TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

INTRODUCTION
The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from the Greek words ‘trigon’ and ‘metron’ and it means
‘measuring the sides of a triangle’. The subject was originally developed to solve geometric
problems involving triangles.
In this chapter we review the definition of these trigonometric ratios and extend the concept
of cosine, sine and tangent. We define the cosine, sine and tangent as functions of all real
numbers. These trigonometric functions are extremely important in science, engineering and
mathematics, and some familiarity with them will be assumed in most first year university
mathematics courses.

ANGLES AND ANGULAR MEASURE

An angle can be thought of as the amount of rotation required to
take one straight line to another line with a common point. Angles
are often labelled with Greek letters, for example θ. Sometimes an
arrow is used to indicate the direction of the rotation. If the arrow
points in an anticlockwise direction, the angle is positive. If it
points clockwise, the angle is negative.
Angles can be measured in degrees or radians. Measurement in
degrees is based on dividing the circumference of the circle into
360 equal parts. You are probably familiar with this method of
measurement.

Fractions of a degree are expressed in minutes (‘) and seconds (‘’). There are sixty seconds in
one minute, and sixty minutes in one degree. So an angle of 31°17’ can be expressed as
17
31   31.28 
60
The radian is a natural unit for measuring angles. We use radian B
1
measure in calculus because it makes the derivatives of trigonometric
functions simple. You should try to get used to thinking in radians
A
rather than degrees. O

To measure an angle in radians, construct a unit circle (radius 1) with

centre at the vertex of the angle. The radian measure of an angle AOB
is defined to be the length of the circular arc AB around the Figure 3.3
circumference.
This definition can be used to find the number of radians corresponding to one complete
revolution.
In a complete revolution, A moves anticlockwise around the whole
1
circumference of the unit circle, a distance of 2π. So a complete
revolution is measured as 2π radians. That is, 2π radians corresponds
A
to 360°. O

Fractions of a revolution correspond to angles which are fractions of

2π.
Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

RADIAN MEASURE AND ARC LENGTH

There is a useful relationship between the length of an arc AB on a circle of radius r and the
radian measure θ is the angle that the arc subtends at the circle’s centre C.
s
  , or s  r
Here r
 RELATION BETWEEN DEGREE AND RADIAN
Since 2π radians is equal to 360°
π radians = 180°,
180 

1 radian  = 57.3°,
180
y
y radians = 
and similarly

1  radians
180
≈ 0.017,

y  y  radians
180
If you are going to do calculus, it is important to get used to thinking in terms of radian
measure. In particular, think of:
3
radians
360° as 2π radians, 270° as 2 ,

radians
180° as π radians, 90° as 2
 
radians radians
60° as 3 , 45° as 4


radians
30° as 6

NOTATIONAL CONVENTION
Generally angles are measured in radians or in degrees.
For an angle having degree measureθ, we write θ°. For an angle having radian measureθ, we
writeθ. Thus if an angle has measure 3, we mean that the angle has measure 3 radians.
Whenever we write 360° = 2π, we mean that 360° = 2π radian.

RELATION BETWEEN RADIAN AND REAL NUMBERS

Any real number can be thought of as a radian measure if we express B
the number as a multiple of 2π.
5  1 
 2   1    2  A
For example, 2  4 2 corresponds to the arc length O

1
1
of 4 revolutions of the unit circle going anticlockwise from A to B.
Figure 3.7
Similarly, 27 ≈ 4.297 × 2π
 = 4 × 2π + 0.297 × 2π
Corresponds to an arc length of 4.297 revolutions of the unit circle
going anticlockwise. B
We can also think of negative numbers in terms of radians. O
A
Remember for negative radians we measure arc length clockwise
around the unit circle.
For example, −16 ≈ −2.546 × 2π = −2 × 2π + −0.546 × 2π
corresponds to the arc length of approximately 2.546 revolutions of Figure 3.8
the unit circle going clockwise from A to B.
We are, in effect, wrapping the positive real number line anticlockwise around the unit circle
and the negative real number line clockwise around the unit circle, starting in each case with
0 at A, (1, 0).
By doing so we are associating each and every real number with exactly one point on the unit
circle. Real numbers that have a difference of 2π (or a multiple of 2π) correspond to the same
5 
point on the unit circle. Using one of our previous examples 2 corresponds to 2 as they
differ by a multiple of 2π.

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS IN A RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE

If you have met trigonometry before, you probably learned definitions of sin θ, cos θ and tan
θ which were expressed as ratios of the sides of a right angled triangle.
These definitions are repeated here, just to remind you, but we shall go on, in the next
section, to give a much more useful definition.
In a right angled triangle, the side opposite to the right angle is called the hypotenuse. If we
choose one of the other angles and label it θ, the other sides are often called opposite (the side
opposite to θ) and adjacent (the side next to θ).

Hypotenuse
Opposite


Adjacent
Figure 3.9
For a given θ, there is a whole family of right angled triangles, that are triangles of different
sizes but are the same shape.

  
Figure 3.10
For each of the triangles above, the ratios of corresponding sides have the same values.
 adjacent
The ratio hypotenuse has the same value for each triangle. This ratio is given a special name,
the cosine of θ or cos θ.
opposite
The ratio hypotenuse has the same value for each triangle. This ratio is the sine of θ or sin θ.
opposite
The ratio adjacent takes the same value for each triangle. This ratio is called the tangent of θ
or tanθ.
adjacent
cos  
Summarising, hypotenuse
opposite
sin  
hypotenuse
opposite
tan  
adjacent

SOME SPECIAL TRIGNOMETRIC RATIOS

  
, and
You will need to be familiar with the trigonometric ratios of 6 3 4
 
and
The ratios of 6 3 are found with the aid of an equilateral triangle ABC with sides of
length 2.
∠BAC is bisected by AD, and ∠ ADC is a right angle.
Pythagoras’ theorem tells us that the length of AD  3 .
A

2 2
3

1 1
C B
D
Figure 3.11

 ACD 
3

 DAC 
6
 1  3
cos  , cos 
3 2 6 2
 3  1
sin  , cos 
3 2 6 2
  1
tan  3 , tan 
3 6 3
 
The ratios of 4 are found with the aid of an isosceles right angled
triangle XYZ with the two equal sides of length 1.
Pythagoras’ theorem tells us that the hypotenuse of the triangle has
X
length 2 .
/4
 1
cos  ,
4 2 2 1

 1 /4 1
sin  , Z Y
4 2


tan  1, Figure 3.12
4

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
We define the trigonometric functions in terms of
Y
the co-ordinates of the point P(x, y), where the
angle’s terminal ray intersects the circle.
Hypotenuse P(x, y)
y r r
y opposite
sine : sin   cos ecant : cos ec   
r y X
O x
x r Adjacent
cos ine : cos   sec ant : sec  
r x
y x
Tangent : tan   cot angent : cot  
x y

Figure 3.13
Here, tan θ and sec θ are not defined if x = 0, This Y
P(x, y) = (r cos, rsin)
 3
 , ,.......
means they are not defined if θ is 2 2 and
similarly cot θ and cosec θ are not defined for
values of θ for which y= 0, r

X
i.e.   0,  ,  2 , . . . . ..
O

The co-ordinate of any point P(x,y) in the plane can

be expressed in terms of the point’s distance from
the origin and the angle that ray OP makes with the
positive x-axis
x y Figure 3.14
since  cos  and  sin 
r r
we have x  r cos  , y  r sin 
 Table 3.1: Values Of Trigonometric Ratios Of Standard Angles

Angles θ →
0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
T.ratios ↓

1 1 3
sin θ 0 1
2 2 2

3 1 1
cos θ 1 0
2 2 2

1
tan θ 0 1 3 Undefined
3

1
cot θ Undefined 3 1 0
3

2
sec θ 1 2 2 Undefined
3

2
cosec θ Undefined 2 2 1
3

SIGNS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The sign of the trigonometric ratios of an angle depend of the quadrant in which the terminal side of
the angle lies. We always take OP = r to be positive. Thus the signs of all the trigonometric ratios
depend on the sign of x and y
Y Y

P(x, y) P(x, y)
r r
y y 

X’ X X’ X
O x L L x O

Y’ Y’

Figure 3.15 Figure 3.16

Also any trigonometric function of an angle θ° is equal to the same trigonometric function of an
angle n × 360° + θ, where n is any integer as all these angles will have the same terminal ray.
 Y

Second quadrant First quadrant

(sin, cosec (all are positive)
are positive)
X’ X
O
Third quadrant Fourth quadrant
(tan, cot are (cos, sec are
positive) positive)

Figure 3.17
For example, sin 60° = sin 420° = sin(− 300°) with the introduction of coordinate system the plane is
divided into four quadrants. An angle is said to be in that quadrant in which its terminal ray lies.
For positive acute angles, this definition gives the same result as in case of a right angled triangle
since x and y are both positive for any point in the first quadrant and consequently they are the
length of base and perpendicular of the angle θ.
1. Clearly in first quadrant sin θ, cos θ, tan θ, sec θ and cosec θ are all positive as x, y are positive.
2. In second quadrant, x is negative and y is positive, therefore, only sin θ and cosec θ are
positive.
3. In third quadrant, x and y are both negative, therefore, only tan θ and cot θ are positive.
4. In fourth quadrant, x is positive and y is negative, therefore, only cos θ and sec θ are positive.

Table 3.2: Signs of Trigonometric Functions

Quadran
t I II III IV
→
sin θ + + − −
cos θ + − − +
tan θ + − + −
cosec θ + + − −
sec θ + − − +
cot θ + − + −

DOMAIN AND RANGE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

r  x2  y2  x  r and y r

Also x  a  a  x  a
x  a  x   a or x  a
Therefore,
y y y
sin     1
(i) r r r 1  sin   1
x x x
cos     1
(ii) r r r 1  cos   1
 Thus, domain of the functions y = sin θ and y = cos θ is the set of all real numbers and
the range is the interval [−1, 1] i.e., −1 ≤ y ≤ 1.
r r r
cosec    1
(iii) y y y cosec  1 or cosec   1
1
 cosec  
sin  , therefore, the domain of the function y = cosec θ is the set
{θ : θ ∈ R and θ ≠ nπ , n is an integer} and the range is the set {y : y ∈ R, y ≤ −1 or y ≥
1}.
r r r
sec     1
(iv) x x x sec   1 or sec   1
1
 sec  
cos  , therefore, the domain of the function y = sec θ is the set

 :  R and    2n  1 

2
,n is an integer  and the range is the set {y : y ∈ R, y ≤ −1 or y
≥ 1}
y y
tan    
(v) x x any non-negative real number ∴ − ∞ <tanθ< ∞
sin 
tan  
Again, cos  , therefore, domain of the function y = tanθ is the set

 :  R and    2n  1 

2
,n is an integer  and the range is the set of all real numbers.
x x
cot    
(vi) y y any non-negative real number ∴ −∞ < cot θ < ∞
cos 
cot  
Since, sin  , therefore, the domain of the function y = cot θ is the set
{θ : θ ∈ R and θ ≠ nπ, n is an integer} and the range is the set of all real numbers.

LIMITS OF THE VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

(i) −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 (ii) −1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1
(iii) sec θ ≤ −1 or sec θ ≥ 1 (iv) cosec θ ≤ −1 or cosec θ ≥ 1
(v) −∞ <tanθ< ∞ (vi) −∞ <cotθ< ∞

THE PYTHAGOREAN IDENTITIES

Remember that Pythagoras’ theorem states that in any right
angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the A(x, y)
sum of the squares on the other two sides. 1
y
In the right angled triangle OAB, x = cos θ and y = sin θ, so 
O x B
2 2
cos θ + sin θ = 1 ____________(1).
Remember that cos2 θ means (cos θ)2 = cos θ cos θ.
Two other important identities can be derived from this one.
Figure 3.18
Dividing both sides of (6) by cos2 θ we obtain
cos 2  sin2  1
 
cos 2  cos 2  cos 2 
i.e., 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ.
If we divide both sides of (1) by sin2 θ we get
cos 2  sin2  1
 
sin 
2
sin 
2
sin2 
i.e., cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ. Summarising,
cos θ + sin2 θ = 1
2 __________
(1)
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ __________
(2)
cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ __________ (3)

SUM AND DIFFERENCES OF ANGLES

A number of useful identities depend on the expressions for sin(α + β) and cos(α − β).
We shall state these expressions, then show how they can be derived.
sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β ____________ (4)
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β ____________ (5)
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β ____________ (6)
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β ____________ (7)
The expressions for sin(α + β), sin(α − β) and cos(α + β) can all be derived from the
expression for cos(α − β). We derive that expression first.
Look at the two diagrams below containing the angle (α − β). We assume α is greater than β.
We draw α and β in standard position (i.e., We draw the angle α − β in standard position
from the positive x-axis), and let A and B be and let A’ be the point where its terminal
the points where the terminal sides of α and β side cuts the unit circle.
cut the unit circle.
A’


B’
O

Figure 3.19
 Figure 3.20
A is the point (cos α, sin α). A’ is the point (cos(α − β), sin(α − β)).
B is the point (cos β, sin β). B’ is the point (1, 0).
The triangles OAB and OA’B’ are congruent, since triangle OA’B’ is obtained by rotating
OAB until OB lies along the x-axis. Therefore AB and A’B’ are equal in length.
Recall that the distance between two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is given by the formula
(PQ)2 = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2.
So the distance AB is given by
(AB)2 = (cos β − cos α)2 + (sin β − sin α)2
= cos2 β − 2 cos α cos β + cos2 α + sin2 β − 2 sin α sin β + sin2 α
= 2− 2 cos α cos β − 2 sin α sin β.
The distance A’B’ is given by
(A’B’)2 = (cos(α − β) − 1)2 + (sin(α − β))2
= cos (α − β) − 2 cos(α − β) + 1 + sin2(α − β)
2

= 2− 2 cos(α − β).
These distances are equal so
2 − 2 cos(α − β) = 2 − 2 cos α cos β − 2 sin α sin β
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β.
From this we can derive expressions for cos(α + β), sin(α +
β) and sin(α − β). (x, y)

In order to do this we need to know the following results: 

O 
sin(−θ) = −sin θ
cos(−θ) = cos θ (x, y)

 
sin     cos     Figure 3.21
and 2 



  2
cos     sin     
2 
Figure 3.22
Now,
cos(α + β) = cos(α − (−β))
= cos α cos(−β) + sin α sin(−β)
= cos α cos β − sin α sin β
 
 cos        
sin(α + β) 2 
   
 cos        
 2  
   
 cos     cos   sin     sin 
2  2 
 sin  cos   cos  sin 
 sin(α − β) = sin(α + (−β))
= sin α cos(−β) + cos α sin(−β)
= sin α cos β − cos α sin β.
These formulae can be used in many different ways.

DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAE

Expressions for the trigonometric functions of 2θ follow very easily from the preceding
formulae.
We shall summaries them and ask you to derive them as an exercise.
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ ___________ (8)
cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ ___________ (9)
cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 ___________ (10)
cos 2θ = 1− 2 sin2 θ ___________
(11)
2 tan 
tan2 
1  tan2  ___________
(12)

TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
An equation involving one or more trigonometrical ratios of unknown angle is called
trigonometric equation e.g. cos2x – 4 sinx = 1. It is to be noted that a trigonometrical identity
is satisfied for every value of the unknown angle whereas, trigonometric equation is satisfied
only for some values (finite or infinite in number) of unknown angle. e.g. sin2x + cos2x = 1 is
a trigonometrical identity as it is satisfied for every value of x∈ R.

SOLUTION OF A TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION

A value of the unknown angle which satisfies the given equation is called a solution of the
1

equation e.g.    / 6 is a solution of sin 2.

PRINCIPAL SOLUTION OF A TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION

The solutions of a trigonometric equation lying in the interval [0, 2π] i.e., lying between 0
and 2π including 0 and excluding 2π are called principal solutions.
1  5
sin  
e.g. 2 , then the two values of θ between 0 and 2π are 6 and 6 .
 5 1
sin  
Thus 6 and 6 are the principal solutions of equation 2.

GENERAL SOLUTION

Since trigonometrically functions are periodic functions, solutions of trigonometric equations

can be generalized with the help of the periodicity of the trigonometrical functions. The
solution consisting of all possible solutions of a trigonometric equation is called its general
solution.
We use the following formulae for solving the trigonometric equations: (n  I)
  
    ,  ,n  I
If sinθ = sinαthen θ = nπ + (– 1) α, where n  2 2

Note:

Everywhere in this chapter n is taken as an integer, if not stated otherwise.

The general solution should be given unless the solution is required in a specified interval or
range.

THEOREM 1
For any real numbers x and y, sin x = sin y implies x = nπ + (–1)n y, where n ∈ Z

PROOF
xy xy
2 cos sin 0
If sin x = sin y, then sin x – sin y = 0 or 2 2
xy xy
cos 0 sin 0
which gives 2 or 2
xy  xy
  2n  1   n
Therefore 2 2 or 2 where n ∈ Z
i.e. x = (2n + 1) π – y or x = 2nπ + y, where n∈Z
Hence x = (2n + 1)π + (–1)2n+ 1 y or x = 2nπ +(–1)2n y, where n ∈ Z.
Combining these two results, we get x = nπ + (–1)n y, where n ∈ Z.

THEOREM 2
For any real numbers x and y, cos x = cos y, implies x = 2nπ ± y, where n ∈ Z

PROOF
xy xy
2sin sin 0
If cos x = cos y, then cos x – cos y = 0 i.e., 2 2
xy xy
sin 0 sin 0
Thus 2 or 2
xy xy
 n  n
Therefore 2 or 2 where n ∈ Z
i.e. x = 2nπ – y or x = 2nπ + y, where n ∈ Z
Hence x = 2nπ ± y, where n ∈ Z
THEOREM 3

Prove that if x and y are not odd multiple of 2 , then tan x = tan y implies x = nπ + y, where n
∈Z
PROOF

If tan x = tan y, then tan x – tan y = 0

sinx cos y  cos x sin y
0
or cos x cos y
which gives sin (x – y) = 0
Therefore x – y = nπ, i.e., x = nπ + y, where n ∈ Z

SOLUTIONS TO THRILL IN RESERVE

1. Let AB be the diameter of the moon and O be the observer on earth. Given,
31 
 AOB  31   radians
60 180 .
B

C 31 O

A
Since angle subtended by the moon is very small, therefore, its diameter will be
approximately equal to the arc of a circle whose centre is the eye of observer and radius is
the distance of the earth from the moon. Also the moon subtends an angle of 31′ at the centre
of this circle.
l 31  AB
  
 r ∴ 60 180 38400
31 22 8
AB    38400  3464 km
∴ 60 7  180 63

2. Let A and B be the position of the boats such that AB = X.

Clearly, ∠AOB = 180° – (50° + 80°) = 50°
 N

x
50°

W E
O
80°
B
S
Using cosine formula, we have
AB2 = OA2 + OB2 – 2 OA. OB cos∠AOB
⇒x2 = (56)2 + (48)2 – 2 × 56 × 48 cos 50°
⇒x2 = 3136 + 2304 – 2 × 56 × 48 × 0.6428
⇒x2 = 5440 – 3455.69 = 1984.31
⇒ x  1984.31  44.54 m
Hence, the distance between the boats is 44.54 km.