ERRORS

-
g
loading .

UNI

PARTI
Ref.Book-ti.s.to)
1-
 Srashti Tomas
Error in measurement
The degree to which a measurement nears the expected value IS
expressed in terms of the error of measurement.

Error may be expressed either as absolute or as percentage of error.

Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the expected

value of the variable and the measured value of the variable.got
X
e. YN
-

is absolute value
where e

Yn is expected value

is measured value
XN

Therefore ,
% Ewe =
Absolutely ex too
=

Eynxioo
value
Expected

µaun=YnYj
-
measured air teems
of accuracy
ft is more frequently
than error
rather
.

A
? I ";g )
-
-
-
 Shastri Tomar
where A cis relative accuracy .

also be expressed as percentage

Accuracy can

a =
100% -

% error .

a
= A X 100%

Example -

The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80 V. However,

the measurement gives a value of 79 V. Calculate (i) absolute error, (ii)
% error, (iii) relative accuracy, and (iv) % o.f accuracy.

I .
Absolute Error ,
e =
yn -

Xn= go -
7Gt II

Q .

% euros = E- X 100 =
80--79×100
Yw 180

=
1.25 %

3 .

Relative Accuracy
,A=1.18IqI
A =
I -

I
80

H . Yo of Accuracy =
7g
I 0.98
- -

A 80
A. =
Ioox
I go to -
 -
Aashto Tomar
Precision

If a measurement is accurate, it must also be precise, i.e. Accuracy

means precision. However, a precision measurement may not be
accurate. (The precision of a measurement is a quantitative or
_numerical
nurnerical indication of the closeness with which a repeated set of
measurement of the same variable agree with the average set of
measurements.) Precision can also be expressed mathematically as

y=ifI)
-

measurement
Value of nth
where Xn
measurement
=

In set
of
.

average
=

Example
-
-

that
measurements
Table below
gives
the set
of 20

laboratory Calculate the precision

recorded inv the
.

were

GH measurement
of
.
 siamhtasueeomae
-

the
Average value for set
of
ment
Lo
of
measurements
-

all
Sum
Xj =

10

= 1005 = too -5

TO

precision for 6÷nadi@

;j: I :÷
t

two
-

=
I - .

I o -

995
-
 -

srashti tornal

The accuracy and precision of measurements depend not only on the

quality of the measuring instrument but also on the person using it.
However, whatever the quality of the instrument and the case
exercised by the user, there is always some error present in the
measurement of physical quantities.

TYPES OF STATIC ERROR

The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference

between the true value of a quantity and its value as obtained by
measurement, i.e. repeated measurement of the same quantity gives
different indications. Static errors are categorised as gross errors or
human errors, systematic errors, and random errors.

Gross Errors

These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using

instruments or errors in recording observations. Errors may also occur
due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and computational mistakes.
These errors cannot be treated mathematically.
Systematic Errors

These errors occur due to shortcomings of the instrument, such as

defective or worn parts, or ageing or effects of the environment on the
instrument. There are basically three types of systematic errors-(i)
Instrumental, (ii) Environmental, and (iii) Observational.

(i) Instrumental Errors

Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of

their mechanical structure. For example, in the D' Arsonval movement,
friction in the bearings of various moving components, irregular spring
tensions, stretching of the spring, or reduction in tension
 -

slasher Tomar

due to improper handling or overloading of the instrument.

(ii) Environmental Errors

Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring

device, including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such
as the effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or
of magnetic or electrostatic fields.

(iii) Observational Errors

Observational errors are errors introduced by the observer. The most

common error is the parallax error introduced in reading a meter scale, and
the error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter scale.

Questions -

the
A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1 kWV is connected across an unknown
resistance in series with a milliammeter reading 80v onO 150v scale. When
the milliammeter reads 10 mA, calculate the (i) Apparent resistance of the
unknown resistance, (ii) Actual resistance of the unknown resistance, and
(iii) Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.voltmeter sensitivity -
1000 ohms/v.
seems

tell '
-
 fappaiesntjshh
Tonal
resistance
Total circuit
-

a)

VII ftp.a-81?-
resistance . R =
=
,

Actual Value of Unknown Rn

(g) ,
.

In ,
=

¥8 Resistance of
apptarent voltmeter
total
unknown
-

L V =) L Ker 11 oooh .

150 V town X 150

T

|Ru lsok#
try
-

The
In
=

Rnr
Rtx
Ru Rt RT
ku
-

thx
-

RRv =g
=
8. uh

150 8
%
-

) error = 8- 45 - 8
X
LW
5 3 To
#
= .
 Seashti Tomar
Referring to above question,if the milliammeter reads 600 mA and the
voltmeter reads 30 V on a 150 V scale, calculate the following:
-

(i)Apparent, resistance of the unknown resistance. (ii)Actual resistance

of the unknown resistance. (iii) Error due to loading effect of the
voltmeter.Comment on the loading effect due to the voltmeter for both
Examples.(Voltmeter sensitivity given 1000 Ohms/V)

1 Total circuit
resistance apparent resistance

YI
o¥÷
.

30 U
Ry
=
-

=7@

2 . Actual Resistance he
-
.

Ing
I v I ooo r

150 U x 150 =

15.0 KI! Ro)

low
.

wted voltmeter misleading

LT TRU
a
may give
kn = high
-

connected in a
result when
when connected
rotem
The is
.

same
eesistance 0kt eeristhokt , error
-

in a low
reduced
7500k
.

k
RV 50*150
Rn = RTX = -
=
-

-
50N 149 - 5k
150kt
-

Rv -
Ry
Rye 50.io#
-

③ % Error : 50 .
167 -

50
- X l w

50 -

167

=
O -

33%
 Siashh Tomoe
Random Errors

These are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have
been substantially reduced or at least accounted for. Random errors
are generally an accumulation of a large number of small effects and
may be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree
of accuracy. Such errors can be analyzed statistically.

These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the

ordinary process of making measurements. Such errors are normally
small and follow the laws of probability. Random errors can thus be
treated mathematically.

SOURCES OF ERROR

The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to

provide a true measurement, are as follows:

1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions

2. Poor design

3. Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.

4. Poor maintenance

5. Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment

6. Certain design limitations

 fiashh Tomar
STASTICAL ANALYSIS

The statistical analysis of measurement data is important because it

allows an analytical determination of the uncertainty of the final test
result. To make statistical analysis meaningful, a large number of
measurements is usually required. Systematic errors should be small
compared to random errors, because statistical analysis of data
cannot remove a fixed bias contained in all measurements.

Arithmetic Mean

The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean

of the number of readings taken. The best approximation is possible
when the number of readings of the same quantity is very large. The
arithmetic mean of n measurements at a specific count of the variable x
is given by the expression
t t kn
Mz
- - -

Je na
-

=
x t t
,
-

Je =
E Hn
n I
-
-

where I is Arithmetic Mean

taken
Un = nth reading
taken
n =
total
readings
.
 Tomoe
Deviation from the Mean f. eashti
This is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the
group of readings. If the deviation of the first reading, x1 is called d1,and
that of the second reading x2 is called d2, and so on, The deviations from
the mean can be expressed as
in
Nz
dgi-kq-I.dz
- -
-

= - -

dy =
nd - E
,

The deviation may be positive or negative. The algebraic sum of all the
deviations must be zero.
-

Average Deviations

The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instrument

used in measurement. Average deviation is defined as the sum of the
absolute values of the deviation divided by the number of readings. The
absolute value of the deviation is the value without respect to the sign.

JDair-lds.lt/d2l- dznl*- - -tdn#/Oav=EIdnI/-

Auuageineuiahm .
 Standard Deviation feashti Tomar

The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is the Square root

of the sum of all the individual deviations squared, divided by the
number of readings. It may be expressed as

r
-
-

dit =

r is standard deviation .

Limiting Errors

Most manufacturers of measuring instruments specify accuracy within a

certain % of a full scale reading. For example, the manufacturer of a
certain voltmeter may specify the instrument to be accurate within ± 2%
with full scale deflection. This specification is called the limiting error. This
means that a full scale deflection reading is guaranteed to be within the
limits of2% ofa perfectly accurate reading; however, with a reading less
than full scale, the limiting error increases.

lenamtple .

A 500 mA voltmeter is specified to be accurate withO ±2%.

Calculate the limiting error when instrument is used to measure
300 mA.

T.fm?keeEjei:I:yeuor
¥¥E
limiting woe at =LomA_ X 100
&oomAC
=
3.3¥
 Tomar feashli .

A voltmeter reading 70 V on its 100 v range and an ammeter reading

-

80mA on its 150 mA range are used to determine the power dissipated in
a resistor. Both these instruments are guaranteed to be accurate within
±1. 5% at full scale deflection. Determine the limiting error of the power.
the voltmeter
for oisxioov
=
o

magnitude dffimihng
-

eerie

1.50
=

limiting error at For = I 5-

-

Fox
too
=

2143%
25mA
Ammeter is O -

015 X 150 MA = Q -

Similarly
MA 2. of
at 80 =

183%
limiting error X 10=2 -

egg -