MODULE 4

FLOW DIAGRAMS (PICTORIAL FLOW SHEETS)

Flow diagrams indicate the movement of raw material and processed material in a food
plant. They also give pictorial representation of different processes and equipment installed in
the plant. Process diagrams can be broken down into two major categories:

Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs) Process & Instrumentation Drawings (P&IDs)

 It’s a simple illustration that uses process o P&ID includes a graphic representation of the
symbols to describe the primary flow path equipment, piping and instrumentation
through a unit
 PFD includes all primary equipment and flows o It provides a complete picture of electronic
and instrumentation system to the process
technician
 A technician can use PFD to trace the primary o P&ID is used to identify the equipment,
flow of food material through the unit instruments and piping in the plant
 It is simple to draw and read o It is more complex
 PFD indicates operating variables such as mass o P&ID shows arrangement of process
flow, temperature and pressure etc. equipment, piping, pumps, instruments,
valves and other fittings

Process Flow Diagram (PFD) are further subdivided as qualitative PFDs, quantitative
PFDs and Combined PFDs
 Qualitative PFD: Indicates flow of materials, unit operations involved, equipment necessary
and special information on operating temperatures and pressures
 Quantitative PFD: Shows quantity of material required for process operations.

 Combined detail PFD: Combination of both qualitative and quantitative PFDs

 Block Flow Diagram (BFD)

Block diagram is a diagram of a system in which the principal parts or functions are
represented by blocks connected by lines that show the relationships of the blocks. The block
diagram is typically used for a higher level, less detailed description aimed more at
understanding the overall concepts and less at understanding the details of implementation.
MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT
Material handling includes a number of operations that can be executed either by hand
(manual) or by mechanical means or devices to convey material and to reduce the human
drudgery. Mechanical handling devices aim to lighten the work of human labour.
After harvesting, crops are moved, transported or conveyed from place to place. In earlier
periods all these operations were manual. The crops were primary processed and bagged/boxed
by human labour. Foods were transported several times through storage and processing plants,
and the processed food products were conveyed manually to consumers.
Thus, foods were handled too much involving increased costs and human drudgery. But
in modem times, some of the mechanical devices have replaced human labour, other supplement
it or in some case make possible to handle larger quantities of grains per unit human labour.
 Material Handling Devices
a. Conveyors
Conveyors are widely used in all food processing industries for the movement of solid
materials, both within unit operations and between operations. There are a large number of
conveyor designs, produced to meet specific applications. Common types include the following.
1. Belt conveyor: This is an endless belt, which is held under tension between two rollers, one of
which is driven. The belts may be stainless steel mesh or wire, synthetic rubber, or a composite
of canvass, steel and polyurethane or polyester. Flat belts are used to carry packed foods, and
trough-shaped belts are used for bulk materials. Belts may be inclined up to 45°, if they are fitted
with cross slats to prevent the product from slipping. Metal or wooden slatted conveyors are used
instead of belts for greater load bearing and a reduced risk of damage to the conveyor.

A belt conveyor is an endless belt operating between two pulleys with its load supported
on idlers. The belt may be flat for transporting bagged material or V-shaped or some other
enclosed shape for moving bulk grains. The belt conveyor consists of a belt, drive mechanism
and end pulleys, idlers and loading and discharge devices. Belt conveyors have antifriction
bearing, therefore, these have a high mechanical efficiency. Material carried by belt conveyor lie
still on the surface of belt or there is no relative motion between the product and belt. This results
in generally no damage to material. Belt can be run at higher speeds, so, large carrying capacities
are possible. Horizontally the material can be transported to longer distance but there is a limit to
carry the material on elevation. A properly designed and maintained belt conveyor has long
service life and low operating costs. Compared to other types of horizontal conveying system,
the initial cost of belt conveyor is high for short distances. But for longer distances, the initial
cost of belt conveying system is competitive or low.
2. Roller conveyor and skate wheel conveyor: Free-running (unpowered) rollers or wheels are
either horizontal, to allow packed foods to be pushed along, or slightly inclined for transport
under gravity. Rollers are heavier and stronger than wheels and therefore able to carry heavier
loads. However, they are more difficult to start and stop, and more difficult to use around
corners. Steeper inclines produce greater acceleration of packages, and a fall of approximately 10
cm in 3 m is sufficient for most purposes. Powered conveyors are used horizontally, or at a
maximum inclination of 10-12°.
3. Screw conveyor: This consists of a rotating helical screw inside a metal trough. It is used to
move bulk foods (for example flour and sugar) and small-particulate foods (for example peas or
grains). The main advantages are the uniform, easily controlled discharge, the compact cross-
section (without a return conveyor) and total enclosure to protect the product and to prevent
contamination. They may be horizontal or vertically inclined but are generally limited to a
maximum length of 6 m as, above this, high friction forces result in excessive power
consumption.
 The screw conveyor consists of a tubular or U-shaped trough in which a shaft with spiral
screw revolves. The screw shaft is supported by end and hanger bearings. The rotation of screw
pushes the grain along the trough. The screw conveyor is used for conveying of products
generally for short distances. Screw conveyor requires relatively high power and is more
susceptible to wear than other types of conveyors. The pitch of a standard screw, which is the
distance from the center of one thread to the center of the next thread, is equal to its diameter.
The screw conveyor is generally used to move grains horizontally. However, it can also be used
at any angle up to 90° from the horizontal, but the capacity correspondingly reduced as per the
inclination of conveyance.
b. Elevators
1. Bucket elevators: consist of metal or plastic buckets fixed between
two endless chains. They have a high capacity for free-flowing
powders and particulate foods. The shape and spacing of the buckets,
the method of discharge and the speed of the conveyor (15-100 m
min−1) control the flow rate of materials.
A bucket elevator consists of buckets attached to a chain or belt
that revolves around two pulleys one at top and the other at bottom.
The vertical lift of the elevator may range between few meters to more
than 50 m. Capacities of bucket elevators may vary from 2 to 1000
t/hr. Bucket elevators are broadly classified into two general types: 1)
spaced bucket elevators and 2) continuous bucket elevators.
The bucket elevator's capacity mainly depends on bucket size,
conveying speed, bucket design and spacing, the way of loading and
unloading, the bucket and the characteristic of bulk material. Belt
speed is the first critical factor to consider. Bucket elevators with a belt carrier can be used at
fairly high speeds of 2.5 to 4 m/s.
2. Pneumatic elevators: Powders or small-particulate foods are suspended in air, which is re-
circulated at 1000-1700 m min−1 inside a system of pipes. The air velocity is critical; if it is too
low, the solids settle out whereas, if it is too high, there is abrasion damage to the pipe surfaces.
Similar equipment is used to classify foods and to dry foods. A build-up of static electricity is
prevented by control over the moisture content of the food and earthing the equipment. This is
necessary when conveying powders to minimize the risk of dust explosions. This type of
equipment has a smooth operation and cannot be overloaded. It has few moving parts; low
maintenance costs and only requires a supply of compressed air at 700 kPa.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL FOR FOOD PLANT
 Characteristics of Suitable Construction Material
Construction materials for food processing and auxiliary system equipment that are in contact
with foods or cleaning agents should have certain characteristics:
a) Resistance to corrosive action of foods or chemicals (cleaning and sanitation agents) that may
converge with exposed surfaces of construction materials.
b) Suitable surface finish to discourage buildup of dirt that can accumulate with excessive
surface rugosity
c) Good mechanical behavior according to performance of mechanical functions, such as
structural strength, resistance to abrasion and physical or thermal shocks, and pressure charges.
 Types of Materials and Applications
The most common materials used for constructing the Food Equipment
i. Stainless steel
ii. Aluminium
iii. Nickel and Monel
iv. Plastic Materials
i. Stainless Steel
Stainless steel exhibits some of the most suitable characteristics of the construction
materials used for food equipment. It is the most widely used material in direct contact with food
found in the industry. Of the types available, AISI 304 stainless steel is the most commonly used.
(AISI – American Iron Steel Institute)
ii. Aluminum
Aluminum has a high thermal conductivity, around 217 W/m. K or 187 kcal/h. m.°C and
a specific weight of 2700 kg/m3. It is corrosion resistant under normal conditions during the
distillation of water, fruit juice, milk, and SO2. It does not, however, resist attack by
hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid, or caustic solutions. For this reason, alkali products must not
be used with this material. Acid cleaning agents, on the other hand, are appropriate for
aluminum. Currently, aluminum is used in the construction of some parts of food process
equipment. It is not as corrosion resistant as stainless steel, and it is not as resistant to abrasion
from cleaning and sanitization products and foodstuffs.
iii. Nickel and Monel
Pure nickel and monel (an alloy with 67% nickel, 28% copper, and the remainder iron
and manganese) were widely used in preference over nude or tinned copper for food equipment
until stainless steel proved to be the more satisfactory material.
An alloy of nickel, zinc, and copper has been used in casting pieces for valves, mainly for
closing devices, since it exhibits better mechanical abrasion resistance than nickel or stainless
steel.
Monel is the preferred material for common salt processing systems since it exhibits even
better corrosion resistance than stainless steel. It is also employed in pumps that handle alcohol,
brines, vegetal oils, and fruit juices.
iv. Plastic Materials
Plastic materials are used in harvesting and transporting agricultural raw materials to the
food processing plant, in food packaging of solid and liquid foods, and even in food process
equipment (mainly processing tanks).
The most important plastics are:
• Polypropylene.
• High density polyethylene
• Rigid PVC
• Polyester
• Epoxy resins

ILLUMINATION AND VENTILATION

 Illumination of the Processing Facility

Pride in the workplace is easier to maintain in a well-illuminated plant than in a dark and dull
facility. Working in an environment that is perceived to be clean promotes neat and tidy work
habits. Good illumination enhances the operation of a well-run plant and promotes efficiency and
safe working conditions.
Good lighting is an easy goal to reach and a quick fix to eliminate dark corners and
unsafe work areas. The range of lighting hardware makes it possible to have a well-lighted plant.
Industry recognizes standards that should be met or exceeded.
When a lighting system is designed, the following points should be considered:
• Distribution pattern of the light and suitability in the area involved
• Illumination output of the light hardware
• Possibility that larger lamps can be used in the same fitting when more light is required
• Design and construction of the lamp and its fitting
• Change in lamp efficiency over time and ease of periodic servicing, cleaning, and replacement
• System cost
Light Intensity and Application
In any work area, the light should be diffuse and uniformly constant. For the most
efficient use of available light, the ceiling should have a minimum reflectance of 75% and the
sidewalls 50 to 60%. The floor should be 20% reflective. To prevent eyestrain, glare should be
avoided. The amount of light reflected off any surface is affected by the smoothness of the
surface. When the surface is rough, the reflection will be scattered, and the reflected light will
diffuse. When the paint surface is smooth, irregularities in the painted surface can cause glare.
The color of the paint will also affect the amount of light reflected. Because walls are normally
fairly smooth, color is the dominant factor in determining reflectance and illumination.
Light colors reflect high proportions of light, while dark colors absorb a lot of light.
Table 2 provides reflection values for different colors of paint. There is obvious variation
between shades of the same color. Human perception of color is influenced by the color of the
light that illuminates it. When the dominant color in an area is cream, ivory or tan, white
fluorescent lighting will be best. If the dominant colors are blue or green, the blue type
fluorescent lights will work best.
Types of Lamps
Many types of lamps are used in processing areas. In most cases, fluorescent lamps are
favored because they have about 2.5 times the efficiency of incandescent lamps. They also give
soft diffused light without glare. Fluorescent lamps are best suited in areas where the lamp stays
on for long periods of time. In places where lamps are frequently switched on and off,
fluorescent light should not be used. Frequent on and off service not only results in a short
lifespan of the lighting element but places an extra load on the starting transformer. Fluorescent
lamps can be used for about 2500 to 4000 h before they need to be replaced. Incandescent lamps
must be replaced every 800 to 1000 h.
Most installations use fluorescent lighting in all areas possible. In some high moisture
areas, including cold rooms and where explosive vapors may be present, incandescent light
fittings with vapor-proof fixtures are required. In the cereal industry, cereal dust can be very
explosive when mixed with the right amount of air. In these cases, light bulbs and all fittings are
completely enclosed and water tight.
 At loading docks, large warehouses and outside areas, where extensive coverage is
required, mercury vapor lamps are used. Mercury vapor lamps are several times more efficient
than fluorescent lighting. Incandescent lamps radiate more long-wave radiation in the yellow and
red ranges, while fluorescent lighting is bluer. Incandescent lamps produce light and heat. This is
an obvious drawback in cold storage areas. If fluorescent lighting is used in cold rooms, the tubes
must be rated to operate at temperatures below 5ºC.
The installation cost for fluorescent lighting is considerably greater than the cost for
incandescent lighting. The energy savings will pay for this additional expense over time. All
light bulbs should be replaced at regular intervals. Lights have an average lifespan and should be
replaced before they break.
 Ventilation
Ventilation is the supply of fresh, conditioned air to replace unwanted air. Conditioning
can include alteration of moisture content, change of temperature, and filtering to remove
particulates and organisms.
Within the processing area, ventilation will remove obnoxious odors, moisture, and heat
and replace it with air that is free from contaminants and air that will increase the comfort level
of workers. The amount of air is calculated as a replacement volume. Depending upon the
production processes, the air can be replaced from 6 to 20 times per hour. It is also advisable to
keep the processing area under a slight positive pressure. This will ensure that processing area air
flows out when a door is opened.
Special air is required in areas where baby formula is handled or where aseptic operations
take place. In these cases, air will be filtered through special filters that will remove organisms.
The processing area must be under positive pressure at all times so that no organisms can enter
from adjacent processing areas.
CLEANING & SANITIZATION
Cleaning and sanitation should be considered an integral part of food process design and
food processing operations. The food processing equipment should be designed to facilitate the
removal and draining of all the process effluents (steam condensate, waste solids, e.g., peels). All
dead ends in tanks, containers, and piping should be eliminated.
Fouling is particularly important in heat exchangers and other installations involving
fluid flow (evaporators, filters, cyclones, etc.). The food processing equipment must be cleaned
easily either by quick dismantling and cleaning the parts, or by Cleaning-In-Place (CIP)
techniques. The equipment of small food processing plants is usually cleaned by periodic
dismantling of the principal units, such as pumps, plate heat exchangers, filters etc. Quick
dismantling and reassembling of process piping is facilitated by various hand opening clumps.
The design and installation of CIP systems in large food processing plants requires
specialized experience in pipe flow, sanitation, processing operations, and process control.
 The CIP system involves the following sequential operations: 1) Pre-rinsing with cold
(soft) water; 2) alkali wash (supplemented with sodium hypochlorite); 3) intermediate water
rinse; 4) acid rinse; 5) final water rinse; and 6) rinse with sanitizing solution (sodium
hypochlorite) or flushing with hot (90 °C) water. The CIP system is actually a chemical cleaning
operation, in which the chemical solution is brought into contact with all soiled surfaces.
Addition of surface active substances, reducing substantially the surface tension of water,
facilitates the penetration of water and aqueous cleaning solutions into crevices of the equipment.
The required tanks, pumps, pipes, valves and heaters (heat exchangers or steam injection
devices) are used either as single-use or re-use (recirculation) systems. Air-operated piston or
diaphragm-type pumps are used to feed the chemical solutions. For safety reasons, the pumps
and the chemical supply containers are enclosed in a separate compartment of the processing
plant.
Ball spray devices are used to clean process and storage tanks. Cylindrical and
rectangular tanks are cleaned using liquid feed rates of 8-12 L/min m2 internal surface, while
vertical silos require liquid rates of 25-35 L/min m tank circumference. Adequate inclination
(slope) of piping and process vessels is essential for self-draining of process and cleaning liquids.
Usually, food equipment must be cleaned daily, after a processing period. However, when
different products are processed in the same equipment, cleaning depends also on the frequency
of product changes.
Effective CIP requires automation of the whole system. Microprocessor controllers
(PLC) are used in connection with on-line sensors for temperature, level, flow rate, pressure, and
valve position. The concentration of cleaning agents and organic effluents can be measured with
pH meters, redox potential meters, and optical density meters. The degree of surface
contamination can be determined by pressure drop measurements in the pipeline.
Definition of Sanitation
The word sanitation comes from the Latin word sanitas, which means "health." In the
food industry, sanitation means creating and maintaining hygienic and healthful conditions.
Scientific principles are used by healthy food handlers in a hygienic environment to produce
wholesome food. Sanitation can reduce the growth of microorganisms on equipment and dirt on
food. This can reduce contamination of food by microorganisms that cause food borne illness
and food spoilage. Sanitation is more than just cleanliness. Food or equipment can be free of
visible dirt and still be contaminated with microorganisms or chemicals that can cause illness or
food spoilage.