● FILTER
Filter : A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain
frequencies while attenuating other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract
important frequencies from signals that also contain undesirable or irrelevant
frequencies.
Filter Type :
1. Low Pass Filters (LPF)
2. High Pass Filters (HPF)
3. Band Pass Filters (BPF)
4. Band Stop Filters (BSF)/ Notch Filters
Transfer Function, T(ω) = 𝑉𝑉𝑜
𝑖
❖ Low Pass Filter : Low Pass Filters cut off all the high frequency parts of a
signal while lower frequencies can pass through the filter. Low pass filters
are closely related to smoothing procedures such as moving averages.
❖ High Pass Filter : High Pass Filters cut off all low frequency parts of a
signal while higher frequencies can pass through the filter. High pass filters
are related to the first derivative of a function.
❖ Band Pass Filter : Band Pass Filters are formed by a combination of low
pass and high pass filters so that only frequencies within a certain range
(band) can pass through the filter.
❖ Band Stop Filter/ Notch Filter : Notch Filters remove a certain band from
the frequency spectrum and are also formed by a combination of low and
high pass filters.
1
➢ Filter Characteristics :
2
3
➢ Frequency Response Plot of LP, HP, BP and BS Filters for both Ideal
And Practical Cases:
4
Filter Circuits
Active Filters Passive Filters
● Transistor - Resistor
● Op Amp - Capacitor
● Resistor - Inductor
ω = 0; XC = 1/ ωC = ∞ ; Vo = Vi ; T = Vo/Vi = 1
ω = ∞ ; XC = 0 ; Vo = 0 ; T = 0
ω = 0; XC = 1/ ωC = ∞ ; Vo = 0 ; T = 0
ω = ∞ ; XC = 0 ; Vo = Vi ; T = Vo/Vi = 1
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➢ Deriving The Transfer Function :
○ For Low Pass Filter:
Here,
1
𝑗𝜔𝐶
Vo = 1 𝑉𝑖
𝑅+
𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
Vo = 𝑉𝑖
1+𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
T(ω) = 𝑉𝑉𝑜 = 1
1+𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
𝑖
○ For the Cutoff Frequency:
|T(ω)| =| 𝑉𝑉𝑜 | = |1+𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
1
|
= 1
𝑖 √1+(𝜔𝐶𝑅)2
We know,
1 1
|T(ωc)| = =
√2 √1+(𝜔𝑐 𝐶𝑅)2
√1 + (𝜔𝑐 𝐶𝑅)2 = √2
1 + (𝜔𝑐 𝐶𝑅)2 = 2
1
𝜔𝑐 =
𝐶𝑅
Going back to the Transfer Function,
1
T(ω) = 𝑉𝑉𝑜 = 1
1+𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
= 1
𝑗𝜔 = 𝑠 [𝐿𝑒𝑡, 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑠]
𝑖 1+𝜔 1+
𝑐 𝜔𝑐
Therefore for Low-Pass Filter,
1
T(s) = 𝑠
1+
𝜔𝑐
For the abovefollowing circuit the max gain is 1, but it might not be the same
for other circuits.
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So, if
Ao = Maximum Gain
⸫ General Form of Transfer Function of LPF:
𝐴0
T= 𝑠
1+
𝜔𝑐
The Frequency Response Plot,
o For High Pass Filter:
𝑅
Here. Vo = 𝑉𝑖
𝑅+1/𝑗𝜔𝐶
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T = 𝑉𝑉0 = 𝑅
𝑅+1/𝑗𝜔𝐶
= 1
1+1/𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝑖
1
For Cutoff Frequency: |T(ωc)| =
√2
1 1
| 1 |=
1+ √2
𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶
1 1
2
=
√1+(
1 √2
)
𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶
1 2
1+ ( ) =2
𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶
1 2
(𝜔 𝑅𝐶
) =1
𝑐
1
=1
𝜔𝑐 𝑅𝐶
1
𝜔𝑐 =
𝑅𝐶
Therefore Transfer Function:
T(ωc) = 𝑉𝑉𝑜 = 1
1+1/ 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
= 1
1+𝜔 𝑐
𝑖 𝑗𝜔
1
⸫ T(s) = 𝜔
1+ 𝑐
𝑠
General Form for Transfer Function of HPF:
𝐴0
T(s) = 𝜔
1+ 𝑐
𝑠
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Drawbacks of Passive Filters : Loading Effect
Filter circuits constructed of only passive elements are known as the passive filters. Passive
filters suffer from loading effect. Follwing figures show passive filter with and without load RL.
For passive filter without load,Here,
𝐴0 1
T(s) = 𝑉𝑉𝑜 = 𝑠 ; 𝜔𝑐 = A0 = 1
𝑖 1+ 𝑅𝐶
𝜔𝑐
Now, for passive filter with load RL,
𝑍𝑝 1
Vo = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖
𝑍𝑝 +𝑅 𝑅/𝑍𝑝 +1
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1 1
= 𝑌𝑝 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶 +
𝑍𝑝 𝑅𝐿
1
⸫ T(s) = 1
1+𝑅(𝑗𝜔𝐶+ )
𝑅𝐿
1
= 𝑅
1+ +𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿
1 𝑅+𝑅𝐿
= 𝑅+𝑅𝐿 × 𝑅𝐿
+𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
𝑅𝐿 𝑅+𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿
𝑅+𝑅𝐿
= 𝑅.𝑅𝐿
1+𝑗𝜔𝐶.
𝑅+𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿
𝑅+𝑅𝐿 𝑅.𝑅𝐿
= [ = 𝑅𝑃 ]
1+𝑗𝜔𝐶.𝑅𝑃 𝑅+𝑅𝐿
𝐴0 𝑅𝐿 1
= 𝑠 [ 𝐴0 = ] [𝜔′𝑐 = ]
1+ 𝑅+𝑅𝐿 𝐶𝑅𝑃
𝜔′𝑐
Transfer Function with Load:
𝐴0
T(s) = 𝑉𝑉𝑜 = 𝑠
𝑖 1+
𝜔′𝑐
Here,
𝑅𝐿 1
𝐴0 = < 1 ; 𝜔′𝑐 =
𝑅 + 𝑅𝐿 𝐶𝑅𝑃
So the load affect both the gain and the cut-off frequency. It reduces the maximum
gain below 1 and increases the cutoff frequency.
Cut-Off Frequency with Load:
𝑅𝑃 = 𝑅||𝑅𝐿
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𝑅𝑃 < 𝑅
𝑅𝑃 < 𝑅𝐿
𝜔′𝑐 > 𝜔𝑐
❖ Solution to The Load Effect:
➢ Isolate the Load
➢ Instead of connecting the Load directly with the output, connect it through a
Voltage Buffer
➢ Now, the Filter doesn’t seeobserve RL; it seeobserves the OP-AMP with
infinite input resistance and unity gain
➢ The Cutoff Frequency remains the same
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1
T(s) = 𝑉𝑉𝑜 = 𝑠
𝑖 1+
𝜔𝑐
1
𝜔𝑐 =
𝑅𝐶
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For two filters of LOW PASS & HIGH PASS connected in series, the cutoff
frequency of LPF must be greater than that of HPF.
Therefore, 𝜔𝐶1 > 𝜔𝐶2 = 𝐵𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑃𝐴𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐼𝐿𝑇𝐸𝑅
14
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● ACTIVE BANDPASS FILTER
Here,
1 1
𝜔𝐶1 = = 𝜔𝐻 & 𝜔𝐶2 = = 𝜔𝐿
𝑅1 . 𝐶1 𝑅2 . 𝐶2
𝑉𝑜1 1
𝑇1 (𝑠) = = 𝑠 [𝐿𝑂𝑊 𝑃𝐴𝑆𝑆]
𝑉𝑖 1+
𝜔𝐶1
𝑉𝑜 1
𝑇2 (𝑠) = = 𝜔 [𝐻𝐼𝐺𝐻 𝑃𝐴𝑆𝑆]
𝑉𝑜1 1 + 𝐶2
𝑠
Therefore.
Overall Transfer Function:
𝑉𝑜
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜1
= .
𝑉𝑜1 𝑉𝑖
1 1
= 𝜔 . 𝑠
1+ 𝐶2 1+
𝜔𝐶1
𝑠
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Bandpass filter with a gain stage to increase the overall gain.
Here,
𝑉𝑜1 1 𝑉𝑜2 1
𝑇1 (𝑠) = = 𝑠 𝑇2 (𝑠) = = 𝜔
𝑉𝑖 1+
𝜔𝐶1
𝑉𝑜1 1+ 𝐶2
𝑠
𝑉𝑜 −𝑅𝑓
𝑇3 (𝑠) = =
𝑉𝑜2 𝑅
Therefore,
Overall Transfer Function:
𝑉𝑜
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑉𝑖
= 𝑉𝑉𝑜 . 𝑉𝑉𝑜2 . 𝑉𝑉𝑜1
𝑜2 𝑜1 𝑖
−𝑅𝑓 1 1
= . 𝜔 . 𝑠
𝑅 1+ 𝐶2 1+
𝜔𝐶1
𝑠
−𝑅𝑓 1 1
⸫ T(s) = . 𝜔 . 𝑠
𝑅 1+ 𝐶2 1+
𝜔𝐶1
𝑠
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● ACTIVE BANDSTOP FILTER
1
Here, 𝜔𝐶2 = = 𝜔𝐻
𝑅2 .𝐶2
Therefore,
Overall Transfer Function:
𝑉𝑜
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑉𝑖
−𝑅𝑓 𝑉𝑜1
= ( 𝑉 + 𝑉𝑉𝑜2)
𝑅 𝑖 𝑖
−𝑅𝑓 1 1
= ( 𝑠 + 𝜔 )
𝑅 1+
𝜔𝐶1
1+ 𝐶2
𝑠
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