Table of Contents

Certification ............................................................................................................................... i
Abstract .....................................................................................................................................ii
Declaration.............................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 An Overview of the Project ......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose and Significance of the Study ........................................................................ 3
1.3 Aim of the Research .................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Objectives .................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Research Limitations ................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Organization of the Thesis .......................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................... 7
LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Review of Recent Research Work ................................................................................... 7
2.2 Introduction to Composite Material ............................................................................... 12
2.3 Natural fiber – Jute ......................................................................................................... 16
2.5 Jute Fiber Hybrid Composites:....................................................................................... 20
2.6 Synthetic fiber - Glass fiber ........................................................................................... 20
2.7 Glass fiber classification and characteristics .................................................................. 22
2.8 Chemical composition, physical and mechanical qualities: ........................................... 22
2.9 Thermoset Resin (Polyester Resin) ................................................................................ 23
2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of thermosetting resins: [22] ...................................... 24
2.11 Fabrication Technique of Composite Material............................................................. 25
CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................. 33
RESEARCH DESIGN .......................................................................................................... 33
3.1 Materials ......................................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Jute Fabric ...................................................................................................................... 33
3.3 Glass Fabric: ................................................................................................................... 34
3.4 Resin:.............................................................................................................................. 35
 3.5 Hardener: ........................................................................................................................ 36
3.6 Tools Used In Working Procedure: ................................................................................ 36
3.7 Methodology: ................................................................................................................. 38
3.8 Working Process: ............................................................................................................ 38
3.9 TESTING METHODS ................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................. 44
RESULT DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 44
4.1 Tensile Strength & Bending Strength ............................................................................ 44
4.2 Tensile & Bending Modulus .......................................................................................... 45
4.3 Impact strength ............................................................................................................... 46
4.4 Water Absorption ........................................................................................................... 47
4.5 Morphological Analysis ................................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 52
CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................... 52
References ............................................................................................................................... 54
 List of the Figure

Figure Figure Name Page No.

No.
2.1 The manufacturing procedure of eco-friendly composites made from 9
natural fibers.
2.3 (a) Fiber types 16
2.3 (b)Jute plant; (c) Raw jute fiber; (d)Unidirectional jute fiber; (e)Woven 17
jute fabric.

2.4 (a)Cross Section of Jute Filament. 18

2.4 (b)Structure of Lignin 18
2.4 (c)SEM of jute fiber; (d)Untreated fiber;(e) Treated jute fiber . 20

2.6 Glass fiber mat. 21

2.7 Classification and characteristics of different glass fabrics. 22
2.9 Stress-strain curve for resin materials. 24
2.11 Laminate of composite. 25
2.11 (a) Hand lay-up Technique. 27
2.11 (b) Compression Molding Process. 28
2.11 (c) Filament Winding Process. 29
2.11 (e), (d) Vacuum Bagging Process. 30,31
2.11 (f) Pultrusion Process. 32
3.2 Jute Fabric. 33
3.3 Glass Fabric. 34
3.4 Polyester Resin. 35
3.5 Hardener. 36
3.6 (a) Mold 36
3.6 (b) Maylar Paper 37
3.8 Final product of Composite Material. 38
3.9 (a) Universal Test Machine. 40
3.9 (b) Universal Impact Tester 41
3.9 (c) Bending test of specimen 42
3.9 (d) Water uptake test 43
4.1 Tensile Strength and Bending strength of neat jute, neat glass and 44
composites.
4.2 Tensile & bending modulus of neat jute, neat glass and composites. 45
4.3 Impact strength of neat jute, neat glass and composites. 46
4.4 Water uptake of (a) Distilled Water (b) Sea Water for JJJJ, GGGG, 47
JGGJ, GJJG.

4.5 SEM images of (a) neat jute (JJJJ), (b) hybrid composites and (c) neat 49
glass (GGGG).
4.6 TGA of neat jute, neat glass and hybrid composites. 51
 List of the Table

Table No. Table Name Page No.

2.4 (a) Chemical composition of Jute fiber. 19

2.4 (b) Features of Jute fiber 19

2.8 (a) Chemical compositions of glass fiber wt% 23

2.10 Properties of Polyester resin. 25

3.1 Table of the Composite Material Sample 39

_________________________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER
ONE
__________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

1.1 An Overview of the Project

Composites are a versatile and valuable family of materials that offer a combination of different
materials, like fibers and a matrix to create a material with enhanced properties. These materials
are lightweight, strong, and durable, making them ideal for various applications. Composite
materials offer improved productivity, lower cost, and facilitate the introduction of new
properties in materials.

Among all the other synthetic fibers, glass fibers are mostly used in composite materials due
to their low cost (compared to carbon and aramid) and comparatively better physic-mechanical
properties. However, the manufacturing process, usage, and disposal of composite materials
made of glass, carbon, and aramid fibers have some negative impacts on the environment. [1]
Hence, natural fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites are being studied extensively as
people are becoming more concerned about the environment nowadays.

Natural fiber composites are eco-friendly and cost-effective. [2] Natural fiber composites are
advantageous in many ways. Natural fiber composites are free from health hazards and
biodegradable, and therefore, they have the potential to be used as building materials. Natural
fiber composites offer sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and reduced weight, resulting in a
superior stiffness-to-weight ratio compared to glass. [3] Natural fiber composites have some
limitations as well. When compared to synthetic fibers like glass, they have a lower modulus,
are weaker, have less moisture resistance, and are notably less absorbent. The moisture
absorption of composites containing natural fibers has adverse effects on their characteristics,
which affect their long-term performance. For instance, increased moisture can cause fibers to
expand, reduce mechanical characteristics, promote biodegradation, and alter their dimensions.

1
The flexural strength, tensile strength, and other mechanical parameters of the natural fiber
composite can be reduced by the presence of moisture.

Enhanced mechanical performance of a composite can be achieved by reinforcing a single

matrix with two or more types of fibers which results in the formation of hybrid composites
characterized by a wider range of material properties. The benefit of hybrid composites is that
one fiber can make up for the shortcomings of the other.

In a hybrid composite, the fibers may be combined in several ways, such as randomly dispersed,
layered, interwoven, or strategically oriented, depending on the desired performance
requirements. The fibers are then incorporated into a matrix material, such as a metal matrix or
a polymer resin (epoxy, polyester, etc.).

Numerous advantages including improved mechanical properties, weight reduction, increased

toughness, enhanced damage tolerance, better thermal stability, or a combination of these
attributes can be obtained through hybridization.

In this study, glass-jute hybrid composites were used for the comparative analysis of the
mechanical properties (such as tensile strength, flexural strength, impact resistance, etc.) of jute
fabric composites, glass fabric composites, and their combinations (hybrid composites). The
effects of fiber content, fiber orientation, and matrix type on the mechanical performance of
the composites were observed as well.

For the fabrication of the composites, we used the Hand Layup Technique which involves the
manual placement of reinforcement fabrics in a mold or on a tool, followed by applying resin
to impregnate and bind the fabrics together to form the composite.

These samples were then subjected to various tests to measure their performance. For example,
tensile tests were conducted to determine the maximum load the composite can withstand
before breaking, while flexural tests evaluated its ability to resist bending forces.

The hybrid composite made from jute and glass fabrics offers a unique combination of
properties, making it suitable for various applications across different industries including

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aerospace, automotive, marine, sporting goods, construction, and consumer products. The
choice of hybrid composite configuration depends on the specific performance requirements
and constraints of each application, as well as factors such as cost, manufacturing feasibility,
and environmental considerations.

1.2 Purpose and Significance of the Study

There have been several previous works on jute-glass fiber composites. These studies have
focused on investigating the mechanical properties, such as tensile strength and impact
resistance, of composites made from a combination of jute and glass fibers. Researchers have
also explored the effects of different fiber ratios and fabrication techniques on the performance
of these composites.

The purpose of our study is to understand how jute and glass fabric can be used together to
create composite materials. The study aims to thoroughly examine and understand the
performance characteristics of glass-jute hybrid composites. By studying the mechanical
properties and performance of these composites, we tried to determine their potential
applications and benefits.

This study is significant because it explores the use of natural fabric like jute, which are
renewable and environmentally friendly, in combination with glass fabric. It has the potential
to contribute to the development of sustainable and cost-effective composite materials that can
be used in various industries.

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1.3 Aim of the Research

Through this study, we aim to explore the use of jute and glass fabric as reinforcements in
composite materials, focusing on their mechanical properties, performance in various
applications, and feasibility of using natural fibers like jute in combination with glass fabric
for sustainable and cost-effective composites. It aims to reduce reliance on synthetic fibers and
promote renewable resources in the composites field.

1.4 Objectives

• To determine the mechanical properties (For example, tensile strength, bending

strength etc.) of the jute and glass fabric hybrid composite.
• To evaluate the physical properties (For example, density, moisture absorption,
dimensional stability etc.)
• To analyze the impact strength of the jute and glass fabric hybrid composite.
• To determine the optimal blend ratio and composition of jute and glass fibers in the
composite. To assess environmental sustainability.
• To explore the potential applications and feasibility.

1.5 Research Questions

• How does the ratio of jute to glass fabric affect the mechanical properties of the
composite?
• What are the optimal fabrication techniques for achieving the desired performance
of jute-glass fabric composites?
• How do the mechanical properties of jute-glass fabric composites differ from the
traditional synthetic fiber composites?
• What are the potential applications of jute-glass fabric composites?
• How does the addition of jute fibers affect the cost-effectiveness and sustainability
of the composite material.

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1.6 Research Limitations

Every research study has its limitations. In the investigation and characterization of jute-glass
fabric reinforced composites, some potential limitations could include:

• Sample size: The study might be limited by the number of samples tested, which could
affect the generalizability of the findings.
• Time constraints: The study might have been limited by the available time for
conducting experiments and gathering data, which could impact the comprehensiveness
of the research.
• Environmental factors: The study might not have accounted for all possible
environmental conditions that could affect the performance of the composites.
• Cost considerations: The study might have been limited by budget constraints, which
could impact the range of tests and analyses conducted.
• Fabrication techniques: The study might have focused on specific fabrication
techniques, which could limit the understanding of the composites' properties under
different manufacturing processes.
• Lack of real-world applications: The study might not have explored the practical
applications of the composites in specific industries or considered real-world scenarios.

1.7 Organization of the Thesis

This thesis has been divided into five chapters.

• Chapter 01 includes an overview of the project followed by the purpose and

significance of the study, aim of the research, objectives, research questions, research
limitations and organization of the thesis.

• In Chapter 02, the recent research works on different composite materials are reviewed
and the theories of composite materials, natural fiber (jute), synthetic fiber (glass), and
fabrication technique of composite materials are discussed.

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 • In Chapter 03, the preparation procedures of the jute-glass fabric hybrid composites and
the details of the materials used in the process are described. These chapters also include
a brief description of different test methods.

• In Chapter 04, the details of the results regarding tensile strength & bending Strength,
tensile & bending modulus, impact strength, water absorption and morphological
analysis are discussed.

• Chapter 05 contains conclusion of the study.

Finally, the chapters conclude with a thorough reference list.

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__________________________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER
TWO
__________________________________________________________________________________

LITERATURE
REVIEW

2.1 Review of Recent Research Work

Composites are currently one of the most renowned fields of study. There are sufficient reasons
to support this. Composites possess inherent strength, exhibit ease of production, and are cost-
effective. A composite material consists of two primary constituents: the fiber, which serves as
reinforcement, and the matrix. The reinforcing element exhibits the capability to withstand
significant tensile forces, despite the fact that the matrix provides stiffness to the composite.
The application of stress on the composite leads in the transfer of loads from one fiber to
another, facilitated by the matrix. However, the integration of fiber and matrix results in a
durable material.

Recently, the demand for reinforced plastics from natural, sustainable, biodegradable, and
environmentally friendly fibers has been rising worldwide. For this we select the research
article “Effect of Jute Fiber Modification on Mechanical Properties of Jute Fiber
Composite” by Wang et al. (2019) In this work, chemical treatments (acid pretreatment, alkali
pretreatment, and scouring) were employed on jute fibers to modify them. Epoxy resin (JC-
02A) and the corresponding hardener (JC-02B) is used and hand lay-up technique is used for
the preparation of composite. The mechanical properties, surface morphology, and Fourier
transform infrared spectra of treated and untreated jute fibers were analyzed to understand the
influence of chemical modifications on the fiber. Basic properties of the composites such as

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the void fraction, tensile strength, initial modulus, and elongation at break were studied. The
better interfacial adhesion of treated fibers was shown by scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images of fractured coupons. [4]

The second study, entitled "Natural and Synthetic for Hybrid Composites”, was authored
by Gangil et al. (2020). This research aims to examine the importance of composite materials
that consist of a combination of natural and synthetic fibers. This paper provides a concise
overview of the properties of both natural and synthetic fibers, encompassing attributes such
as density, length, failure strain, tensile strength, Young's modulus, specific tensile strength,
and specific Young's modulus. The chemical composition (expressed as weight percentage) of
the natural fiber is described. Prominent examples of synthetic fibers are Carbon, Glass, and
Kevlar or aramid fiber, which are characterized by clear and detailed descriptions. The
composite material is prominently utilized in many applications such as furniture, storage
tanks, construction panels, and door frames. [5]

The other paper’s title name is “A Comprehensive Review on Jute Fiber Reinforced
Composites” by Gogna et al. (2019). This paper is a review paper that briefly described about
the Jute fiber and its reinforced composite. This research states that Jute fiber, one of the most
prevalent biodegradable natural fibers, has replaced synthetic fiber composites and glass fiber
where great strength is not needed. Jute fiber composite offers advantages over synthetic and
glass fiber, including inexpensive processing costs, superior mechanical qualities, and low
production energy (2% of glass fiber). Jute is a popular composite reinforcement fiber due to
its advantage. This research covered fabrication methods: hand lay-up technique and
compressed technique, and how they affect jute fiber reinforced composite mechanical
characteristics. [6]

A publication which title name is “A Brief Review of Jute Fiber and Its Composites” by Singh
et al. (2018) has collected for this research. The paper uses jute fiber and its green compound.
The study highlights the challenges of developing jute-reinforced composites. Thermally
setting resin composites are non-replicable or non-recyclable. Due to these goals, eco-friendly
composite materials are gaining popularity. Green composites are biodegradable, sustainable,
and eco-friendly. Green composites use natural resin and fibers. Various jute fiber reinforced

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composites were fabricated and their mechanical characteristics were examined. Using
scanning electron microscopy, jute fiber composite failure mechanisms
were examined. [7]

Fig.2.1.The manufacturing procedure of eco-friendly composites

made from natural fibers. [7]

The other paper’s title is “Mechanical properties of waste paper/jute fabric reinforced
polyester resin matrix hybrid” by Das (2017). Jute fabric and un-shredded newspaper were
mixed with polyester resin to make hybrid composites. The experiment created hybrid
composites with 42% fiber content using a 1:2 weight ratio of jute and un-shredded newspaper.
Two configurations of waste newspaper and jute fabric were used: jute/paper/jute and
paper/jute/paper. Reinforcing material is characterized by chemical analysis, X-ray diffraction,
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and tensile testing. The hybrid composite has better
tensile and flexural properties than the paper-based composite but less than the woven jute
composite. The study evaluated how newspaper/woven jute fabric hybrid composites'
mechanical characteristics were affected by hybridization and layering patterns. Results of
composite tests were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA (α = 0.05), revealing significant
differences between groups. [8]

“Investigations on Thermal Conductivities of Jute and Banana Fiber Reinforced Epoxy

Composites” by Pujari et al. (2017) is another research paper for our work. This paper denotes
that using Jute and Banana fibers as reinforcement in epoxy resin matrix creates a largely green
biodegradable composite using hand lay-up technique. Different volume fractions of jute and

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banana fiber epoxy composites were tested for thermal conductivity using a guarded heat flow
meter approach. Experimental data indicate that increasing fiber concentration decreases heat
conductivity in composites. Experimental data are compared to theoretical theories (Series,
Hashin, and Maxwell) to analyze thermal conductivity fluctuation with fiber volume fraction.
Theoretical and experimental results show good agreement. Banana fiber composites have
lower thermal conductivity than Jute composites, making them effective insulators for building,
automotive, and steam pipe insulation, saving energy by reducing heat transfer. [9]

“Thermal conduction and diffusion through glass-banana fiber polyester composites” by

Agarwal et al. (2003) is an additional recent publication. This research analyzes the thermal
conductivity and thermal diffusivity changes generated by glass fiber in banana fiber reinforced
polyester composites. Composite has higher thermal conductivity than matrix. However,
composites with more glass fiber have lower heat conductivity than banana fiber composites.
It is lowest at 11% glass fiber in the composite. From 3% to 11% glass fiber in the composite,
heat conductivity decreases due to fiber/matrix deformation, fiber pull out, and matrix fracture.
Thermal conductivity increases at 15% glass fiber due to energy dissipation mechanism
change. Y.Agari model evaluates hybrid composite fiber thermal conductivities. [10]

“Physical and Mechanical Properties of Bi-directional Jute Fiber Epoxy Composites” by

Mishra et al. (2013) is another recent work paper. This study investigated using jute fiber, a
natural material prevalent in India. This study develops and characterizes natural fiber-based
polymer composites with bidirectional jute fiber mat reinforcement and epoxy resin matrix.
The composites that is made by hand lay-up technique are characterized for their physical and
mechanical qualities. Research examine how fiber loading affects these composites physical
and mechanical properties. The results reveal that fiber loading significantly affects composite
mechanical characteristics. Void generation in composites affects mechanical characteristics.
[11]
The title for the other paper is “Effect of stacking sequence on tensile, flexural and thermo
mechanical properties of hybrid flax/glass and jute/glass thermoset composites” by Selver
et al. (2018). Tensile, flexural, and dynamic mechanical characteristics of flax/glass and
jute/glass thermoset composite laminates are examined in this work. Vacuum infusion
produced hybrid laminates with different stacking sequences. Using cheaper and lighter natural
fibers (flax and jute) reduced composite weight and cost. Composite laminates manufactured

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from natural fibers demonstrated higher specific strength when normalized to the same
glass fiber volume fraction, but lower tensile and flexural strength than glass composites
without normalization. Classical lamination theory's rule of mixture and Halpin–Tsai models
predicted and compared composite elastic characteristics to experimental results. Changing the
stacking sequence did not influence composites' tensile strength and modulus, however glass
fiber outer layers affected flexural strength. Dynamic mechanical analysis showed similar
results to flexural tests, however natural fiber and some hybrid composites dampened better
than glass-reinforced composites. [12]

Another paper title is “Thermal conductivity characterization of bamboo fiber reinforced

polyester composite” by Mounika et al. (2012). This work aims to characterize thermal
conductivity of bamboo fiber reinforced composites by altering volume percentage,
temperature, and fiber angles (0°, 45°, and 90°). Bamboo fibers are removed from the stem by
retting and mechanical methods. These fibers are utilized as reinforcement in polyester resin
to create a largely green biodegradable composite using hand lay-up process. The results
indicate that composite thermal conductivity decreases with fiber concentration, although the
opposite trend was observed for temperature. Additionally, practical results of composites at
various volume fractions were compared to two theoretical models (E-S Model and Rule of
Mixture Model). Good correlation between theoretical and experimental outcomes has been
reported. The thermal conductivity of bamboo fiber reinforced composite at maximum volume
fractions is 0.185 W/mK, 0.189 W/mK, and 0.196 W/mK for fiber angles of 0°, 45°, and 90°.
The investigation found that the composite material is insulating. This composite has potential
in the building and automotive industries to conserve energy by minimizing heat transmission.
[13]

“Investigation Of Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer Reinforcing Bars As Internal Reinforcement

For Concrete Structures” by Johnson (2019) is added here. Research reveals two areas of GFRP
bar research that require more study: the behavior of bars at cold temperatures and the behavior
of big diameter rods. Experimental results indicate that cold temperatures have minimal impact
on the mechanical properties of GFRP bars. Additionally, beam testing revealed that massive
32mm GFRP bars did not fracture early due to inter-laminar shear failure. Based on the
mechanical and durability qualities of GFRP bars and GFRP RC, it can be inferred that GFRP
is a suitable alternative reinforcement for concrete structures. GFRP bars' high strength, low

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stiffness, and elastic behavior make bond development, shear influence, and member
deformability crucial for reinforced concrete. [14]

“A review on mechanical behavior of natural fiber based hybrid composites” by Nunna et

al. (2012). This review highlights the significant factors affecting natural fiber-based hybrid
composites, such as fiber volume/weight fraction, stacking sequence, fiber treatment, and
environmental conditions. Two or more fibers in a matrix create hybrid composites. Hybrid
composites can be created using artificial, natural, or a blend of both fibers. A hybrid
composite's characteristics can vary according to fiber changes. [15]

2.2 Introduction to Composite Material

Composite material is made from two or more separate materials that are chemically different
and combined macroscopically to yield a useful material. There are mainly two phases –
reinforcing phase and matrix phase. The reinforcing phase provides strength and rigidity and
helps to support composition load. The other matrix phase maintains the condition and
orientation of the reinforcement phase. These two phase can be metal, ceramic or polymer.
Therefore, composite can be said multifunctional material systems.

Composite can be categorized into three [16] categories according to the nature of matrix each.
They are:

I. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs):

These composites are mainly metal-based where the matrix is aluminum, magnesium, and
titanium, and the reinforcing materials, or typical fiber, are carbon and silicon carbide. Metals
are mainly reinforced to suit the needs of design. For example, the elastic stiffness and strength
of metals can be increased, while the large coefficient of thermal expansion, and thermal and
electrical conductivities of metals can be reduced by the addition of fibers such as silicon
carbide.

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 II. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs):

In these composites, alumina, calcium, and alumino silicate are used as matrices, and silicon
carbide is used as reinforcing fiber. These composite materials have advantages such as high
strength, hardness, chemical inertness, and low density. The disadvantage is that it is brittle in
nature, and for this composite, fabrication is difficult. The CMCs are mainly of four types:

• Glass
• Conventional
• Cement
• Concreted carbon
III. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs):

The most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric, where epoxy, vinyl ester, or
polyester is reinforced with the combined particles. In particular, the materials have low
strength and low stiffness. But when they are combined and turned into composites, this
problem is solved, and the properties become super. To make these composites, there don’t
need high temperature or high pressure. Making equipment is also simpler. The composites are
of two types:

a) Fiber-reinforced polymer
b) Particulate-reinforced polymer

a. Fiber-reinforced polymer composite:

These type of composites are made [16] of fiber and matrix. While the matrix holds the fibers
together in the shape and distributes loads amongst them, the fibers serve as the primary source
of strength and reinforcement. Filler or can be said binder that is added to smooth the
manufacturing process, impact special properties to the composites, and reduce the product
cost. Common fiber reinforcing agents include asbestos, carbon/graphite fibers, beryllium,
beryllium carbide, beryllium oxide, molybdenum, aluminum oxide, glass fibers, polyamide,
natural fibers etc. Similarly common matrix materials include epoxy, phenolic, polyester,
polyurethane, polyether ether ketone (PEEK), vinyl ester etc.

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b. Particle-reinforced polymer composite:

Particles used for reinforcing [16]include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles,
metal particles such as aluminum and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon
black. Particles are employed to decrease the matrix's ductility and increase the matrix's
modules. Particles are also used to lower the composites cost. Reinforcements and matrices can
be common, inexpensive materials and are easily processed. Ceramics and glasses have many
advantageous qualities, such as high melting temperatures, low densities, high strengths,
stiffness, resistance to wear and corrosion. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal
insulators. Certain types of ceramics exhibit unique characteristics, such as being magnetic,
piezoelectric, or even superconductors at extremely low temperatures.

Sections for Composites:

1. Reinforcing Fiber:

The main component of fiber-reinforced composite material is fiber. They share the majority
of the load applied to a composite construction and take up the greatest volume fraction in a
composite. It modifies the following [17]characteristics of composite structure-
• Density
• Tensile strength and modulus
• Comprehensive modulus ad strength
• Fatigue strength
• Thermal conductivities
• Cost

Aramid, carbon, and fiberglass are the three [18]most prevalent varieties of reinforcement
fibers.

• Carbon fiber: Carbon fibers have the highest specific modulus and strength of any
reinforcing fiber. Unlike glass and other organic polymer fibers, carbon fibers do not
always shatter under stress. Because of their extraordinarily high stiffness to weight and
strength to weight ratios, carbon fibers are incredibly versatile. They are also infusible,
electrically conductive, and chemically inert. Several types of matrix materials such as
glass and ceramics, metal and plastics have been used as matrices for reinforcement by

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 carbon fiber. Carbon fiber composites have become the dominant advanced composite
materials for aerospace, automobile, sporting goods and other applications. [18, 19]

• Glass Fiber: The most prevalent type of reinforcing fiber is glass fiber. Glass fiber's low
cost, high tensile strength, strong chemical resistance, and superior insulating qualities are
its main benefits. E-glass, or electrical grade glass, is the most common and popular type.
R-glass and/or S-glass, which have a high strength, C-glass, which is chemical resistant,
and A-glass, known as alkali glass, are some varieties of glass fibers. [18, 19]

• Kevlar Fiber: With a stiff molecular structure, Kevlar is an aramid fiber made of Poly
para-phenylen terephtalamide (PPTA). In high-performance composite applications where
fatigue resistance, damage resistance, high strength and stiffness, and low weight are
critical, Kevlar fibers are frequently utilized. [19]

• Natural Fibers: Natural fibers are generally lignocellulosic in nature, consisting of

helically wound cellulose micro-fibrils in a matrix of lignin and hemicellulose. The
advantages of natural fibers over synthetic fibers are numerous and notable. Flax, hemp,
jute straw, wood, wheat, barley, oats, rye, cane (sugar and bamboo), grass, reeds, kenaf,
ramie, sisal, coir, water, kapok, paper mulberry, banana fiber, pineapple leaf fiber, and
papyrus and more are the natural fiber types that are currently being researched for use in
plastics. [18]

2. Matrices: A vital part of the composite is the binding agent or composite. There are
mainly four main [18]types of matrices: carbon, ceramic, metallic, and polymeric. The
mostly used is polymer matrices which are classified into two groups: Thermoplastics
and thermosetting. In a fiber-reinforced composite, the matrix has three purposes:
• It transfers stress between the fibers.
• It acts as a barrier against the environment.
• It shields the fiber surface from mechanical abrasion.

Thermoset: Thermoset is a cross-linked [18]material that is rigid and hard and heat does not
cause it to soften or mold. In contrast to thermoplastics, thermosets are rigid and do not stretch.

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For natural fiber composites, matrices made of various polymer types have been employed.
Epoxy resins, vinyl ester, phenolic epoxy, and polyamide are the most widely used thermoset
polymers.

Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics are [18] polymers that can only be processed with heat. These
kinds of materials hold their shape after cooling. These polymers can also be reheated and
reformed, frequently without causing any appreciable changes to their characteristics.

2.3 Natural fiber – Jute

Natural fibers have nowadays drawn the attention of scientists and technologists because of the
benefits that these fibers provide over conventional reinforcement materials, and the
development of natural fiber composites has been a subject of interest for the past few years.
The primary advantages of natural fibers over synthetic fibers have been their low cost, light
weight, high specific strength, renewability, and biodegradability. [20]

Fig. 2.3 (a): Fiber types

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Jute

Jute is the main natural fiber utilized in the production of composites. Jute is a variety of bast
fibers derived from plants in the Tiliaceae family. Its scientific name is Corchorus Capsularis.
Currently, it is the most common bast fiber and is known for its economy. Currently,
Bangladesh, India, China, Nepal, Thailand, Indonesia, and Brazil are the leading countries for
cultivating high-quality jute. Jute plants can reach a height of 2-3.5 meters and are extremely
brittle because of their high lignin content, which results in low elasticity and a tendency to
break easily (up to 12-16%). Jute fibers exhibit lower resistance to moisture, acid, and UV
light. On the other hand, their smooth consistency and ability to withstand high temperatures
and flames make them suitable for a wide variety of uses in industries such as textiles,
construction, and automotive. [7]

Fig. 2.3 (b): Jute plant [7]; (c) Raw jute fiber [7]; (d) Unidirectional jute fiber [7]; (e) Woven
jute fabric [7]
2.4 Properties of jute fiber: Physical and Mechanical

Jute fibers consist primarily of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and other waxy
substances, as indicated in table 1. Cellulose is the primary component of this natural fiber.
The plant's stems consist of cells and cell walls, which can be found in both the leaves and the
roots of the plant. Enzymes, such as cellulose, have the ability to induce it. Cellulose

constitutes the majority of fibers and provides strength characteristics. [7]

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 Fig.2.4. Cross Section of Jute Filament

Fig. 2.4 (b): Structure of Lignin [7]

Because of lignocellulosic composition, all-natural fibers exhibit superior acoustic insulation

properties and unique thermal characteristics in comparison to synthetic fibers. Typically,
synthetic fibers have superior mechanical properties compared to natural fibers. However,
these properties can be further improved through various surface treatments such as alkali
treatment. The mechanical characteristics of jute fiber are listed in table 2. In the opinion of
researchers, the primary factors determining the physical and mechanical properties of
jute fibers are tensile strength, Young's modulus, and density.

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 Table 2.4 (a): Chemical composition of Jute fiber

Cellulose% Hemicellulose% Lignin% Wax and Pectin% Reference

61.2 23.2 13.7 0.5 [21]

61-73.2 13.6-20.4 12-16 - [21]
61-71 14-20 12-13 - [21]
72 13.0 13.0 [7]

Table 2.4 (b): Features of Jute fiber

Tensile strength Young’s Elongation at Density (g/cm3) Reference

(MPa) Modulus (GPa) break (%)

393-773 26.5 1.5-1.8 1.3 [7]

393-773 2.5-26.5 1-2 1.3-1.45 [7]
393-800 10-30 1.5-1.8 1.3-1.46 [21]
400-800 10-30 1.5-1.8 1.46 [7]
393 55 1.5-1.8 1.3 [7]
394 55 - - [7]
300-700 20-50 1.6-4.0 1.3 [7]
393-773 26.5 1.5-1.8 1.3 [7]
393 55 - 1.3 [7]

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is necessary for conducting structural investigation due
to interfacial adhesion. The SEM results are captured at various magnifications and
subsequently examined. The mechanical and interfacial properties are studied in SEM to find
the adhesion between the plant fibers and the matrix. This analysis helps explain the mechanical
interlocking between the microstructures of the jute fibers. [7]

Figure 5 displays the scanning electron microscope (SEM) pictures of both untreated and
treated jute fiber.

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 Fig. 2.4 (c): SEM of jute fiber [7]; (d) Untreated fiber [7]; (e) Treated jute fiber [7]

2.5 Jute Fiber Hybrid Composites:

Jute fiber reinforced hybrid composites are a type of composite material that consists of
multiple reinforcement materials in addition to the matrix material. Jute fiber has been utilized
in combination with another natural or synthetic fiber as reinforcement, while a polymer serves
as the matrix material. The composites are fabricated using the manual hand lay-up method
and compression molding process. To make these composites natural or synthetic fibers and
epoxy are used. Glass fiber is most one of them. [7] Glass fibers have numerous advantages,
such as cheap and easy production, while also displaying satisfactory strength and stiffness
compared to their weight. [22] The tensile strength of the composite increases as the volume
fraction of glass fiber increases. The flexural and impact strength of jute & glass woven
composites surpass those of jute woven composites. The jute with glass fiber composites is
now days significantly more popular as opposed to other synthetic fibers. Jute-Glass fiber
reinforced polymer composites have excellent performance under flexural loading conditions.
[7]

2.6 Synthetic fiber - Glass fiber

Glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites have been fabricated using different production
techniques and are widely used for a wide range of applications. The matrix consisted of
organic, polyester, thermostable, vinyl ester, phenolic, and epoxy resins. The mechanical
properties of a fiber-reinforced composite primarily rely on the strength and modulus of the
fibers, the chemical stability of the composite, the strength of the matrix, and the bonding

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between the fiber and matrix to facilitate the transmission of stress. The appropriate
arrangement and alignment of fibers in GFRP composites resulted in physical and functional
characteristics that were comparable to steel, with higher stiffness than aluminum, and a
specific gravity that was one-quarter that of steel. [23]

Fig.2.6 : Glass fiber mat [23]

The material can exist in various forms, such as roving, chopped strands, yarns, textiles, and
mats. Each variant of glass fibers possesses distinct characteristics and is employed for diverse
purposes in the configuration of polymer composites. The study presented the mechanical,
tribological, thermal, water absorption, and vibrational characteristics of several composites
made from glass fiber reinforced polymers. The characteristics of composites are contingent
upon the arrangement of fibers that are placed or layered within the matrix during the
manufacture of the composites. The utilization of fillers enhanced the characteristics of
composites, leading to a decrease in the overall cost of both the preparation and the final
product. The marine industry and piping sectors utilize laminated glass fiber reinforced
composite materials due to their excellent environmental resilience, superior damage tolerance
for impact loading, and high specific strength and stiffness. [23]

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2.7 Glass fiber classification and characteristics

Glass fibers provide exceptional feature such as superior strength, flexibility, rigidity, and
resistance to chemical damage.

Fig.2.7. Classification and characteristics of different glass fabrics [20]

2.8 Chemical composition, physical and mechanical qualities:

In table 03, the chemical compositions of glass fiber are described. And in table 04, the physical
and mechanical characteristics are also reported.

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 Type SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 B2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O Fe2O3 Ref

E-glass 55.0 14.0 0.2 7.0 22.0 1.0 0.5 0.3 - [23]
C-glass 64.6 4.1 - 5.0 13.4 3.3 9.6 0.5 -
S-glass 65.0 25.0 - - - 10.0 - - -
A-glass 67.5 3.5 - 1.5 6.5 4.5 13.5 3.0 -
D-glass 74.0 - - 22.5 - - 1.5 2.0 -
R-glass 60.0 24.0 - - 9.0 6.0 0.5 0.1 -
EGR-glass 61.0 13.0 - - 22.0 3.0 - 0.5 -
Basalt 52.0 17.2 1.0 - 8.6 5.2 5.0 1.0 5.0

Table 2.8 (a): Chemical compositions of glass fiber wt%

2.9 Thermoset Resin (Polyester Resin)

Thermoset resin is a type of resin that starts as a liquid monomer or pre-polymer and is
transformed into a solid, non-melting, and non-dissolvable material through the application of
heat or a catalyst. Thermoset resins exhibit exceptional thermal stability, chemical resistance,
dimensional stability, and creep resistance. Thermoset polymers are characterized by the
presence of covalent connections that connect the polymer chains. The liquid resin undergoes
chemical crosslinking during a curing process, which involves the application of heat and the
inclusion of curing agents or hardeners, resulting in its transformation into a hard and stiff solid
state. After the curing process, the resin forms a cohesive and rigid network structure, which
prevents it from being melted, molded, or reprocessed through heating. Unsaturated polyesters,
epoxies, vinyl-esters, and phenolic are often utilized thermosetting resins in composite
manufacture. Polyesters, vinyl esters, and epoxies likely constitute around 90% of the
thermosetting resin systems employed in structural composites. [22]

Nearly 90% of thermosetting resin systems in structural composites are polyesters, vinyl esters,
and epoxies. [22]

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 Fig.2.9. Stress-strain
curve for resin materials [22]

2.10 Advantages and disadvantages of thermosetting resins: [22]

Resin Advantages Disadvantages

• Critical mixing.
• Corrosive handling.
• Lowest cost of resins available
Polyester Resin • Limited range of working hours
• Easy to use.
• Only moderate mechanical
properties.
• Very high
chemical/environmental
• Higher cost than polyesters
Vinyl ester resistance
• High cure shrinkage
• Higher mechanical qualities
compared to polyesters
• High mechanical and thermal
properties
• Low cure shrinkage
• High water resistance
Epoxy Resin • Costlier
• Long working times available
• Critical mixing Corrosive handling
• Temperature resistance can be
up to 140°C (wet)/220°C (dry)

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Considering the price and simple application, we selected to use Polyester resin. The
characteristics of polyester resin are given in table 05.

Table 2.10 Properties of Polyester resin

Properties Polyester resin Reference

Density (g/cm3) 1.2-1.5

Young’s modulus (GPa) 2-4.5
Tensile strength (MPa) 40-90
Compressive strength (MPa) 90-250
[22]
Tensile elongation to break (%) 2
Cure shrinkage (%) 4-8
Water absorption 24h at 20°C 0.1-0.3

Fracture energy (KPa) -

2.11 Fabrication Technique of Composite Material

Fig.2.11: Laminate of composite [24]

Composite fabrication is a complicated procedure that includes multiple factors, including the
types of matrix and reinforcement used, the volume of production, the geometry of the item,
and the needs for the process and equipment. The qualities of the matrix and reinforcing phase
have a major effect on the final properties of the composites. Furthermore, the chosen

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manufacturing technique for fabricating the composites also affects the efficiency of the
composite materials. [24]

Fabrication Process:

Choosing a composite fabrication technique has become an important challenge in the field of
composite materials. The manufacturing process of composite laminates is influenced by
various aspects, including the properties of the matrix and reinforcing materials (such as the
kind of fiber and matrix, fiber content, fiber orientation, and fiber length), the geometry of the
products (such as their form and size), their final use application and so on.

Below is a brief summary of the various fabrication methods used for fiber reinforced polymer
laminate composites. [24]

• Hand lay-up technique

• Compressed Technique
• Filament Winding Process
• Vacuum Bagging Process
• Autoclave Molding
• Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) Process
• Pultrusion Process

1. Hand Lay-up technique: This technique is primitive and most usually used of
fabricating composite materials, which is also called wet lay-up technique. This is a
manual application of fiber and resin matrix in the mold and then cured. Hand roller is
used to maintain uniform distribution of resin, to assure better function between the
matrix and the reinforcement, to remove trap air and to get the wanted thickness. [22]
There are four unavoidable steps: [22]
• Mold arrangement
• Gel coating
• Lay-up
• Curing

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 Fig.2.11 (a): Hand lay-up Technique [24]

The benefits of this technique cover less capital investment, the ability to easily modify the
mold/design, and the absence of any significant limitations on the size of the manufactured
item. [24]

But there are a few drawbacks associated with this procedure: The method is appropriate
for low volume fractions or concentrations of the reinforcing phase. However, it is highly
time-consuming and results in a high content of voids or porosity. Additionally, only one
finished surface, which is in contact with the mold, can be achieved. The method requires
a significant amount of labor and does not provide precise control over thickness.
Achieving a uniform fiber-to-resin ratio is challenging and it is not suitable for high volume
production. [24]
2. Compressed Technique: It is commonly high pressure close molding process, where two
same metal molds retain the composite. The common types are-
• Sheet molding compound (SMC)
• Bulk molding compound (BMC)
• Liquid composite molding (LCM)

The matrix and reinforcement are arranged liked hand lay-up technique and compressed it by
pressure. The composite is held in place by two equal metal molds during this high pressure
close molding process. While the upper one is adjustable, the lower one is fixed. After being

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positioned in the mold, the reinforcement and matrix are pressed. This pressure can be manual
or automatic. The component's size and form dictate how much pressure is needed. [22, 6]

Jute and glass fibers are added with epoxy resin to the composite, and then the load is applied
about 20kg in our work.

Fig.2.11 (b): Compression Molding Process [24]

There are several benefits include a quick production cycle, the achievement of smooth and
high-quality surfaces both inside and outside the product, improved surface quality, consistent
part shape, reduced maintenance expenses, less need for additional finishing processes, and
enhanced control over the fiber content. Nevertheless, the primary drawbacks of this approach
include the substantial initial capital investment, its unsuitability for very large-sized parts, its
lack of economic viability for low production volumes, and the constraint on mold depth. [24]

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3. Filament Winding Process: Filament winding is a manufacturing method that involves
the application of continuous fibers onto a revolving mandrel in specified orientations to
create composite products. The filament winding process is the most cost-effective method
for producing symmetrical composite parts in large quantities. This procedure is
predominantly employed for hollow components, typically with round or oval cross-
sections, such as pipelines and tanks. It has a broad spectrum of uses, spanning from a little

Fig.2.11 (c): Filament Winding Process [24]

gas cylinder to a sizable cryogenic tank. This strategy is very suitable for automation
scenarios when minimal or no human intervention is necessary. [24]

The benefits of filament winding include superior mechanical qualities resulting from the
utilization of uninterrupted fibers, rapidity of the process, precise control over thickness,
improved management of fiber orientation and content, a high concentration of reinforcing
material, and a satisfactory internal surface polish. Nevertheless, the challenge lies in the
act of winding. [24]
The main disadvantages of this approach include the necessity for specialized equipment
to handle complex shapes, a poor external finish, the restriction to convex shaped
components, the high cost of mandrels, and the requirement for low viscosity resins. [24]

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4. Vacuum Bagging Process: Vacuum bagging is a composite manufacturing process that
uses vacuum pressure during resin cure. To create a laminate, atmospheric pressure is
employed to hold resin and fibers in place and solidify the layers. After sealing the laminate
in an airtight bag, a vacuum pump removes the air, creating an even atmospheric pressure
over the composite laminate. Vacuum bagging involves various layers such as mold,
release agent, composite laminate, peel ply, bleeder, release film, breather, and vacuum
bag. [24]

Fig.2.11 (d): Vacuum Bagging Process [24]

This method offers benefits such as improved adhesion, high fiber volume fraction,
consistent matrix distribution, low emissions, greater component consolidation, and
decreased mold costs. The drawbacks of this procedure include the requirement for
expensive curing furnaces, regular breather fabric replacement, and inability to handle high
manufacturing volumes. Large boat hulls, airplanes constructions, race car components,
and bathtubs are commonly manufactured using vacuum bagging. [24]

5. Autoclave Molding: Autoclave molding is modified vacuum bagging. Composite

laminates for aircraft require excellent quality, hence autoclaves are used in composite
fabrication. Because an autoclave heats and presses composite goods during curing, this
sophisticated procedure generates compact and void-free pieces. This procedure uses mold,
peel ply, release agent, bleeder, breather, and vacuum bag. This procedure piles of layers
with varied fiber orientation to build the appropriate thickness above the molding plate.

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 This procedure is adaptable and produces uniform quality products since heat and pressure
can be accurately controlled. The main downsides of this technique are the low production
rate and part size limitations, which rely on autoclave size. The process is costly, time-
consuming, and laborious.

6. Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) Process: Resin transfer molding (RTM) is a commonly
employed method for producing thermosetting composite laminates with exceptional
performance.

Fig.2.11 (e): Vacuum Bagging Process [24]

The upper mold is sealed onto the lower mold. This procedure results in enhanced
compression of the laminate, a high ratio of fibers to resin, and exceptional strength-to-
weight properties. Additional benefits encompass the favorable surface finish on both
surfaces, enhanced regulation over the thickness of the product, expedited production cycle,
little release of volatile substances, and improved usage of resin and fiber. Nevertheless,
there are a few constraints associated with the process. Firstly, the cost of tooling is

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 considerable. Secondly, the size of the part is often restricted by the mold cavity. Lastly,
the procedure is only suitable for low viscosity resins. This procedure is frequently
employed in the aerospace, automobile, and athletic sectors. [24]

7. Pultrusion Process: Pultrusion is a highly automated continuous fiber laminating method

that produces high-volume profiles with consistent cross-sections. The process involves
pulling raw composites through a heated die to form a continuous profile. This procedure
resembles extrusion, but the composite portion is dragged instead of pushed through the
die. Wet or impregnated fiber is arranged and surplus resin is removed. Finally, composite
parts cure inside heated dies. The final composite product typically adopts the shape of the
dies. A cut-off saw is located at the end of the pultrusion machine to remove pieces of the
desired size. The most typical shapes produced by this method are square, round,
rectangular, and I-shaped. End products are usually bars and rods.

Fig.2.11 (f): Pultrusion Process [24]

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__________________________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER
THREE
__________________________________________________________________________________

RESEARCH
DESIGN

3.1 Materials
For constructing composite material, two phases (matrix and reinforcement). This composite
material used Jute fabric (woven) and Glass fabric (non-woven) as reinforced phases. This
composite material also used matrix which was Polyester Resin and hardener used for hard.

3.2 Jute Fabric

The Jute fabric (woven) was collected from the Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI)
which fabric was bleached fabric. Sodium chloride is used for bleaching jute because it
removes more lignin. Jute fabric was used as a natural fiber in composite material.

Fig.3.2:Jute Fabric

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Reason for Use Jute Fabric in Composite Material:

• Lightweight and cheap cost.

• High strength and modulus joined in.
• High rigidity, resilience, and elasticity.
• Strong structural construction.

3.3 Glass Fabric:

Glass Fabric was also another reinforced phase that was non-woven. Glass fabric is made of
numerous fine fibers of glass. Glass fabric was used as a synthetic fiber in composite material.

Fig.3.3: Glass Fabric

Reason for Use Glass Fabric in Composite Material:

• High reinforcement.
• High strength-to-weight ratio.
• Corrosion resistance.
• Robustness.

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3.4 Resin:

Polyester Resin is widely implemented in composite material as a matrix phase. It is a synthetic

resin that is made by the reaction of dibasic organic acid and polyhydric alcohol. Polyester
resin is used to construct composite material. It is a low-viscosity resin.

Fig.3.4: Polyester Resin

Reason for Use of Polyester Resin In Composite Material:

• High thermal stability and abrasion resistance.

• Normal time for dry.
• Excellent chemical resistance and adhesive strength.

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3.5 Hardener:

For polyester resin, use methyl ethyl ketone peroxide which is hard the composite material.

Figure-3.5: Hardener

3.6 Tools Used In Working Procedure:

Mold:

Composite materials are often shaped and given their desired geometric form and surface
texture by utilizing a mold. Ensuring the integrity of molds is crucial for the successful
manufacturing of a composite product. After the molds are closed and tightened, reinforcement
and resin are poured into them. Surplus resin is expelled under pressure.

Fig.3.6 (a): Mold

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Brush:

A brush is generally used for applying polyester resin to the material. We also used the brush
for applying resin.

Mylar Paper:

Mylar is frequently employed to confine and safeguard. Additionally, it exhibits chemical

stability, rendering it dependable, long-lasting, and secure for use in a diverse range of
applications. We also used mylar paper as a barrier for the mold so that resin can’t react with
other particles.

Fig. 3.6(b): Maylar Paper

Glass Rod:

Glass rods are mainly used for mixing chemicals. For mixing resin and hardener, we also used
a glass rod.

Gloves:

Gloves are mainly used for safety and security for resistance chemicals. Whereas we used resin
and hardener, so for safety we used gloves.

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3.7 Methodology:

In our material-making process, we are using the “HAND LAYUP” method.

Hand layup is a method that is used for natural and synthetic fabric to make composite. Firstly,
a mixture of resin and hardener (matrix) is spread on both the upper and the lower of the mold.
Then the fabric is placed on the mold, a brush is prior to apply the matrix, and the other fabric
is placed on the matrix-applied fabric. In this method, the fabrics are placed and then applied
uniform load on the mold.

3.8 Working Process:

We use three types of materials jute fabric, glass fabric, and polyester resin. First of all, after
cleaning the mold, we spread the mixture of resin and hardener as a matrix on the top and
bottom of the mold. Then the fabrics are placed on the mold and applied 20kg uniform load for
24 hours. We made four types of composites.

Fig.3.8: Final product of Composite Material

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 3.1 Table of the Composite Material Sample:

Sample Description Of Composite Material Composite Image

No.
1 In this composite material, the upper and
lower portions have jute fabric, and the
middle portion has glass fabric.

J+G+G+J

2 This composite was made of four plies jute

fabrics.

J+J+J+J

3 In this composite, the upper and lower

portions have glass fabric, and the middle
portion has jute fabric.

G+J+J+G

4 This composite was made of four plies

glass fabrics.

G+G+G+G

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3.9 TESTING METHODS

• TENSILE STRENGTH TEST METHOD:

The determination of the Tensile strength of the composite material testing standard method is
ASTM D3039. ISO 527-7 test standard method is also similar to ASTM D3039. A
universal testing machine (UTM) is used to assess the composite materials' tensile strength
(ASTM D3039). Specimens are dragged until they break into the grips of a Universal Test
Machine at a predetermined grip separation. The test speed for ASTM D3039 can be estimated
depending on either the time to failure or the material specification. The gauge's length was 50
mm, and the machine's jaw moved at a speed of 10 mm per minute. The specimens had
dimensions of 15 mm in breadth and 120 mm in length.
Force
Tensile strength =
Cross−section area

Fig. 3.9(a): Universal Test Machine

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 • IMPACT STRENGTH TEST METHOD:
A Universal Impact Tester was used to test the composite specimens for impact resistance. The
ASTM D256 standard was followed in the impact testing. ISO 180 test standard method is also
similar to ASTM D256. The brittleness, toughness, notch sensitivity, and impact strength of
engineering materials to withstand high-rate loading are specifically assessed using the impact
test. The most often used configurations for impact testing are Charpy and Izod specimen
setups. The standards ASTM D256 and ISO 180 govern the procedure for conducting
pendulum/Izod impact testing. This test involves the machining of a specimen into a round or
square shape, with the inclusion of one, two, or three notches. The Izod impact test involves a
pendulum with a specified weight attached to its arm, which swings downward and strikes the
specimen while it is firmly maintained in a vertical position.
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦−𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Impact strength =
Thickness

Fig.3.9(b): Universal Impact

Tester

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 • BENDING STRENGTH TEST METHOD:
In a testing standard ASTM D7264, is specifically developed to quantify the flexural stiffness
and strength characteristics of composite materials. ISO 14125 test standard method is similar
to ASTMD7264. This test method comprises two procedures: Procedure A, which entails a
four-point bending test with two loading points, and Procedure B, which involves a three-point
bending test with center loading on a supported beam. The two processes yield slightly distinct
property values due to variations in the positions of the maximum bending moment and the
maximum flexural stress. The flexural testing was performed using the previously described
Universal Testing Machine. The machine's jaw had a velocity of 20 mm/min, while the gauge
had a length of 30 mm. The specimens had a length of 120 mm and a width of 15 mm.

Applying load (F)× Support span (L)

Four point bending strength =
Specimen width × Thickness

Fig.3.9(c): Bending test of

specimen

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 • WATER UPTAKE TEST METHOD:
Water absorption tests were conducted on the ISO 62:2008 standard. It is similar to ASTM
D570. The sample size was 100 mm in length and 100 mm in width. The composite samples
were submerged in a water bath at a temperature of 23°C, which was filled with deionized
water. The variables that influence water absorption are the composition, the presence of
additives, the temperature, and the duration of exposure. The specimens were promptly
weighed upon removal from the oven, with the resulting weight recorded as Wf, while the initial
weight was denoted as Wi.
The following formula was then used to determine how much water was taken in:
(Wf−Wi)
Water uptake (%) = × 100%
Wf

Fig3.9(d): Water uptake test

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__________________________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER
FOUR
__________________________________________________________________________________

RESULT
DISCUSSION

4.1 Tensile Strength & Bending Strength

Figure 4.1 shows the tensile strength and bending strength of JJJJ, GGGG, JGGJ, and GJJG.
Fig.4.1: Tensile Strength and Bending strength of neat jute, neat glass and composites.
Here the JGGJ and GJJG are developed composite materials which is a mix of
Jute+Glass+Glass+Jute and Glass+Jute+Jute+Glass combination. In the following graph, it
is apparent that tensile strength (TS) and bending strength (BS) are obtained minimum for the
neat jute (JJJJ) composite stack. The result of neat glass (GGGG) exhibits more TS and BS.

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The strength of the hybrid composites (JGGJ) sample increases compared to the neat jute. The
result of higher strength in outer glass layers hybrid composite (GJJG) shows more better
variant than JGGJ. This shows that the hybridization of composites with reinforcement
materials shows a significant increase in tensile and bending strength.

4.2 Tensile & Bending Modulus

Fig.4. 2: Tensile & bending modulus of neat jute, neat glass and composites

The tensile modulus (TM) and bending modulus (BM) of different composite materials are
illustrated in Figure 4.2. This quantifies how much a material deforms (elastically) when it is
subjected to a particular load under tensile and bending stress. In the figure, it is visible that
the neat jute variant JJJJ maintains low load withstands because of its less elastic behavior,
where the reason for fiber structure is random fiber orientation and shorter fiber length. From
the visualization, the neat glass variant GGGG has a higher TM and BM. The main reason for
such a good result due to the high length-to-width ratio and orientation of the polymer ordered
compared to our JJJJ variant. Apart from that our hybrid composites didn’t exhibit any
remarkable elasticity compared to the neat glass variant.

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4.3 Impact strength
.

Fig.4.3: Impact strength of neat jute, neat glass and composites.

The impact strength (IS) of Jute and glass neat and composites are shown in Figure 3.
Sequentially maximum impact strength of 4.4 N-m is identified for the neat glass variant
GGGG whereas the minimum value of 1.4 N-m is shared for the neat jute variant JJJJ
composite. In the figure of IS we see the hybrid composites strength is higher than neat jute
composite. The maximum value is 2.6 N-m for the variant GJJG hybrid composites. Due to the
outer glass layer on composites, the impact strength is higher than the variant JGGJ composite
even though the glass layer number is equal. So, it denotes that impact strength is increased
with glass layers and stacking them with a sequence of glass.

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4.4 Water Absorption

(a)

(b)

Fig.4. 4: Water uptake of (a) Distilled Water (b) Sea Water for JJJJ,
GGGG, JGGJ,GJJG

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From the following Figure 4, we see the water uptake nature of neat jute, neat glass, and hybrid
composite. Neat jute variant JJJJ rapidly absorbs water from 10 hours, then its graduality
increased by 11.74% for distilled water, 11% for seawater up to 1008 hours, and then the absorb
rate is slow. For neat glass variant GGGG it does not take water up to the first 10 hours, then
it takes a negligible amount of water up to 1008 hours 0.59% for distilled water, 0.54% for
seawater. From the water uptake behavior, we can say that the water absorption rate of glass
composite is negligible and can be said to be hydrophobic. Their hybrid composites of jute and
glass exhibit a very slow water absorption rate. Its water uptake percentage is less than 5% up
to 1008 hours due to the hydrophilic nature of glass fiber and polymer resin. Form two hybrid
composite variants JGGJ and GJJG, the jute fiber layer on the outer side leads to water
absorption more rather than having glass in the outer side. JGGJ absorbs water up to 5% for
distilled water and 4.8% for seawater. GJJG started to absorb water up to 4.5% for distilled
water and 4.2% for seawater soaking for 1008 hours.

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4.5 Morphological Analysis

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig.4. 5: SEM images of (a) neat jute (JJJJ), (b) hybrid composites and (c) neat glass
(GGGG)

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The micro-level examination of the test specimens is done with a scanning electron
microscope. As the above experiment was conducted, a specimen was used to conduct
morphological analysis. This produces a magnified image for analysis of the specimen. Figure
5 displays the SEM micrographics of JJJJ, GGGG, and GJJG composite materials samples.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) microscopic image of individual specimens shows a
detailed image of adhesion between fibers and resin. Also, it shows different failure
observations in the specimen. In Figure 4, it’s illustrated that the neat jute variant (JJJJ) at the
first stage shows strong adhesion. Hereafter, subjected to tensile stress the fibers of neat jute
variant start cracking before the beginning of deterioration of adhesion between the matrix and
fibers. In the hybrid composites sample the tensile stress composite stack the jute portion has
many breakages.

For the following composites, the SEM image shows us the micro image of the composite’s
material. This gives the identification of how composite materials are organized. In the
following micro image, a more oriented fiber arrangement is found in the glass variant GGGG
composite. Because of that, the composite exhibits high tensile strength hence glass fiber
remains unbroken. On the other hand, the developed hybrid composite micro image shows
regular behavior of broken fiber structure which shows us ordinary results of those composites
in the micro level.

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4.6 Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA)

Figure 4.6: TGA of neat jute, neat glass and hybrid composites.

Figure 4.6 illustrates the thermal characteristics of pure jute, pure glass, and polyester hybrid
composites bonded with jute/glass cloth. The deterioration of the jute/polyester composite
causes the liquid moisture content to decrease by 2-3% within the temperature range of 110-
190 °C. Additionally, the polyester resin begins to melt at temperatures between 200°C and
280 °C. The weight decreased significantly by 75–20% as a result of the deconstruction and
degradation of lignin, hemicelluloses, and cellulose at temperatures ranging from 290 to 380
°C. This process begins within the temperature range of 290 to 380 °C. The ultimate
degradation takes place in a temperature range of 580-590 °C, resulting in a residual ash content
of 4%. Conversely, the pristine glass/polyester (GGGG) composites undergo decomposition
and eliminate volatile components within the temperature range of 180°C to 190°C.
Subsequently, the resin undergoes a transition into a molten state, during which its weight
gradually decreases within the temperature range of 340-550 °C. At elevated temperatures, the
intermolecular bonds weaken, causing the linear polymer's backbone to fragment into smaller
fragments. Subsequently, it gradually combusts the whole polyester matrix within the
temperature range of 560 °C to 850 °C, resulting in the formation of a rigid residue.

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__________________________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER
FIVE
__________________________________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION

Jute polymer composites have been extensively studied for their applications in various
industries. This review discusses the role of chemical treatment in improving the adhesion
between jute fibers and the matrix, as well as the resulting mechanical properties.

The research also touches on jute-bio-based resin matrix composites and jute hybrid
composites. Hybridizing jute fibers with glass fibers has been found to significantly improve
the mechanical properties, although other natural fibers can also enhance properties to some
extent. However, jute-glass hybrid composites exhibit greater strength compared to other
hybrid combinations. While Nano-level technology is still in its early stages due to challenges
in Nanofiber extraction, cellulose Nano fibers obtained from jute hold great potential for
composite applications.

The study concludes that incorporating natural and traditional continuous fibers into polymers
leads to notable enhancements in mechanical and tri-biological properties. Jute fiber
composites offer approximately 55% tensile strength and 61% flexural strength compared to
glass fiber composites. The addition of glass fibers to polyester resin changes their brittle nature
to semi-brittle, thereby improving their behavior. Jute fiber composites exhibit a brittle nature
but also demonstrate the lowest erosion rate among the different composites studied. This is
attributed to their chemical structure and strong bonding with polyester resin, which inhibits
crack propagation and deformation.

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The utilization of jute polymer composites in industries like automotive, construction, and
packaging presents opportunities for reducing environmental impact and promoting a greener
future. These composites exhibit good tensile strength, impact resistance, and thermal stability,
making them suitable for various load-bearing and structural applications.

However, further research and development are needed to optimize the manufacturing
processes, improve interfacial bonding, and enhance the overall performance of jute polymer
composites. Collaborations between academia, industry, and government agencies can
facilitate innovation, investment, and the adoption of these eco-friendly materials on a larger
scale.

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