Chapter 5
Electronic Oscillation
Generators
Slide 1
6.0 Introduction
In the design of electronic systems, the need frequently
arises for signals having prescribed standard waveforms:
Linear oscillators: sine waveform
Non-linear oscillators or function generators: square,
triangular, pulse waveforms.
Employing a positive-feedback loop that consists an
amplifier and an RC or LC frequency-selective network
to generate the sine waveform.
Employing multivibrators in forms as bistable, astable,
and monostable to generate square, triangular, pulse
waveforms.
Textbook: Adel. S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith. Microelectronic Circuits. Oxford
University Press. 2011 (Chapter 17).
6.1 Basic principles of sinusoidal oscillators
Oscillator Feedback Loop
Characteristic equation:
where
6.1 Basic principles of sinusoidal oscillators
Oscillator Criterion
The condition for the
feedback loop to provide
sinusoidal oscillations of
frequency w0 is
Barkhausen Criterion:
At w0 the phase of the loop gain should be zero.
At w0 the magnitude of the loop gain should be unity.
Dependence of the oscillator-frequency stability
on the slope of the phase response.
If is large, changing in 𝜔 will be small
6.1 Basic principles of sinusoidal oscillators
Nonlinear Amplitude Control
Suppose we make Aβ=1 at w=w0,
o If the temperature changes, Aβ <1 and oscillation will cease.
o If Aβ>1, the oscillations will grow in amplitude.
We therefore need a nonlinear circuit for gain control to force Aβ to
remain equal at the desired value of output amplitude.
The function of gain-control mechanism is as follows:
o To ensure that oscillation will start, Aβ is designed greater than
unity.
o As the oscillation grow in amplitude and reaches the desired level,
the nonlinear network reduces the loop gain to exactly unity (poles
will be pulled back to jw axis)
o If the loop gain is reduced below unity, the amplitude will diminish
and the nonlinear network increases the loop gain to exactly unity.
6.1 Basic principles of sinusoidal oscillators
Nonlinear Amplitude Control
Limiter Circuit for Amplitude Control
o For small vI, D1/D2 off
slope=
o As vI continues to go positive, vO goes
negative. D1 on/D2 off
Gain: ; Limiter gain: −𝑹𝒇 ⁄𝑹𝟏 Limiter circuit
o As vI continues to go negative, vO
goes positive. D1 off/D2 on
Gain:
6.1 Basic principles of sinusoidal oscillators
Nonlinear Amplitude Control
Limiter Circuit for Amplitude Control
Limiter circuit
Transfer characteristic
6.1 Basic principles of sinusoidal oscillators
Nonlinear Amplitude Control
Limiter Circuit for Amplitude Control
Popular Limiter circuit Transfer characteristic When 𝑅 is removed
Exercise 6.1
For the circuit as below figure with
V = 15 V, R1 = 30 kΩ, Rf = 60 kΩ, R2
= R5 = 9 kΩ, and R3 = R4= 3 kΩ,
find the limiting levels and the
value of 𝑣 at which the limiting
levels are reached. Also determine
the limiter gain and the slope of the
transfer characteristic in the
positive and negative limiting
regions. Assume that 𝑣 = 0.7𝑉.
6.2 Op Amp – RC Oscillator Circuits
Wien-Bridge Oscillator
1 𝑅
𝜔 = =2+𝛿
𝑅𝐶 𝑅
Wien – Bridge oscillator without amplitude stabilization
Wien – Bridge oscillator with a
limiter used for amplitude control
A Wien-bridge oscillator with an
alternative method for amplitude
stabilization.
Exercise 6.2: For the circuit in below figure: a) disregarding
the limiter circuit, find the location of the closed-loop poles;
(b) Find the frequency of oscillation. (c) find the amplitude of
the output sine wave (assume that the diode drop is 0.7 V).
Exercise 6.3
For the circuit in below
figure, find the following: (a)
The setting of potentiometer
P at which oscillations just
start. (b) The frequency of
oscillation.
6.2 Op Amp – RC Oscillator Circuits
Phase-shift Oscillator
The phase-shifter consists of a negative gain amplifier (-K) with a third
order RC ladder network in the feedback.
The circuit will oscillate at the frequency for which the phase shift of
the RC network is 180o. Only at the frequency will the total phase
shift around the loop be 0o or 360o.
The minimum number of RC sections is 3 because it is capable of
producing a 180o phase shift at a finite frequency.
Let 𝛼 =
1
𝛽=
1 − 5𝛼 − 𝑗𝛼(6 − 𝛼 )
𝜔 = and 𝛽 = −
A=?
Exercise 6.4
6.2 Op Amp – RC Oscillator Circuits
Quadrature Oscillator b) Equivalent circuit at the
input of op amp 2
The quadrature oscillator is
another type of phase-shift
oscillator, but the three RC
sections are configured so
that each section contributes
90° of phase shift. The
outputs are sine and cosine
(quadrature) because there
is a 90° phase shift between
op amp outputs.
a) A quadrature-oscillator circuit
6.2 Op Amp – RC Oscillator Circuits
Quadrature Oscillator b) Equivalent circuit at the
input of op amp 2
Rf is made equal to
2R, and thus –Rf
cancels 2R.
1
𝜔 = a) A quadrature-oscillator circuit
𝑅𝐶
6.2 Op Amp – RC Oscillator Circuits
Active – Filter – Tuned Oscillator
The block diagram of the active-filter-tuned oscillator is shown below.
Assume the oscillations have already started. The output of the
bandpass filter will be a sine wave whose frequency is equal to the
center frequency of the filter.
The sine-wave signal is fed to the limiter and then produces a
square wave.
Block diagram of Active-Filter-Tuned Oscillator
A practical implementation of the active-filter-tuned oscillator
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
LC and crystal oscillators are used in the frequency
range of 100kHz to hundreds of megahertz (greater
than RC types)
LC oscillators are difficult to tune over wide ranges.
Crystal oscillators operate at a single frequency.
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
LC-Tuned Oscillators
Z1, Z2, X3: capacitive or inductive
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
LC-Tuned Oscillators
𝑍 = 𝑍 + 𝑍 ||𝑍
𝑋 = 𝜔𝐿 for inductance and 𝑋 = − for capacitance
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
LC-Tuned Oscillators
Phase=0 → 𝑋 + 𝑋 + 𝑋 = 0
and 𝑇 = 1
So, X1 and X2 must have the same sign
(𝐴 is positive)
If X1 and X2 are C, then X3=-(X1+X2) is L.
Colpitts oscillator
If X1 and X2 are L, then X3=-(X1+X2) is C
Hartley oscillator
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
LC-Tuned Oscillators
𝑋 +𝑋 +𝑋 =0
1 1
− − + 𝜔𝐿 = 0
𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶
Colpitts Oscillator
X1 and X2 are C, X3 is L 𝐶𝐶
𝜔=1 𝐿
𝐶 +𝐶
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
LC-Tuned Oscillators
𝑋 +𝑋 +𝑋 =0
1
𝜔𝐿 + 𝜔𝐿 − =0
Hartley Oscillator 𝜔𝐶
X1 and X2 are L, X3 is C 𝜔 = 1⁄ 𝐿 +𝐿 𝐶
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
Equivalent circuit of the Colpitts oscillator
Node C
Oscillation:
For oscillators to start, the loop gain must
be made greater than unity: 𝑔 𝑅 > 𝐶 ⁄𝐶
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
Complete circuit for a Colpitts oscillator
Oscillator amplitude:
Radio Frequency
o LC tuned oscillators are Choke (RFC)
known as self-limiting
oscillators. (As oscillation
grown in amplitude,
transistor gain is reduced
below its small-signal value).
o Output voltage signal will be
a sinusoid of high purity
because of the filtering
action of the LC tuned
circuit.
Hartley oscillator can be
similarity analyzed.
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
Piezoelectric crystal (is high-Q device)
a) Circuit symbol; b) Equivalent circuit; c) Crystal reactance versus frequency
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
𝑠 𝐿𝐶 + 1 1
𝑆𝐶 𝑠𝐶 𝑠 𝐿𝐶 + 1 1 𝑠 + 1⁄𝐿𝐶
𝑍 𝑠 = = =
𝑠 𝐿𝐶 + 1 1 𝑠𝐶 𝑠 𝐿𝐶 + 1 + 𝑠𝐶 𝑠𝐶 𝑠 + (𝐶 + 𝐶 )⁄𝐿𝐶 𝐶
+
𝑆𝐶 𝑠𝐶
(assume r=0)
There are two resonance frequencies:
A series resonance at 𝜔 = 1⁄ 𝐿𝐶
A parallel resonance at 𝜔 = 1 𝐿
Let 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔, we have: Note:
𝜔 >𝜔
Since 𝐶 ≫ 𝐶 then 𝜔 ≈ 𝜔
Resonance frequency
𝜔 ≈ 1⁄ 𝐿𝐶 = 𝜔
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
The crystal reactance is inductive over the narrow
frequency band between 𝜔 and 𝜔 .
Colpitts crystal oscillator
6.3 LC and Crystal Oscillators
Crystal Oscillators
A pierce Crystal oscillator utilizing a CMOS inverter as an amplifier
6.4 Bistable Multivibrators
Multivibrators (3 types)
Bistable: two stable states
Monostable: one stable state
Astable: no stable state
Bistable
Has two stable states
Can be obtained by using an
amplifier with positive-feedback
loop having a loop gain greater
than unity. i.e. 𝛽𝐴 > 1 where 𝛽 =
𝑅 ⁄(𝑅 + 𝑅 )
How to make the bistable circuit change state?
6.4 Bistable Multivibrators
Transfer characteristics of the Bistable circuit
How to make the bistable circuit change state?
Triggering the Bistable circuit
The bistable circuit as a memory
element
Schmitt trigger
6.4 Bistable Multivibrators
A Bistable circuit with Noninverting Transfer characteristics
6.4 Bistable Multivibrators
Applications of the Bistable circuit as a comparator
6.4 Bistable Multivibrators
Illustrating the using hysteresis in the comparator
characteristics as a means of rejecting interference
6.4 Bistable Multivibrators
Making the output levels more precise
Limiter circuits are used to obtain more precise output
levels for the bistable circuit
6.5 Generation of square and Triangular wave forms using astable multivibrators
Astable multivibrators
Connecting a bistable multivibrator with inverting transfer
characteristics in a feedback loop with an circuit results in a
square-wave generator.
Square-wave generator
Generation of triangular waveforms
6.6 Generation of a standardized pulse – The monostable Multivibrator
Monostable Multivibrator – One shot
6.7 Integrated-Circuit Timers
555 IC Timer
Widely used as both a monostable and astable multivibrator
Use as monostable multivibrator
6.7 Integrated-Circuit Timers
555 IC Timer connected to implement a monostable multivibrator
6.7 Integrated-Circuit Timers
555 IC Timer connected to implement an astable multivibrator
6.8 Oscillators with transistors
6.8 Oscillators with transistors
