan is an important aspect for India's

neighbourhood policy and thus the peace process is in India's interests.
Regional influence: Peace in Afghan region ensures India's credibility as a

regional partner. Regional Partner: Afghanistan is currently an important partner
for India in the region especially against the Pakistan based narrative on India.
• Access to Central Asia: A peaceful Afghanistan implies a better access for India
into central Asia through the TAPI project, INSTC and Ashgabat Agreement.
⚫ Chabahar Port: The port plays a vital role for India's presence in the gulf as
well as in providing aid to Afghanistan through Iran.
4. Indian Aid and Projects
Salma Dam: Reconstruction and also subsequent creation of irrigation facilities
Zaranj-Delaram road
Export of Wheat to Afghanistan
Training for Afghan public servants
Construction of new Parliament
Military support in form of vehicles and training
Children's Hospital
Electricity substations and transmission lines.
5. Others
Health Tourism: Afghans medical tourists in India get the best services and it in
turn contributed to Indian GDP.
Training Afghan cricket team: India is a home ground for training the Afghan
cricket team. Scholarships: India has been providing scholarships to Afghan
students for higher studies to enhance their human capital.
Afghanistan Relations under Taliban
The Taliban were groomed to be a valuable strategic asset for Pakistan's security
establishment in its anti- India policies. But now that they are in control of
Afghanistan, the Afghan Taliban gain little from keeping India at bay, especially
as the latter can provide much-needed financing for reconstruction and development.
In other words, India-Taliban relations are, if not improving, at least becoming
less overtly hostile in terms of both rhetoric and action.
India
⚫ Restoring People-to-People Links: The Taliban has expressed interest in

restoring people-to- people links between India and Afghanistan. This indicates a
desire to maintain and strengthen historical and cultural ties between the two
countries.
Acknowledging Developmental Aid: The Taliban has acknowledged the developmental aid
provided by India over the past two decades. India has undertaken numerous
infrastructure projects in Afghanistan, and the Taliban recognizes the positive
impact of these projects on the Afghan people.
Potential Engagement in Talks: The Taliban has signaled a willingness to engage in

talks with India. While the nature and extent of these talks are yet to be
determined, it shows a recognition
of India's regional significance and a desire to establish diplomatic ties. Partial

Opening of Embassy: India has cautiously engaged with the Taliban, reopening its
embassy and sent only a technical team at the embassy without diplomatically
recognising the Taliban regime.
Continued Development Projects: The Shahtoot Dam project, aimed at providing

drinking water to 2 million residents of Kabul, is one example of an incomplete
project that the Taliban may seek

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to engage with India on. This suggests a potential avenue for collaboration in the
developmental and infrastructure sectors.
Indian Engagement with Taliban: The engagement with the Taliban through the online
course raised questions about India's approach to a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan
and the resumption of visa facilities for Afghan students stranded in their home
country.
Visa Issue for Afghan Students: India has delayed granting visas to Afghan students
and revoked pre-existing visas due to security considerations. This has caused
difficulties for Afghan students, with financial struggles and limited access to
education.
Challenges for India in dealing with Taliban
Lack of Taliban engagement: India still does not have any formal channels to engage
and negotiate with Taliban.
China's influence in the region: China has been a traditional ally of Pakistan, and
both countries have close ties with the Taliban. The strengthening of the China-
Pakistan-Taliban axis could undermine India's influence in Afghanistan and the
broader region, as it may lead to increased coordination and collaboration against
Indian interests.
• Terrorism and security concerns: India has faced security challenges from
terrorist groups operating from Pakistani soil. The Taliban's close ties with
Pakistan, including the safe haven they enjoyed there during their insurgency
against Afghanistan, raise concerns that Pakistan and the Taliban may collaborate
to support anti-India terrorist.
⚫ Pakistan's Strategic Depth: Pakistan's support for the Taliban poses a threat to
India's interests. The close ties between Pakistan's security establishment and the
Taliban provide a safe haven and support base for anti-India militant groups
operating in the region. This allows them to launch cross-border attacks and
destabilize Indian-administered Kashmir. Pakistan's backing of the Taliban
exacerbates tensions between India and Pakistan and hinders efforts to achieve
peace and stability in the region.Taliban can be used to support Pakistan's sponsor
of terrorism in Kashmir.
• Unclear future of Indian investments: Afghanistan is an important part of the

Chabahar port project, which India and the Central Asian countries see as a game-
changer for physical connectivity. New Delhi has invested US$150 million in the
218-km Zaranj-Delaram Highway, which connects Afghanistan to the Chabahar port via
Milak in Iran.
⚫ Historical Issues: India has had a conflictual past with dealing with Taliban
especially due to Taliban's support to Pakistan during the hijacking of IC 814 in
1999. This resulted in Taliban also giving shelter to the terrorists released by
India on ranson.
Way Forward and Quotes of scholars
• Realist Policy: Harsh V Pant suggests that India should shift its focus from
Kashmir to Afghanistan and work towards building a consensus among Delhi,
Washington, and Moscow to ensure peace and stability in Afghanistan. Shyam Saran
proposes leveraging the USA's local network, good relations with tribes, and
India's goodwill from developmental work to initiate a new great game.
• Continuation of Soft Power Policy: Scholars like Rakesh Sood, Shiv Shankar Menon,
and M.K. Bhadra Kumar support the continuation of India's soft power policy. They
argue that India should maintain a "no boots on the ground" approach to avoid
getting involved in the Afghan quagmire. However, this policy carries risks such as
ceding strategic space to China and Pakistan and endangering India's investments in
Afghanistan under Taliban rule.
• Smart Power Strategy: The smart power strategy suggests that India should pursue
a proactive policy to safeguard its national interests. Shanthie Mariet D'Souza
emphasizes the need for India to engage with the new government in Afghanistan
without compromising its image as a

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trustworthy neighbor. Vivek Katju suggests maintaining quiet engagements with the
Taliban to stay informed without conferring legitimacy on them or eroding India's
own legitimacy.
INDIA-ISRAEL
Identify the key sectors of cooperation between India and Israel since 2014.
Examine their significance in strengthening the bilateral ties between the two
countries. (2020) The growing closeness between India and Israel will strengthen
the cause of Palestine. Comment. (2019)
Has the recent Indo-Israeli relationships given a new-dynamics to India's stand on

Palestinian statehood? (2017)
How does India-Israel bilateral ties reflect the autonomy of India's foreign policy
choices? (2022)
1. Economic Relations
Bilateral Data
Bilateral Trade: 4.14 billion (excluding defence) in February 2021 from $200
million in 1992. Trade Relations:
o Trade partner: India is Israel's third-largest trade partner in Asia and seventh
largest globally.
Major component: Trade in diamonds constitutes about 50% of bilateral trade. 。

Israeli company: The presence of Israeli companies in India has grown to 300. o
Indian export basket: India exports precious stones, metals, chemical products,
textile, rubber & plastic products, and base machinery to Israel.
Recent development: However, in recent times it has diversified into sectors such
as pharmaceuticals, agriculture, IT etc.
Services: Almost 75% of bilateral trade in services flow from India to Israel.
Israel Investment: The major investments from Israel in India include renewable
energy, telecom, real estate, water technologies etc., and are also setting up R&D
centres or production units in India.
Indian investment: India's investments in Israel are mostly in drip-irrigation,

pharmaceuticals, wastewater treatment, IT etc.
India import: Potash is a major item of Israel's exports to India.
FDI: Apart from direct investments, FDI from Israel to India also flows through
USA, Europe and Singapore.
IT and Services: During the last decade, Indian IT majors such as Infosys, Wipro
and Tech Mahindra have also made significant investments in Israel.
2. Strategic Relations
⚫ Defence Supplier: Israel is the third largest supplier of defence items to India
after Russia and the USA
Supplies: The Indian armed forces have inducted a wide array of Israeli weapon
systems over the years, which range from Phalcon AWACS (Airborne Warning And
Control Systems) and Heron, Searcher-II and Harop drones to Barak anti-missile
defence systems and Spyder quick-reaction anti-aircraft missile systems.

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。 Other: The acquisitions also include a host of Israeli missiles and precision-
guided munitions, from Python and Derby air-to-air missiles to Crystal Maze and
Spice-2000 bombs.
At the 15th Joint Working Group (JWG 2021) meeting on Bilateral Defence
Cooperation, countries agreed to form a Task Force to formulate a comprehensive
Ten-Year Roadmap to identify new areas of cooperation.
Defence FDI: India collaborated with Israeli defence companies under the new
liberalised FDI regime in defence manufacturing. Also, India expressed interest in
encouraging greater participation of Israeli defence companies in India's defence
manufacturing sector. Middle East Quad: India and Israel have joined the
minilateral along with USA and UAE known as the middle east quad
In 2014, India and Israel signed three important agreements: Mutual Legal
Assistance in Criminal Matters, Cooperation in Homeland and Public Security, and
Protection of Classified Material.
⚫ Cooperation in Homeland Security: four working groups in the areas of border

management, internal security and public safety.
⚫ UNHRC Abstention: India abstained from voting on resolution to probe Gaza

bombing in May 2021.
3. Cultural/ People-to-People
⚫ Tourism: Israelis know India for its culture and tradition, making it an
attractive alternative tourist destination.
In 2017, Indian tourists became the second largest from an Asian country.
o On February, 2020, the first of its kind Jerusalem-Mumbai festival was held in
Mumbai to promote artistic and cultural ties
Jews community in India: The majority is from Maharashtra (Bene Israelis) and
relatively smaller numbers from Kerala (Cochini Jews) and Kolkata (Baghdadi Jews).
⚫ Diaspora potential: There are approximately 85,000 Jews of Indian-origin in
Israel (with at
least one Indian parent), who are all Israeli passport holders.
Indian Jew migration: some Indian Jews from the North Eastern States (Bnei Menashe)
have been immigrating to Israel.
4. Science and Technology
• Area of cooperation: Specific areas of cooperation include IT, biotechnology,

lasers and electro-optics.
• 14RD fund: In 2005, India and Israel signed an MoU to set up i4RD fund to
encourage bilateral investment into industrial research and development and
specific projects.
• Israel-India Industrial R&D and Technological Innovation Fund (14F): First

grant-- are companies in efficient water use, improving communications
infrastructure, solar energy use, and life-changing surgeries.
The fund aims to help Israeli entrepreneurs enter the Indian market.
Technical assistance in cleaning Ganga: Israel has also offered to assist with
India's Clean Ganga Mission by providing its expertise in water management to
address water scarcity. Space collaboration: India and Israel signed a cooperative
agreement promoting space collaboration in 2002. Since then Israel Space Agency
(ISA) and the ISRO are collaborating on using satellites to improve land and other
resources.
o India has successfully launched TecSAR and RISAT-2 radar imaging satellites of
Israel from the PSLV of ISRO.

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Agricultural Partnership and Water Conservation: о Arid land technology,

biotechnology and a joint action plan to research India specific and export-
oriented seeds deserve attention. India is gaining Israel's expertise in managing
and improving dairy farming and high milk
Evolution of India-Israel Relations
Establishment of Diplomatic Relations (1950s-1992): India recognized Israel as a

sovereign state shortly after its independence in 1947. However, it was only in
1992 that full diplomatic relations were established between the two countries.
During this period, India maintained a stance of non-alignment and sought to
balance its relations with Israel and Arab countries.
Pragmatic Engagement (1992-2003): The 1990s witnessed a gradual shift in India's

approach towards Israel. Economic and technological cooperation began to develop,
with a focus on areas such as agriculture, water management, and defense. However,
India continued to emphasize its support for the Palestinian cause and called for a
peaceful resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
⚫ Deepening Cooperation (2003-present): In recent years, there has been a

significant deepening of bilateral cooperation between India and Israel. Several
factors have contributed to this evolution. Firstly, there has been a recognition
of Israel's expertise in defense technology, counterterrorism, and innovation,
which aligns with India's security and developmental needs. Secondly, there has
been a realization that closer ties with Israel do not necessarily undermine
India's commitment to the Palestinian cause. India has maintained its support for
the establishment of a Palestinian state while simultaneously strengthening its
engagement with Israel.
Causes for Renewed Impetus to Ties
Defense and Security Cooperation: India is one of the largest importers of weapons
from Israel, contributing to about 40 percent of Israel's annual arms exports. The
two countries have engaged in the co-production and development of state-of-the-art
arms systems. Defense partnership extends to sharing crucial technologies and
cooperation in the cybersecurity domain. Example: Israel has provided crucial
assistance to India in times of crisis, such as during the Kargil conflict in 1999.
⚫ Global Realignment: The shifting dynamics in the global geopolitical landscape

have also influenced India's approach towards Israel. India has sought to diversify
its strategic partnerships and reduce its dependence on traditional alliances.
Closer ties with Israel provide India with access to advanced technology, defense
cooperation, and intelligence sharing that align with its broader foreign policy
objectives.
⚫ Technological Collaboration: Both India and Israel have vibrant technology

sectors and a strong focus on innovation. They have recognized the potential for
collaboration in areas such as agriculture, water management, renewable energy,
cybersecurity, and startups. India sees Israel as a source of advanced technology
and innovative solutions that can contribute to its development goals.
De-hyphenation of Relations: The Modi government has pursued a de-hyphenated

approach, seeking to develop separate and direct relationships with Israel and
Palestine. India maintains its traditional support for a two-state solution and an
independent Palestinian state. This approach allows India to deepen its ties with
Israel while also maintaining its broader balancing act in the region, including
relations with Iran and Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries.

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Agriculture and Water Management: Cooperation in the agricultural sector,

particularly in areas like water management, research and development, and sharing
of best practices, has had a significant impact on building constituencies for
Israel at the state level in India. This collaboration has been instrumental in
strengthening bilateral ties.
⚫ Growing Economic Partnership: Bilateral trade between India and Israel has
witnessed significant growth and diversification. Trade has increased from US$900
million in 2000 to US$7.86 billion in 2021. Investments in start-ups and technology
sectors have also become substantial, with Israeli companies investing in Indian
projects.
⚫ Future Prospects: The two countries are exploring opportunities for a

Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement, deepening collaboration in water management and
cybersecurity, and expanding the relationship through trilateral and plurilateral
initiatives. Projects in food security, clean energy, transport, and healthcare are
being pursued.
India's De-hyphenated Policy to Israel-Palestine
Meaning: India's de hyphenated approach to Israel refers to its policy of

establishing and strengthening bilateral relations with Israel independent of its
relations with other countries, particularly the Palestinian Authority.
Importance of India's Dehyphenated Approach:
Strategic Alignment: India's dehyphenated approach aligns with its national

interests and strategic goals. It allows India to engage with Israel, a major
technological and defense powerhouse, and leverage its expertise in various
sectors.
⚫ Diversification of Partnerships: By developing a separate and independent

relationship with Israel, India expands its network of strategic partners beyond
traditional alliances. This diversification strengthens India's position in
international affairs and reduces dependence on a limited set of allies.
⚫ Economic Benefits: Strengthening ties with Israel brings economic advantages.

Israel is known for its advanced technology, innovation, and expertise in sectors
such as agriculture, water management, and cybersecurity. India can benefit from
Israeli know-how, investment, and trade, leading to economic growth and
development.
• Maintaining Strategic Equilibrium: India avoids direct involvement in Israel-

Palestine negotiations to safeguard its strategic interests, including its position
in Kashmir vis-à-vis Pakistan's stance in West Asia and North Africa. India seeks
to maintain a delicate balance to avoid antagonizing Arab nations.
Non-Aligned and Pragmatic Stance: India's dehyphenated policy reflects its non-
aligned tradition and pragmatic approach to foreign relations. It prioritizes
national interests while maintaining a quiet supporter stance for Palestine's
statehood.
Consistency in Approach: India's dehyphenated policy is expected to remain in the

foreseeable future, driven by pragmatism and non-alignment. India will sustain
relations with Israel and Palestine based on their individual merits, regardless of
their dynamics with each other.
Quotes
"India's approach towards Israel and Palestine is guided by our principle of non-
alignment and our commitment to the rights of the Palestinian people."-T.S.
Tirumurti, India's Ambassador
to the UN
"India's stance on Israel and Palestine is not about taking sides, but about
promoting peace, stability, and dialogue in the region." - Navtej Sarna, former
Indian Ambassador to Israel

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"Dehyphenation enables a country to engage with two adversarial nations on its own
terms, without allowing its relationship with one to be dictated by its
relationship with the other." - Shashi Tharoor
Issues with Dehyphenated Approach
Reduced emphasis on Palestinian cause: As India strengthens its ties with Israel,
there is a possibility that the Palestinian cause may receive relatively less
attention or priority in India's foreign policy agenda. This could result in a
perceived neglect or decreased advocacy for Palestinian rights within international
forums.
International Perception: India's dehyphenated approach may face criticism or

scrutiny from countries or organizations that advocate for a coordinated global
approach to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. India must navigate international
perceptions and effectively communicate its rationale and commitment to its own
national interests.
⚫ Domestic Opinions: Within India, there are diverse opinions on the approach
towards Israel, particularly regarding its treatment of Palestinians. The
government must consider public sentiment and engage in informed dialogue to ensure
broader support for its policies.
Advantages of Israeli Defence systems for India
Israel's advanced and innovative technologies, such as UAVs, missile defense

systems, and surveillance radars, are readily available and can be supplied on
short notice. These technologies are useful for peacetime patrolling and
surveillance as well as enhancing the operational capabilities of armed forces
during wartime.
Israel's defense industry aligns well with India's "Make in India" initiative, as
it is export-oriented and open to establishing joint ventures.
Israeli arms can be flexibly deployed across various military branches, simplifying
operations during missions.
Israel has expertise in customizing its arms to meet the specific requirements of
its customers. Israel is known for being a reliable supplier, transferring even its
most advanced technology without imposing usage restrictions.
These factors make Israel a potential long-term defense partner for India, capable
of providing support in various situations.
Concerns in the relationship
1. Economic
• Influence of USA: Some of the Israeli technologies utilise USA components powers
over the sale of those technologies.
- USA has veto
. Decline in Bilateral trade: From just $200 million in 1992 (excluding defense)
peaked at about $5 billion in 2012 but since then it has dropped to about $4
billion. Also, bilateral trade has not diversified much-diamonds and chemicals
still make up for the large chunk of the pie.
⚫ Private Sector still finding feet: Indian companies like Sun Pharma and ATG,
have big interests in Israel. Unsurprisingly, the Chinese are ahead of us and their
companies are investing heavily in Israel's cutting-edge start-ups.
Dependence for Energy Security: India's dependence on Arab states for oil imports
led to a pro-Arab tilt in its West Asia Policy, which has further constrained
Israel's options in the region.
2. Strategic

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⚫ Historical retrenchment: India's consistent support for a sovereign,

independent, viable, and united Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its
capital, living within secure and recognized borders, side by side, and at peace
with Israel and Pro-Arab stance has been a sticky point. • Cold War Politics:
Factors like Arab-Israeli conflict, Iran-Israel conflict, and constant interference
of countries like Russia and USA in such issues and overall relationship of India
with these countries have impacted the ties with Israel.
Non-Alignment: India's commitment to the non-alignment causes freezing relations

with Israel that were increasingly seen as leaning towards the Western bloc. •
Israel Palestine Conflict: The territorial conflicts of Gaza Strip and West Bank
have played an important role in shaping India-Israel relationships.
• Difference in terms of Iran: Israel considers Iran an existential threat, while

India, on the other, has a historical relationship India finds the cooperation
useful for energy supplies, and an alternative route through Chabahar port to
Afghanistan and Central Asia
Different approach towards Arab world: While Israel has inherent differences with
Arab countries, India has significant stakes there India's recent vote at the UN
against America's move on Jerusalem was a reflection of that underlying reality.
• Pegasus Scam: Israeli spyware software and its use by Indian Government for
surveillence is under Subjudice for its legality.
⚫ Human right issues: Human Rights violation by Israel against Palestine has been
difficult for India to turn a blind eye
3. Cultural
⚫ Limited People to People ties and cultural differences: Israelis and Indian
approach business differently and often find it difficult to get on the same page.
Though formal ties were established in 1992, the ideological divide resurfaces time
and again.
⚫ Lack of connectivity: Connectivity between the two countries is still poor with
just one direct flight from Mumbai 3 times a week and no direct flights from Delhi.
Abraham Accords
The Abraham Accords refer to a series of diplomatic agreements that were signed in
2020 between Israel and several Arab countries, including the United Arab Emirates
(UAE), Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco. These accords aimed to normalize diplomatic,
economic, and cultural relations between Israel and these Arab nations.
The Abraham Accords were seen as a major diplomatic achievement, as they

represented a departure from the long-standing Arab consensus that normalization
with Israel should only occur after the resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian
conflict. The accords were praised for fostering regional stability, enhancing
economic opportunities, and promoting cooperation in areas such as technology,
security, tourism, and healthcare.
Advantages for India
Multilateral Partnerships: The accords allow India to establish new multilateral

partnerships with Israel and Arab countries that have formal relations with Israel.
This expands India's diplomatic engagement and strengthens its position in the
region.
• Strategic Autonomy: The accords enable India to pursue strategic autonomy by

engaging in partnerships that are not alliances and maintaining flexibility in its
international relations. India can deepen its relationship with the US and expand
its global reach.
⚫ Broadening Geographic Parameters: The accords broaden the geographic bounds of

partnership between the US and India, allowing for deeper engagement and
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beyond the Indo-Pacific region. This helps India expand its global influence. ⚫
Enhanced Engagement with the Middle East: The accords provide India with more
opportunities to engage multilaterally with key partners in the Middle East, a
region that holds strategic significance for India. It facilitates trade ties and
strengthens India's energy imports, infrastructure assistance, and agricultural
technology partnerships. • Aiding Global Leadership: Participation in initiatives
arising from the accords, such as the
12U2 partnership, reinforces India's global leadership aspirations. It aligns with

India's foreign policy goals of addressing global challenges and serving as a
bridge between developed and developing nations.
INDIA AND SAUDI ARABIA
Bilateral Relations
1. Economic
⚫ largest trading partner: Saudi Arabia is India's fourth largest trading partner.
During FY22 (Apr-Dec), Bilateral trade was valued at US$29.28 billion.
• Bilateral trade: During this period, India's imports from Saudi Arabia were
valued at US$22.65 billion and exports to Saudi Arabia were worth US$6.63 billion.
Energy: About 18% of India's crude oil needs and about 22% of its LPG needs are met
by imports from Saudi Arabia.
• Indian companies in Saudi: There are over 745 Indian businesses with joint
venture or 100% ownership registrations in the Kingdom, with investments totaling
about US$2 billion. ⚫ Investment in India: As of March 2021, Saudi Arabia had
invested $3.13 billion in India. The Al Batterjee Group, ARAMCO, SABIC, ZAMIL, and
E-holidays are some significant Saudi investment firms.
Recent development: The submarine cable project will be connected from the coast of
Gujarat to Saudi Arabia and the distance from Mundra Port in Gujarat to the coastal
city of Fujairah in Saudi Arabia is 1,600 km.
2. Defence
Exercise: Joint naval exercises between India and Saudi Arabia, known as the Al-
Mohed Al- Hindi Exercise, began in 2021.
⚫ Strategic partnership: India and Saudi Arabia have been strategic partners since
they signed the Riyadh Declaration in 2010.
⚫ Defence export: India is in discussions with countries like Saudi Arabia and UAE
to export BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles, and the Akash air defence missiles.
• Training: Saudi armed forces have regularly attended training programs at Indian
military institutions including the National Defense College, the College of
Defense Management and the Defense Services and Staff College.
3. Political
Observer in OIC: India being given observer status in the Organization of Islamic
Cooperation is backed by Saudi Arabia (OIC)
⚫ Cooperation in international forums: In October 2021, India voted against a

Dutch resolution in the UN Human Rights Council to extend the GEE's Yemen mandate.
Saudi Arabia also opposed this resolution.

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Political acknowledgement: New Delhi and Riyadh accommodated each other's political
interests. Saudi Arabia "understood" India's recent actions in Jammu and Kashmir,
and India "strongly denounced" assaults on Saudi civilian facilities.
4. Cultural
⚫ Guest of Honour: From February 7-28, 2018, India took part as the "Guest of
Honour" at the prestigious Saudi National Festival of Heritage and Culture's 32nd
edition.
Yoga: In Saudi Arabia, yoga has also gained a lot of popularity, especially after
it was declared a "sports activity" in November 2017.
150th Birthday of Gandhiji: A number of activities were held to commemorate Mahatma

Gandhi's 150th birthday. On October 2, 2019, the Gandhi bust was unveiled at the
Embassy. Haj pilgrimage: Another crucial aspect of India and Saudi Arabia's
bilateral relations is the Haj pilgrimage.
5. Diaspora
⚫ Largest diaspora: The 2.6 million-strong Indian community in Saudi Arabia is the
largest diaspora group and the most favoured' due to its skill, discipline, law-
abiding, and peace-loving character.
• e-Migrate system: The two parties declared that they will merge the e-Migrate
system from India and the e-Tawtheeq system from the Kingdom in 2019 to speed up
worker migration. 6. During Covid 19
• Exchange of ideas: The G20 provided a forum for both nations to exchange ideas
about how to tackle the Covid-19 outbreak.
• Relief work: India gave the Kingdom 4.5 million COVISHIELD vaccines, whereas
Saudi Arabia gave India COVID-relief supplies, mainly liquid oxygen, in the second
wave.
Importance of Saudi Arabia for India 1. Economic
• Investment: Saudi Arabia plans to invest roughly $100 billion in Indian

industries as diverse as agriculture, minerals, and mining in addition to energy,
refining, petrochemicals, and infrastructure.
• Economic reform: Saudi Arabia is undergoing economic reform initiatives and

requires both economic and technological support from India.
⚫ Energy security: In terms of hydrocarbons, India relies heavily on Saudi Arabia

as a supplier. Specifically, Saudi Arabia fulfils 18% of India's crude oil demand
and 30% of India's LPG needs.
2. Strategic
⚫ Link West policy: Increasing India's level of engagement with Saudi Arabia can
act as a catalyst for the country's Link West policy.
• To counter Pakistan: Saudi Arabia wields considerable influence over Pakistan.

India can use its clout to persuade Pakistan to sit down for talks on terrorism and
bilateral relations. ⚫ Strategic Location: Geographically, Saudi Arabia is close
to the Strait of Hormuz. This is crucial for the world's oil trade and crucial
strategically for India's energy security.
3. Security
Afghan peace process: As a prominent regional player, Saudi Arabia's view on the
happenings in Kabul is important and Saudi could play an important role in
installing peace in Afghan, which is India's interest.

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Counter terrorism: Saudi Arabia is significant in Middle East and Muslim World.
Riyadh has showed a grasp of India's terrorist worries and pledged to work with it
to combat the global problem.
4. Diaspora
Employment: There are nearly 2.8 million Indians working in gainful employment in
the Kingdom, and they send significant remittances home to India in the form of
foreign currency. 5. Importance of India for Saudi
Labour: India is a significant supplier of labour to Saudi Arabia, which helps that
country flourish.
• Trade: India is the second-largest trading partner of Saudi Arabia, and Indian
companies are essential for joint ventures and big investments.
⚫ Education and Tourism: India is a desirable location for tourism, education, and
medical tourism.
Helps Saudi's Vision 2030: India has emerged as a possible partner due to Saudi
Arabia's pursuit of modernization and domestic policy under "Vision 2030" due to
its market potential,
demographic structure, infrastructure, defence capabilities, soft power

capabilities, etc.
Learn from India's development: Saudi Arabia could take inspiration from India's
development programmes including "Skill India," "Digital India," "Smart Cities,"
and "Infrastructure Development."
Significance of India – Saudi Relationship 1. Historical -
⚫ Age old ties: The third millennium BC marks the beginning of trade and cultural
ties between ancient India and Arabia. By the year 1000 AD, commercial ties between
Arabia and southern India were thriving and served as the foundation of the Arabian
economy. ⚫ During colonial period: British India generously provided financial
support to Nejd
throughout the 1930s.
⚫ Post-independence: One of the first countries to establish diplomatic relations

with the Third Saudi State was India.
2. Political Relations:
India and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) established diplomatic relations in 1972.
The visit of PM Modi to the UAE in 2015 marked the beginning of a new strategic
partnership, strengthening bilateral relations.
Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi, visited India as
the Chief Guest at India's Republic Day celebrations, upgrading the bilateral
relations to a 'Comprehensive Strategic Partnership.'
PM Modi visited the UAE again in 2018, receiving the UAE's highest civilian award,
the 'Order of Zayed,' and witnessing the launch of the 'RuPay Card' and
commemorative stamps. 3. Economic & Commercial Relations:
India and the UAE have a long history of trade links, which expanded with the
discovery of oil in the UAE.
⚫ Dubai's positioning as a regional trading hub and India's economic

liberalization in the 1990s further boosted trade relations.
UAE is India's third-largest trading partner.
UAE is India's second-largest export destination.
UAE is the 10th biggest FDI investor in India, with significant investments in
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4. Cultural Relations:
The Indian expatriate community constitutes around 30% of the UAE's population,
with Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh being well-represented states.
Approximately 35% of the Indian community comprises professionally qualified
personnel,
businessmen, and white-collar non-professionals.
Indian schools in the UAE follow the CBSE and Kerala Board curricula, with a
student population of approximately 219,000.
5. Strategic
⚫ Geostrategic: Saudi Arabia is vital to India's foreign policy objectives in the

region due to its strategic location in West Asia, the political and economic
influence it wields, as well as the world's oil reserves.
• Convergence of interest: At forums like the UN, G20, and GCC, both nations
address regional and global topics of shared interest, including their cooperation.
Collaboration in the fight against terrorism: The Saudi government has frequently
aided India in the capture of important terrorist suspects. 2012 saw Saudi Arabia
assist India in capturing a suspect in the 2008 Mumbai attacks.
• Defence relation: The two countries' increasing levels of self-sufficiency
through indigenization have led to increased security and defence connections,
including intelligence sharing, joint military exercises, joint military training,
etc.
Challenges
1. Political
Saudi and Iran rivalry: Rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran in the region may
make it difficult for India to pursue cooperative partnership with both nations.
⚫ Saudi-Iran rivalry: India maintains close ties with both Iran and Saudi Arabia.
India to find
it difficult to balance its ties with Saudi Arabia and the United States on the one
hand, and Iran on the other.
⚫ Crisis in Qatar: It erupted when nine nations severed all diplomatic ties with
Qatar, including Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Bahrain.
• Internal politics: Future relations may be impacted by internal politics in

India, particularly those involving religious minorities.
2. Economic
⚫ Trade deficit: At the moment, India has a trade deficit with Saudi Arabia that
amounts to USD 25.25 billion.
• Issues of diaspora: It is possible that Indian diaspora will be affected by

directives given by the Saudi government to promote a policy known as "Saudization"
in order to provide more employment opportunities for Saudi natives.
3. Strategic
⚫ Saudi Arabia's involvement in the CPEC: King has signed agreements worth $10
billion for a refinery and petrochemical complex at Gwadar, which is located at the
centre of the China- Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).
⚫ Role of Pakistan: Pakistan and Saudi Arabia have strong military connections.
India's tense relations with Pakistan may prevent India-Saudi relations from
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Maritime security: Saudi Arabia has interests in playing a role in the Indian Ocean
region. Increasing cooperation in the area of marine security from its current
level would be in the interests of both countries.
⚫ Balancing with Iran: Given Indian investment and involvement in the Chabahar
port project in Iran, India must consider Saudi Arabia as a crucial partner,
notably in energy and defence, while at the same time see Iran as a gateway to
Central Asia.
Export promotion: India should put greater effort into fostering exports across a
range of industries. It would allow us to develop positive trade partnerships while
preserving the kingdom's trade balance.
⚫ Space cooperation: An essential area where bilateral engagements should be

strengthened is space. India could look into the possibility for cooperation with
the recently founded Saudi Space Agency.
• Increasing cultural interaction: The focus of improving the bilateral relations

should remain on cultural exchanges and interaction.
China's rise in the Middle East
China has strengthened its foothold in the Middle East in the 21st century. It has
improved its economic and diplomatic relations with the countries of the Middle
East (or more broadly with the countries of the MENA region) for primarily three
objectives:
It wants to increase its political influence in the region and contest the US's
policies in the region; to ensure continuous energy supplies from the region to
keep its economy expanding and to translate the BRI initiative into a global
success with the cooperation from the Middle East states.
Instances of China's rise
Brokering regional rapprochement: China has facilitated a rapprochement between

regional rivals Saudi Arabia and Iran, showcasing its ability to influence and
mediate regional conflicts. • Economic and financial influence: China's Asian
Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) opened its first overseas office in the
United Arab Emirates
, indicating China's growing economic presence in the Middle East. The AIIB aims to
support China's development initiatives and serves as an alternative to Western-
dominated institutions.
⚫ Shift in energy trade: China has become a significant customer for Middle
Eastern countries, particularly in the energy sector. Deals such as the $60 billion
liquefied natural gas (LNG) agreement with Qatar and discussions about trade in
currencies other than the US dollar demonstrate a potential shift in energy
dynamics.
⚫ Clean energy cooperation: China has been engaging in clean-energy cooperation

with Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and the UAE. Agreements on
renewable energy and green- hydrogen cooperation highlight China's involvement in
the region's clean-tech sector.
⚫ Diplomatic influence: China's diplomatic efforts in the Middle East, while less
significant than economic considerations, aim to strengthen ties with major Gulf
states. By expanding into foreign markets and fostering economic and diplomatic
relations, China enhances its influence in the region.

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Impact on Middle East
China's as a mediator: The normalization process between Iran and Saudi Arabia, for
example, can help reduce tensions and conflicts in the region. The deal may have a
positive impact on resolving issues such as the Yemeni civil war and can facilitate
the normalization of relations between Gulf states, Syria, and Lebanon.
Extending Chinese BRI: China's involvement in the Middle East may have detrimental
effects on the region. While some argue that Chinese investments and trade
relations bring economic benefits, they actually serve to deepen the region's
reliance on China and undermine its sovereignty. The Belt and Road Initiative
(BRI), often touted as a development project, is nothing more than a strategic tool
used by China to extend its influence and exploit the resources of Middle Eastern
countries.
⚫ Shift in Geopolitical Dynamics: China's rising influence in the Middle East can
alter the geopolitical landscape of the region. As China becomes a major player, it
provides an alternative to the dominant influence of the United States. Middle
Eastern countries may see China as a potential ally and partner, especially as they
seek to diversify their trade relations and reduce overdependence on the US.
Impact on India
Strategic encirclement: China's expanding presence in the Middle East could lead to
a strategic encirclement of India. With its military installations and naval bases
in the region, China gains greater access and influence over India's neighboring
countries, potentially increasing the pressure on India from multiple fronts.
⚫ Energy security: The Middle East is a crucial source of energy for India, with a
significant portion of its oil imports coming from the region. China's deepening
ties and partnerships with Middle Eastern countries may lead to a competition for
resources, thereby increasing prices or limiting India's energy options.
⚫ Economic competition: China's economic investments and trade relations with

Middle Eastern countries may create a competitive disadvantage for India. Chinese
companies, backed by significant financial resources, can outbid Indian firms and
secure lucrative contracts, affecting India's economic interests in the region.
Is there a decline of US in the Middle East? 1. Points Against decline
• Perception V. Reality: The perception of American decline in the Middle East,

although not entirely aligned with the actual reality, stems from the US military's
strategic withdrawal from areas of overextension and failed interventions (Iraq,
Syria). Nonetheless, the United States still maintains a significant presence in
the region through its extensive network of military bases and alliances.
Furthermore, no major rival power has emerged to challenge or replace American
dominance in the Middle East.
• Credible Military presence and alliances: The United States maintains an

extensive network of military bases and alliances across the Middle East, which
allows it to exert influence and project power. For example, the US has military
bases in countries like Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait, and has long-standing alliances
with countries such as Saudi Arabia and Israel. ⚫ Regional security commitments:
The US has continued to demonstrate its commitment to regional security through
arms sales, military assistance, and joint exercises with its partners. For
example, it provides military aid and support to countries like Egypt, Jordan, and
Iraq to enhance their defense capabilities and promote stability in the region.

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Petrodollar Arrangement: The use of the US dollar in oil transactions gives the
United States geopolitical leverage in the Middle East. It strengthens the economic
ties between the US and oil-exporting countries, fostering relationships and
influencing regional dynamics. This leverage can be seen in the US's ability to
impose economic sanctions or exercise economic diplomacy, leveraging its control
over the global financial system. 2. Points Supporting decline
Doubtful Capabilities: US capabilities have been outweighed by its inability to

achieve desired outcomes. erception of decline linked to doubts about US
capabilities and intention. Examples: Inability to establish a durable state in
Iraq, failure to overthrow Assad in Syria, chaos in Libya after Gaddafi's
overthrow, stalemate in Yemen
Rise of China and Russia: Russia capitalizes on US retrenchment perception to

undermine alliances and project influence. China welcomes opportunities to secure
economic interests through partnerships and investment
Example: China helped broker the peace deal between Iran and Saudi Arabia while
Russian warship has also been allowed to dock in Saudi Arabia in 2023 during the
Ukraine conflict.
Quote: "Russia and China don't question their human rights record and don't make
selling military weapons to them conditional to their records," Hasan Awwad (Middle
East Expert) ⚫ Declining Stability of Regional Allies: Key allies (Egypt, Turkey,
Saudi Arabia) face domestic instability Allies' unpredictability contributes to US
decline also diverging priorities and deteriorating alliance system create a self-
fulfilling prophecy.
President Biden's visit to the Gulf Cooperation Council summit in Jeddah was to
"assert Washington's influence in the Gulf and greater Middle East at a time when
some Arab states like Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Egypt have been losing confidence
in the US as a regional security guarantor.
CENTRAL ASIA
• Economic interest has emerged as the main component of India's foreign policy.'
Discuss the statement in the light of India's initiatives to improve relations with
China, Japan and the Central Asian republics. (2015)
1. Economic
Bilateral Data
Trade: At present $2 billion, out of with $1.5 billion with Kazakhstan
⚫ Nuclear Fuel: Kazakhstan exports 80% of India's Uranium
⚫ Dialogue: Indian- Central Asia business Council to promote business between

both. Connectivity: INSTC, Ashgabat Agreement to boost bilateral trade through Iran
2. Cultural
⚫ITEC: under which young professionals of these countries undergo training and
human capacity development
Bollywood: Large viewer market for Indian films
Yoga and Traditional practices: Traditional Medicine & Yoga Center in Ashgabat
India Central Asia Dialogue: To improve the ties and connectivity
3. Strategic

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Military Exercises: Kyrgyzstan- Khanjar; Uzbekistan-Dustlik Eurasian heartland:Soft

power contest between India and China
⚫ Chinese Presence: Key routes of OBOR through this region
• Farkhor Air Base, Tajikistan: India's first military base in a foreign country 4.
Multilateral
SCO INSTC
TAPI gas pipeline
Ashgabat Agreement
In recent times, Central Asia has gained increased importance due to several
factors: Rise of Religious Fundamentalism: Despite being on the periphery, Central
Asia has maintained a tolerant form of Islam. However, the region has witnessed the
rise of religious fundamentalism, which poses a challenge to stability and
security. The spread of radical ideologies and extremist groups in the region is a
growing concern.
⚫ Political Instability: The political instability in Central Asian states can

potentially strengthen radical elements. Weak governance, economic challenges, and
ethnic tensions create an environment that can be exploited by extremist groups.
The presence of these radical elements further adds to the security risks in the
region.
Non-Conventional Security Threats: Central Asia faces non-conventional security

threats, including organized crime and drug trafficking. The region serves as a
transit route for the illegal drug trade, primarily involving Afghan narcotics. The
activities of criminal networks pose challenges to the stability and development of
Central Asian countries.
Importance of India's Relations with Central Asia 1. Economic
⚫ Mineral Security: Central Asia holds high reserves of key metals and rare earths
Trade Routes: Historical trade routes have existed with Central Asia Nuclear
Wealth: Central Asian ores are key to India's Nuclear plants
Agriculture: Indian agribusiness companies can set up commercial agro-industrial

complexes in Central Asia.
Global Markets: East-West Trans-Eurasian transit economic corridors merge at

Central Asia Oil Companies: Opportunities for constructing oil and natural gas
pipelines in the future.
Stand on Chabahar Port: The port played an important role during the humanitarian
crisis in Afghanistan by delivering humanitarian goods to the Afghan people by
international organisations.
2. Strategic
China: The area is China's backyard, thus key for Indian interests
Pakistan: Counterbalance Pakistan from using the Islamic card against India
Location: The area is a bordered by Pakistan and China, thus important for India to
manage New Frontier: Untapped sources of crucial minerals required to India in the
future India's Role in Afghanistan Situation: India and the Central Asian countries
have shared concerns over terrorism emanating from Afghanistan and its implications
for regional security.
India has been a strong proponent for re-establishing peace in Afghanistan.
⚫ Like-Mindedness in Combatting Terrorism: India and the Central Asian nations

have similarities in approach in countering terrorism and the threat of
radicalisation.

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• Diplomatic Ties: India considers the Central Asian countries as the "heart of
Asia" and they are also members of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). 3.
Historic Ties
⚫ Civilizational influence: Central Asia is undoubtedly a zone of India's

civilisational influence; the Ferghana Valley was India's crossing-point of the
Great Silk Road. • Buddhism also found inroads in several Central Asian cities in
the form of Stupas and Monasteries. ⚫ Foreign travellers: Men of prominence such
as Amir Khusrau, Dehlawi, Al-Biruni etc. having
Central Asian roots came and made their name in India.
Concerns
1. Economic
⚫ Lack of a direct Trade Route: There are obstructions of physical connectivity

due to Pakistan's hostility and Afghan instability.
Lack of a consolidated Trade deal
China holds a bulk of central Asian trade whereas India's is miniscule
2. Strategic
Extremism: There is a presence of terror groups in the region
Drug Trade: Central Asia falls within the golden crescent for opium
Delays: The proposed INSTC and Ashgabat agreement are facing implementation delays
Chinese Dominance: Culturally and economically China dominates the region
3. Political
Politically unstable region: Central Asian countries are highly fragile and prone
to threats like terrorism & Islamic fundamentalism making the region a volatile and
unstable market. Involvement of China in the region by the Belt and Road Initiative
has significantly undermined India's influence in the region.
4. Security
Porous border and unbridled corruption along with the proximity with regions of
soaring opium production (Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle) makes the region a
powerhouse for drug and money trafficking.
GROUP OF 20 (G20)
G20 was formed in 1999, in the aftermath of the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997-1998
and became premier forum for international economic cooperation over the period of
time. Every year it meets discuss the global financial and socioeconomic Issues
Data
Members: The G20 is comprised of 19 countries and the European Union. The 19
countries are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India,
Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea,
Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
GDP: The G20 countries account for approximately 80% of the world's GDP, with a
combined GDP of around $85.8 trillion.
Population: The G20 countries are home to approximately two-thirds of the world's
population, with a total population of around 4.5 billion people.
Trade: The G20 countries account for approximately 75% of global trade. ⚫ CO2
emissions: The G20 countries are responsible for approximately 80% of global carbon
dioxide emissions.

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Military spending: The G20 countries account for approximately 85% of global
military spending.
Foreign direct investment: The G20 countries account for approximately 80% of
global foreign direct investment.
Significance of G-20 / Relevance of G-20
1. Maintain Global Order
Global Politics: G20 Influences the policies of the countries around the world in
order to maintain global order.
• Address current issues: G20 helps in strategizing current Issues: Example: G20
Global Smart Cities Alliance on Technology Governance, Framework for action on
marine plastic litter etc. Authority on major international economic issues The G20
plays an important role in shaping and strengthening global architecture and
governance on international economic issues.
⚫ Egalitarian grouping - it is an acceptable medium between the more elitist G-7,

and the 38- member Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
⚫Taming Financial Crisis :Example, Financial Stability Board (FSB) was established
by G20
leaders following the onset of the global financial crisis
2. To Tackle Global Issues:
• Focus on low-income countries- It is a platform where leaders' commit to working

with developing countries, particularly low-income countries by providing policy
coherence, analysis and practical tools to support growth and development.
⚫ Fulfilment of SDGs - achievements include measures to drive sustainable growth

and enhance global stability; cooperation on tax transparency, lowering cost of
remittances and increased female participation etc.
⚫ Rising Protectionism. Example: US-China trade war

Global Investments: Global FDI sliding continuously
Climate Change: Increasing Pollution and Climate Change, which need collaborative
action
Challenges for G20
1. Internal Governance Challenge - Though the group was intended to be more

inclusive than G7, there is no formal membership criteria established still.
2. Skewed membership basis: The membership is based on a country's systemic

importance to global financial markets and its contribution to GDP and trade only.
There is no inclusive membership for the least developed countries.
3. No Code of Conduct established - There is a lack of a code of conduct for

members and clear, enforceable rules that enable action against members if they
breach any rules Example: The Group could have had a better say in the on-going
Russia-Ukraine war, if such codes were established.
4. Multilateral commitments on aid and trade are faltering - This is because the
role of the United Nations and the World Trade Organization in securing cooperation
between donor and recipient country groups is losing centrality.
Example: There are now 3 socio-economic systems the G7, China-Russia, and India and
the others and they will jointly set the global agenda.
5. Ensuring global economic growth: The G20 is responsible for ensuring global
economic growth and stability. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a severe
impact on the global economy,

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and the G20 must work to facilitate a strong and sustained recovery. 6. Addressing
income inequality: The G20 has a responsibility to ensure that the benefits of
economic growth are distributed equitably. This requires addressing income
inequality within and between countries.
7. Geopolitical tensions - Geopolitical tensions, spurred by strategic competition

between China and the United States, have increasingly threatened cooperation
within the group.
Example: Countries are turning to international lenders for bailouts The G20
introduced a common framework for debt treatment ahead of its 2020 summit, but only
three countries- Chad, Ethiopia, and Zambia-have requested debt relief under the
framework. 8. Friction regarding climate change - China, India, Russia, and Saudi
Arabia reportedly blocked an agreement on phasing out coal use and fossil fuel
subsidies at a July 2021 meeting of environment ministers.
⚫ Example: Following the invasion of Ukraine, Germany and other G20 countries have
reneged on previous promises to stop financing fossil fuel projects overseas.
Significance of G-20 for India
Economic benefits: The G20 is a forum that brings together the world's largest
economies, and India, as the sixth-largest economy in the world, benefits from
being a part of this group. The G20 provides India with an opportunity to engage
with other major economies and promote its economic interests on the global stage.
Addressing global issues: The G20 is an important forum for addressing global
issues such as climate change, terrorism, and financial stability. As a developing
country that faces significant challenges in these areas, India has a stake in the
discussions and decisions made by the G20. Promoting India's global role: India
sees itself as a major global player and seeks to play a larger
role in international affairs. The G20 provides India with a platform to promote
its global role and showcase its capabilities and achievements.
⚫ Balancing Relationships: India has successfully used this platform for

trilateral Meetings like JAI (Japan-Australia-India) and Russia-India-China (RIC),
hence balancing its relationship with Global powers.
⚫ Cooperation with major powers: The G20 includes major powers such as the United
States, China, and Russia. India seeks to deepen its engagement with these
countries and promote cooperation on issues of mutual interest.
Raise critical issues: India being a regional power can raise critical issues
affecting the South Asia region.
• Represent the Global South: India can also represent the interests of the
developing world or the global south.
Multilateralism: The G20 can be an effective platform to engage multilaterally with

all major nations of the world.
Advantages for India by hosting the G20 summit
Economic benefits: Hosting the G20 summit can generate significant economic
benefits for the host country, including increased tourism and business
opportunities. The event can also create jobs and stimulate economic activity in
the host city and country.
Increased global visibility: Hosting the G20 summit can give the host country
greater global visibility and recognition. The event is attended by leaders and
officials from some of the world's largest economies, and can help to showcase the
host country's political and economic capabilities. ⚫ Strengthening diplomatic
ties: Hosting the G20 summit provides an opportunity for the host

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country to strengthen diplomatic ties with other member countries. The event can
facilitate high- level discussions and negotiations, and help to build
relationships and alliances. ⚫ Setting the agenda: As the host country, India
would have a significant role in setting the agenda for the G20 summit. This
provides an opportunity to prioritize issues of particular importance to India, and
to shape the discussions and outcomes of the event.
⚫ Showcasing India's progress and achievements: India has made significant

progress in areas such as economic development, renewable energy, and technology.
Hosting the G20 summit would provide an opportunity to showcase India's progress
and achievements in these areas, and to position India as a major global player.
Key Highlights of the Bali Declaration-2022
Stand on Ukraine Russia war: It highlighted its differences in the on-going war in
Ukraine and asked for Russia's complete withdrawal from the territories of Ukraine.
⚫ Food Security: It welcomed the Black Sea Grain initiative brokered by Turkey and
UN. It is an MoU signed between Russia and UN Secretariat to allow export from
Russia and Ukraine on food products and fertilizers, to ease the tension in the
region.
⚫ Funding: It has welcomed the provision of additional financial resources, to

assist in financing critical gaps in implementing International Health Regulations
(2005). It also applauded the establishment of a new Financial Intermediary Fund
for Pandemic PPR (the 'Pandemic Fund') hosted by the World Bank.
Way Forward
Covid Collective Action: India must highlight the need for more collaborative
efforts in technology transfer, vaccine development and aiding the developing
countries. • Developing Nations: India as a representative of the developing world
must put forward the
agenda of poverty and malnutrition as well at the global platform.
• Pak Based Terror: There is also a need to use the platform to highlight the
terror networks existing in Pakistan and their role in affecting the region.
• Afghan Peace Process: G20 is a useful platform for India to showcase its
increasing role in Afghan development and how it should be involved in all talks
regarding Afghanistan. ⚫ Climate Change: The key requirement for India is Climate
finance which the developed countries are reluctant to give, thus the G20 can be an
effective platform to highlight India's requirements. • Broader Peace: Peace and
stability in the world can be brought about through global cooperation
and especially through the G20 it will be effective and long lasting.
Revised theoretical framework of macro and microeconomics G20 members need to

incorporate lessons from the recent crisis to advocate policy actions based on
economic theory that needs revision.
• Avoiding Internal Fracturing - Collective action and problem solving should be

encouraged that transcends traditionally like-minded groups of countries.
Improving Outreach - The G20 must promote equitable international economic

arrangements that provide a larger voice and role for the major economies of the
global South. Establishing a code of Conduct for the members- by having an
established code of conduct the Group can have a better say on controlling the acts
of aggressive members like China and Russia.
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India's G-20 presidency and its priorities
India's G20 Presidency is centered around the theme of "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" (One
Earth, One Family, One Future) and aims to showcase India's rich cultural heritage
and provide a unique Indian experience to G20 delegates and guests.
The priorities of India's G20 Presidency include:
Green Development, Climate Finance & LIFE: India emphasizes climate change as a key
priority, focusing on climate finance, technology, and just energy transitions for
developing nations. It promotes LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment), a behavior-based
movement drawing from
India's sustainable traditions to encourage environmentally-conscious practices.

Accelerated, Inclusive & Resilient Growth: India aims to foster accelerated,
resilient, and inclusive growth through structural transformations. It seeks to
integrate MSMEs into global trade, promote labor rights and welfare, address the
global skills gap, and develop inclusive agricultural value chains and food
systems.
⚫ Accelerating Progress on SDGs: India recognizes impact of COVID-19 on 2030

Agenda and aims to recommit G20's efforts to achieve targets of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Technological Transformation & Digital Public
Infrastructure: India advocates for a human- centric approach to technology,
focusing on areas like digital public infrastructure, financial inclusion, and
tech-enabled development across sectors.
Multilateral Institutions for the 21st Century: India prioritizes reformed

multilateralism, aiming for a more accountable, inclusive, just, equitable, and
representative multipolar international system capable of addressing 21st-century
challenges.
Women-led Development: India highlights inclusive growth and development, with a

particular focus on women empowerment and representation. It aims to bring women to
the forefront and in leadership positions to drive socio-economic development and
achieve the SDGs.
Conclusion
While the world today is at the cusp of drastic geopolitical, geo-economics, and
technological transformations, India's optimistic call for inclusiveness and
reformed multilateralism will definitely be tested through its presidency at G-20.
India's stance will be tested in its efforts to bridge gaps and foster cooperation
among nations with diverse interests and priorities.

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UNIT 1: COMPARATIVE POLITICS - NATURE, SCOPE AND MAJOR APPROACHES

PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS

• Discuss the political economy approach to the comparative analysis of politics.

Examine the significance of the comparative method in political analysis Discuss

Explain the Political-Sociological Approach in the field of comparative politics

Comparative Government and Politics is an important sub-field of the discipline of

political systems, institutions, process, activities, etc. across countries.

According to M. G. Smith, 'Comparative politics is the study of the forms of

According to M. Curtis, 'Comparative politics is concerned with significant

Three fold functions of comparative politics

Analysis of political system to identify problem areas

Develop a pool of verifiable knowledge

Prediction of institutional and behavioral trend

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Nature and scope of comparative politics

While comparative government deals with an extensive study of different political

Comparative politics is engaged in the study of

Comparative politics is a dynamic field of study that seeks to understand and

1. Regime types: Comparing and categorizing political systems based on their

characteristics, such as democracies, authoritarian regimes, and hybrid regimes. 2.

4. Comparative method: Employing systematic and rigorous comparative analysis to

5. Democratization and authoritarianism: Exploring the processes and factors that

6. Political economy: Investigating the interactions between politics and

Evolution and historical overview of the comparative politics

• Greek philosopher Aristotle studied the constitutions of 150 states and

Machiavelli compared different types of principalities (hereditary, new, mixed and

⚫ Studies were largely concerned with a comparative study of institutions, the

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Different approaches to study comparative politics Political investigators employ

The traditional approach to the study of comparative politics focuses on the

⚫ Modern approach to comparative politics adopts a more quantitative and

Traditional comparative politics

Consequently, traditional approaches are principally concerned with the study of

Characteristics of Traditional approaches

The traditional approaches to the study of comparative politics are characterized

⚫ Study of Formal Political Structures: Traditional approaches analyze formal

Subjectivity in Political Science: Traditional approaches acknowledge the influence

There are many types of traditional approaches that are as follows

This approach is the oldest approach to the study of politics.

Application of the philosophical approach in political science focuses on the great

Critics of this approach argued that

As an academic discipline, philosophical approach is appropriate, but in practical

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Critics to this approach

Critics to this approach

。 Too narrow-Institutional approach is also criticized for being too narrow.

Overall Analysis of the traditional approaches

Discuss the main limitations to comparative methods to the study of political

⚫ Ethnocentric in nature - It included just the study of the constitutions of the

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Parochial in nature - Traditional comparative politics was very narrow in its

Speculative in nature -It lacked scientific approach, in the absence of scientific

Significance/Conclusion of the traditional comparative politics

The traditional approach in comparative politics has played a crucial role in

Modern Approaches to the comparative politics

Development of the modern approach

The emergence of modern approaches to the study of comparative politics can be