Eleanor Zelliot in her essay, “Caste in Contemporary India”, talks about the caste system,

which is an age old system, prevailing even today in Contemporary India. Caste has been
one of the most controversial topics in our Indian society. It has been found in all religions of
India, including Christianity and Sikhism, but very well embedded in Hinduism. It is a
hierarchical system where the castes are given a varied and distinct position in the
hierarchy.

Zelliot talks about the textual origins of caste. It was mentioned in a hymn of Rigveda,
“Purusha Sukta”, that the 4 varnas originated from the sacrifice of the primeval man-
Brahmins from mouth, Kshatriyas from his arms, Vaishyas from his thighs and Shudras from
his feet. The term ‘varna’ means colour and this led to the introduction of “Racial theory of
caste” which is one of the most controversial theory amongst other theories.

Caste system is an integral part of the concept of “Varnashramadharma”. The upper three
varnas especially Brahmins and Kshatriyas has been considered as the Dwija or twice-born
caste.

The law books of the first centuries of CE further complicated the caste system. Privileges,
punishments and obligations specific to each caste were defined to control and deal with
caste relations as well as clearly define the scale of purity and pollution. Many scriptures
recognised women with a very subordinate role to play. The classic law book, symbolic book
of Brahmin authority, is the “Laws of Manu”. It has given a detailed description on the caste
and rather a harsh connotation on how Shudras and women should behave. It stated that
the work of the Shudras is only to serve the upper three varnas. They were not allowed to
read the Vedas. The most horrendous punishments were found in Medatithi where if the
Laws of Manu were not followed, punishments as mentioned in the book would be given.

Other classical texts explains the cycle of one’s birth. The Doctrine of Karma, mentioned in
the Gautama Sutra, talked about how birth is related to one’s own deeds(karma). The duty
of the 4 varnas has been specified. The upper castes have to make sacrifices and must
protect their as well as their wife’s purity. The duty of the Shudras in one source mentions
that they should make ancestral offerings, serve the upper 3 varnas, use discarded shoes,
utensils etc. Hence, Shudras somewhat have more freedom than the upper castes within
their own distinct world. In the real world, though, they continue to be oppressed.

Zelliot states that there is incongruity between the old varna system and the traditional
laws for the punishments of Shudras showing how they are unsuitable for the modern India.
The formation of a new group, Chandala, meaning the product of a Shudra man and a
Brahmin woman, sparked debates as the idea of a caste which was less pure than the
Shudras was not mentioned in the Vedas or any of the law books.

In the context of punishment of Shudras, Zelliot invokes the Ramayana where a Shudra,
named Shambuka performed an austerity by keeping his head down and legs up in order to
reach the celestials, and upon hearing this, Lord Rama cut off his head and was then praised
by Lord Indra, Agni and other celestials to do this “god-like work”. However this instance
isn’t mentioned in the Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas. Also many instances in the story of
Ramayana, like a tribal woman offering berries to Rama after tasting it if it was sweet or
sour, invoked many questions about the notion of purity and pollution in Ramayana.
Zelliot also points to how the varna system found a place in the Bhagavad Gita, which
Mahatma Gandhi also referred to for his belief in the varna system. But, in general, we see
varna is not nearly important as jati, the small endogamous unit which has great relevance
in contemporary India. There are about 4000 jatis and they form the basic unit of the caste
system.

Jati is the basic form of social organisation; caste covers both varna and jati. Shudras were
far more than servants as they constituted the majority. As Vaishyas became traders and
merchants, the land came under the Shudras. The real unit of caste is jati. They are usually
found in one language area and practice endogamy i.e. marriage within the group,
commensality relations, common myths and customs and somewhat by occupation.

Zelliot highlights the caste system in Maharashtra. Here, there is a 3 fold division- Brahmins,
Shudras and Untouchables. The dominant Brahmin group is the Chitpavan Brahmins.
Chitpavan means ‘pure from the pyre' or 'pure In heart’. They never served as priests but
migrated to Varanasi to become Sanskrit scholars.

The priestly Brahmins In the Marathi speaking area are the Deshastha Brahmins. They also
serve as village accountants. They are divided further into Rigvedi and Yajurvedi Brahmins
who eat together but do not intermarry. Rigvedis further division to followers of God Shiva
and followers of God Vishnu, indicates the complexity of a single jati branch. There are other
Brahmins too but the percentage is very small, about 4% in Maharashtra.

The largest caste group is the Marathas who are about 50% in Maharashtra. The previously
separate caste, Kunbis, are now grouped under the Marathas. They have been landowners,
cultivators, soldiers etc. and also play a political role in the Indian society. Throughout the
pre-modern and modern history, Marathas have been chieftains and warriors. Later, they
became wealthy with the development of sugar cooperatives in the modern era.

There is another caste group under the Marathas which is the service caste, including Telis,
Malis, Sutars etc.

One caste which is very much part of the caste hierarchy but out of the Varna system is the
untouchable castes of Maharashtra. Mahars are the largest untouchable groups in
Maharashtra and worked as village servants. They were scavengers but in the modern
period, there was shift in occupation. They worked for the British army until 19 th century,
then in Bombay Mills and the railroads of British Raj. Most Mahars followed B.R. Ambedkar
into the path of Buddhism. The Dalit Literary movement begun in the early 1970s in
Maharashtra, spread across India to hear the voices of the Untouchables.

Two other important untouchable castes are the Chambhars (leather workers) who were
ranked above the Mahars, and Mangs (rope makers, musicians) who were below them. There
is no Marathi speaking Bhangi caste. Zelliot states that though they do do not generally
impose to be of higher status, but they still prefer to be called by respectable names like
Chambhars preferred to be called as “Chamarkars” and Mangs called themselves “Matangs”.
However majority of untouchable castes remained as landless labourers.

Caste system in Maharashtra is extremely complex as are in other parts of India. Bhangis,
who preferred to be called “Valmikis”, are omnipresent in the north. Caste movements in
various areas can be understood when the caste structure of that area is understood. The
Bahujan Samaj Party(BSP) in Uttar Pradesh maybe seen as possible because of the large
base of party in the Chamar Caste. Thus, the caste system gets complicated because of the
web created by varna and jati.

There are many theories regarding the origin of caste which Zelliot throws light upon. First is
the Race Theory which differentiates Aryans (meaning pure or noble) from the people who
lived on the land before their arrival. The Aryans were against Dravidians(people of 4 south
Indian states). The notion as presented by William Jones was that Sanskrit was closely
related to Greek and Latin, thus forming a huge Indo- European language family. Subset
research and careful reading of the texts, however, indicate that the race theory does not
hold up. The Aryans did not come as an invading force, but probably trickled into India
adapting to the inhabitants’ language and customs. And it was also clear that the Aryans
could be enemies of each other , and the group already existing in India called the
‘Dashyas’ could become part of the ruling elite. It should be noted that Aryans and
Dravidians are both terms of language, and not race. But today, there is considerable belief
in the race theory among ordinary people.

The second theory was the Purity and Pollution theory. This theory was best elaborated by
Dumont in his Homo Hierarchicus, and also by the untouchable leader and scholar, B.R.
Ambedkar. This theory insisted the maintenance of absolute purity by the priestly caste and
the absorption of all pollution by the bottom caste. Ambedkar insisted that all Indians were
of one race, but many untouchable groups believed that they were once “Lords of the Earth”
dispossessed when the Aryans conquered India. Ambedkar thought that the untouchables
had been Buddhists, condemned to live outside the village when Hinduism became
dominant. C.E Jha denied this theory, although he agreed that a solid hierarchical system
was created after the development of the untouchable castes. The term “avarna”( without
varna) or “panchama” the fifth, and later asprishya( not to be touched) and those
considered Untouchables were not only cremation ground workers- as was the prototype
Chandala- but also the removers of human waste and those who worked with leather.

No one has provided a theory that totally explains the caste system as it exists in India
today. The classical theory found in the Laws of Manu highlights that unsuitable marriages
between castes produced new and inferior castes. The theory probably evolved to protect
the purity of upper caste women, but it maybe responsible for one of the basic rules of each
jati- endogamy, marriage only within the group.

Zelliot then highlights the nature of the caste and its recent history by mentioning two of the
most important books which has caused for much rethinking among the scholars regarding
the nature of the caste. The most controversial theory of caste developed was that of Louis
Dumont in his Homo Hierarchicus. As the title indicates, he saw caste system as totally
hierarchical with the concepts of purity and pollution determining the place of the caste in
the hierarchy. Critics of Dumong have accused him of seeing caste from a Brahminical point
of view and ignoring the historical factors.

Among those who challenged Dumont’s work was Declan Quigley who argues that the
tension between forces of kingship and forces of kinship, when combined, created order in
the society.
The second book causing a turmoil amongst the scholars is the Castes of Mind: Colonialism
and the Making of Modern India by Nicholar Dirks. He also considered kingship as a factor
that challenges the domination by Brahmins, and he argues that caste became far more
rigid in the colonial period due to the British’s need to categorize and control the people of
India. The Census which began in 1871, soon listed and arranged caste groups of various
areas in a hierarchical order. The Castes and Tribes volume was published late in the 19 th
century. It discussed in detail the origin of caste, racial influence, influence of occupation
and religion, birth, etc. for each of thousands of castes. The British certainly “did not create”
caste but they most probably solidified the nature of various castes and made the
hierarchical structure more rigid.

A.L. Basham's "The Wonder That Was India” stresses upon the development of caste
through thousands of years, the rise of new castes as well as the dying out of old castes.
Gloria Raheja, another scholar, argues for the centrality of a dominant caste in any village.
Milton Singer has shown that traditional occupations can change and he with Suzanne and
Lloyd Rudolph, produced extensive work on the modernising of the Indian tradition.

Throughout the ages, individuals and sects have challenged the right and justice of caste.
Buddhism and Jainism were egalitarian religions. Buddha admitted anyone into the order of
monks and those monks did not practice untouchability. Jainism in India has continued as a
religion that has no castes within it but now considered on par with Hindu merchant castes.
The Baul singers of Bengal seem to be without caste identity and the Nath aesthetics have
no interest in caste. The Mahanubhavs in Maharashtra totally rejected caste. The
philosophers and poets of the Bhakti movement practiced devotional religion rather than
ritual. Many were outspoken critics of caste. They admitted all castes and women to their
circles of saints and poets. Ramananda has said to inspire both the untouchable
bhakta,Ravidas and the Muslim-Hindu Kabir, both bhakti poets who were against the idea of
caste hierarchy. In Maharashtra, the untouchable poet, Chokhamela, and his family could not
enter temple but were part of the circle of devotees and 400 of their poems have been
preserved through the ages. Chokhamela accepted his karma but was against the idea of
pollution saying that all were polluted by birth and death. Poets from some 40 different
castes emerged in the Marathi speaking area. Brahmins did not dominate even though 2 of
the most importantly saints were Brahmins- Dnyanadeo whose commentary on the
Bhagavad Gita in his Dnyaneshwari is admired by most Maharashtrians; and Eknath
produced a commentary on the Bhagavata Purana in the Eknathi Bhagavat. Both were
Deshastha Brahmins whose works highlighted upon the glory of bhakti. Most of the other
poet saints were Shudras including the most beloved poet,Tukaram.

The songs of all the saints are sung on the annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur. Each poet
saints’ padhukas(symbols of footprints) are carried by group of devotees in a dindi. The
procession begins from the saints’ birthplace or place of samadhi(religious death) and winds
its way to Pandharpur. The pilgrimage seems to breathe equality in the spiritual realm, but
even here there are caste divisions. Iravati Karve, a Chitpavan Brahmin scholar, wrote about
her participation in the pilgrimage. She also wrote about the permanent caste divisions that
appeared in the cooking of food and the eating arrangements. In Karnataka, Basavanna
encouraged the parents of a Brahmin and Untouchable couple to let them marry. Chaos and
death followed, but this gesture shows his profound belief in equality. These examples from
the Bhakti movement indicate that although there was equality on a spiritual plane and they
condemned caste, no specific social movement for an egalitarian society arose from the
bhaktas.

In Maharashtra, during the 19th century, Jotirao Phule, a non- Brahmin reformer from the Mali
caste , fiercely criticized Brahminism and wanted women and untouchables to be educated.
He founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (truth seeking society) which attempted to create
rational humanistic religion. In Punjab, the Arya Samaj reform movement was begun by
Dayanand Saraswati, a Brahmin who rejected the caste system and stressed a revived form
of Hinduism based on Vedas, with varna status given according to merit and character. Other
reform organisations, the Brahmo Samaj of Bengal and the Prarthana Samaj of Bombay,
produced reformers but no lasting attempt to destroy the caste system was made.

The great caste reformers of the 20th century were E.V. Ramasami Naicker, B.R. Ambedkar
and Mahatma Gandhi. Ramasami began his Self- Respect movement where he decried God,
Caste and Brahminism as the triple chain of bondage and created a proud sense of
“Dravidianism” as opposed to the Aryans of the north. Ramasami also knew Dr. BR
Ambedkar and translated his strong statement “The Annihilation of Caste” in Tamil. BR
Ambedkar continues to be the most important reformer in India. He belonged to the Mahar
caste of the Marathi speaking area and with the help of non-Brahmin princes became the
holder of doctorates from Columbia University and London and a barrister. He also created a
higher educational system and many social and political institutions. He disputed with
Gandhi because he thought political rights and legal protection were more important than
Gandhi’s belief in the “change of heart” on the part of higher caste Hindus, and he believed
a separate electorate was the only way untouchables would have true political
representation. Ambedkar was named chair of the Drafting Committee of the Indian
Constitution and became the law minister in India’s first Independent Cabinet. In the end he
rejected Hinduism and initiated a Buddhism conversion movement.

Gandhi had great compassion towards the untouchables and called them “Harijans”
meaning people of God. He brought an untouchable family into his first ashrama and in his
later years urged inter-caste marriages. He himself had gone against the rules of his jati (the
Modh Banias, Vaishya group) by going over the forbidden seas to England to study law and
was outcasted by that caste. His quarrel with Ambedkar over separate electorates is still
remembered even today.

Zelliot further talks about the caste system of India during the modern period. She highlights
upon the writings of Susan Bayly who wrote a very comprehensive text on the caste system.
Her book concludes with the remarks of KR Narayanan, the first Dalit to become the
President of India. New caste clusters have been formed both in the premodern and modern
periods. An example can be the merging of the Kunbis into the large Maratha caste. Another
group, the Marwaris, people from a trading background in the area of Marwar, Rajasthan,
have migrated all over India for trade, money lending and business. They claim Vaishya
status. Caste relationships are more apparent in India’s villages, where over 70% of people
live. The jajmani system, where the serving castes worked with their jajmans(overlord)
through generations, was important in the north. However, in Maharashtra, the serving
castes worked for the entire village at the direction of the patil or headman. This system was
called the balutedari system and there were traditionally 12 balutedars, including
Untouchable Mahars and Brahmin Joshi, who received balut, a share kf the harvest. As cash
economies came into play, both systems broke down.

The kinship and marriage systems in villages have not been affected very much by
modernity. In north India, strict rules of endogamy were followed. In the south and
Maharashtra, cross-cousin marriages are allowed and favoured, and the couple can be of
same village. In both systems, marriages are arranged and the kinship group is an essential
social unit, coming together for weddings and funerals and sometimes act as a form of social
protection. Marriages in urban setting are also usually arranged, and marriages and funerals
can even bring together far-flung members of the larger family.

Caste has responded to modernity in a number of ways. One way was “Sanskritization”, term
given by MN Srinivas, where the practices of the higher caste were adopted by the lower
caste in order to raise status. Another response is in caste organisations; whether this
strengthens caste or encourages more egalitarian sharing of power is a matter of current
debate. Owen Lynch’s study of the Jatavs of Agra remains the classic work on the efforts of
an untouchable caste to claim high status as Kshatriyas. The Jatavs claimed to be Yadavs
and hence Kshatriyas , which seemed to be difficult to agree with because of their
occupation of work with leather. They became committed to the Ambedkar movement and
were the first group in the north to follow his political and religious path. They converted to
Buddhism and became more powerful in Agra poltics through great effort.

The two of the greatest changes today are in the realms of politics and “affirmative action”
or the Indian reservation system. Dr. Ambedkar began the first of his three political parties
with some success, but the party which was established in his last year, the Republican
Party, is powerful only in a few local areas. In the south, several parties arose like the Dalit
Panthers. The most successful is the Bahujan Samaj Party(BSP) established by Kanshi Ram,
an untouchable Sikh. The most far-ranging change in modern times affecting caste and its
structure, is the reservation system. These reservations was for the bottom layers of the
society that allowed representation on a quota system in all government bodies,
government employment and government aided educational institutions. Castes and tribes
that met certain criteria of discrimination were placed on a list or schedule in the governor
reorganization of 1935, and the terms “Scheduled Castes” and “Scheduled Tribes” came to
be associated with Untouchables and Adivasis or tribals respectively. The reservation has
produced a critical mass of educated Dalits who in turn, have founded educational
institutions, literary movements and self help organisations. Dalit groups are now
demanding that the reservation system or “affirmative action” be extended to the private
sector as well.

In 1990, the reservation system underwent a massive change. Prime Minister VP Singh of
the Janata Party implemented an earlier report of the Mandal Commission on the need to
extend reservation to “Other Backward Classes”(OBCs). Together with the rise of the political
parties, the Mandal Commission report is the most important development in contemporary
politics.

The reservation system, the Ambedkar movement as well as the politicization of the lower
classes have all encouraged Dalits to claims rights and dignity. But the other side of the
dynamic of this movement is that when Dalits fo anything in defiance of caste Hindus, there
is violence, especially in the rural areas.
There have been many laws against discrimination that has been passed by the Government
of India. The Fundamental Rights section of the Constitution of India lists the following
provision- firstly, Article 15 which has 2 clauses: 15(1) states that that state shall not
discriminate against any citizens on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex etc.; 15(2) states
that no citizen shall on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex etc. be subject to any
restriction with regard to access to public places like shops, restaurants, hotels etc. and the
use of wells, tanks, roads etc. which are dedicated to the use of the general public.
Secondly, Article 17 which clearly states that “untouchability” is abolished and its practice in
any form is forbidden, and if practiced then it is a punishable offence.

Zelliot through essay tries to intricately understand the caste system and then tries to draw
parallel between the caste system that existed ages ago with the caste system of the
contemporary period. Caste system is an age old system and will continue to thrive for
many years, as its uprooting has become impossible with the development of caste politics.
Hence, caste system has brought up significant changes in India in the contemporary period.