Bacterial genetics ‫المحاضرة الثامنة الوراثة البكتيرية‬

Introduction: : ‫المقدمة‬
Genetics* is the study of the inheritance, or heredity,* of living things. It is a wide-
ranging science that explores the transmission of biological properties (traits) from
parent to offspring, the expression and variation of those traits, the structure and
function of the genetic material, and how this material changes. Organism genetics
observes the heredity of the whole organism or cell; chromosome genetics examines
the characteristics and actions of chromosomes; and molecular genetics deals with the
biochemistry of the genes.
THE NATURE OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL
For a species to survive, it must have the capacity of self replication. In single celled
microorganisms, reproduction involves the division of the cell by means of binary
fission, budding, or mitosis, but these forms of reproduction involve a more significant
activity than just simple cleavage of the cell mass. Because the genetic material is
responsible for inheritance, it must be accurately duplicated and separated into each
daughter cell to ensure its normal function.
The Levels of Structure and Function of the Genome
The genome is the sum total of genetic material of a cell. Although most of the genome
exists in the form of chromosomes, genetic material can appear in non chromosomal
sites as well. For example, bacteria and some fungi contain tiny extra pieces of DNA
(plasmids), and certain organelles of eucaryotes (the mitochondria and chloroplasts)
are equipped with their own genetic programs. Genomes of cells are composed
exclusively of DNA, but viruses contain either DNA or RNA as the principal genetic
material. Although the specific genome of an individual organism is unique, the
general pattern of nucleic acid structure and function is similar among all organisms.
In general, a chromosome is a discrete cellular structure composed of a neatly
packaged elongate DNA molecule. The chromosomes of eucaryotes and bacterial cells
differ in several respects.
1- The structure of eucaryotic chromosomes consists of a DNA molecule tightly
wound around histone proteins, whereas a bacterial chromosome (chromatin body) is
condensed and secured into a packet by means of histone like proteins.
2-Eucaryotic chromosomes are located in the nucleus; they vary in number from a few
to hundreds; they can occur in pairs(diploid) or singles (haploid); and they appear
elongate. In contrast, most bacteria have a single, circular chromosome, although
exceptions exist in a few bacteria that have linear or multiple chromosomes.The
chromosomes of all cells are subdivided into basic informational packets called genes.
A gene can be defined from more than one perspective. In classical genetics, the term
refers to the fundamental unit of heredity responsible for a given trait in an organism.
In the molecular and biochemical sense, it is a site on the chromosome that provides
information for a certain cell function. Plasmids exist as double-stranded, closed,
circular, autonomously replicating extrachromosomal genetic elements ranging in size
from 1 to 2 kilobases up to 1 megabase or more. The number of plasmids per bacterial
cell varies extensively,and each plasmid is composed of several genes.
Some genes encode products that mediate plasmid replication and transfer between
bacterial cells, whereas others encode products that provide aspecialized function,
such as a determinant of antimicrobial resistance or a unique.
Genetic Exchange
An organism’s ability to undergo recombination depends on the acquisition of
“foreign” DNA from a donor cell. The three mechanisms by which bacteria
physically exchange DNA are
1-transformation .
2-transduction.
3-conjugation.
Transformation.
Transformation involves recipient cell uptake of naked (free) DNA released into the
environment when another bacterial cell (i.e., the donor) dies and undergoes lysis.
This genomic DNA exists as fragments in the environment. Certain bacteria are able
to take up naked DNA from their surroundings; that is, they are able to undergo
transformation. Such bacteria are said to be competent. Among the bacteria that
cause human infections, competence is a characteristic commonly associated with
members of the generaHaemophilus, Streptococcus, and Neisseria.
Transduction is a second mechanism by which DNA from two bacteria may come
together in one cell, thus allowing for recombination(Recombinant organism – an
organism that contains a different combination of alleles from either of its parents).

This process is mediated through viruses capable of infecting bacteria

(i.e.,bacteriophages). In their “life cycle,” these viruses integrate their DNA into the
bacterial cell’s chromosome, where viral DNA replication and expression occur. When
the production of viral products is complete, viral DNA is excised (cut) from the
bacterial chromosome and packaged within a protein coat. The excision process is not
always accurate, resulting in the removal of genetic material that contains both the
bacterial and viral DNA. The newly formed recombinant virion, along with the
additional multiple virions (virus particles), is released when the infected bacterial cell
lyses.

Bacteriophage ,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M3qPV0soD5Q
Generalized transduction:-
Figure1 : Schematic of generalized transduction
Figure2 : Schematic of specialized transduction

Conjugation
The third mechanism of DNA exchange between bacteria is conjugation. This
process occurs between two living cells, involves cell-to-cell contact, and requires
mobilization of the donor bacterium’s chromosome. The nature of
intercellularcontact is not well characterized in all bacterial species capable of
conjugation. However, in E. coli, contact is mediated by a sex pilus.
• Recombinant organism – an organism that contains a different combination of alleles
from either of its parents.