CA/PA-RCA : Basic Tool
Every organization regardless of the sector
emphasize on quality improvement on
continuous basis.
There is no set-rule or standard method to
implement quality improvement initiatives.
The conceptual basis for implanting various
tools is the Deming’s Plan-Do-Check-Act
(PDCA) cycle, also called Deming wheel.
Quality improvements resulting from
continuous incremental turns.
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3
Plan
Develop an in-depth understanding of
problem or process to be improved by
collecting data.
Identify the root causes of the problem using
gathered data.
Develop an action plan for a workable
solution for improving the current process.
Set targets and develop criteria to measure
success.
4
DO
Implement the solution on a small scale or on
trial basis.
Collect data and monitor the performance
measures.
Check
Evaluate the data and study of some changes
are happen and solution is having intended
effect.
Check whether objectives have been achieved.
5
ACT
Reflect on and act on learning from trial.
If implementation of proposed solution is
successful than standardize it and implement
it to the whole system.
If implementation of solution is not
successful than revise the plan and repeat the
process.
In such way continue with PDCA cycle either
for further improvement of existing process
or for other new problems.
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The seven tools which are extensively used to
improve quality on PDCA basis are
1. Cause-and-effect diagrams
2. Flow charts (alternatively run chart)
3. Histograms
4. Pareto diagrams
5. Scatter diagrams
6. Check sheets
7. Control charts
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Cause and Effect (CE) Analysis is a
technique for identifying all the
possible causes (inputs) associated
with a particular problem / effect
(output).
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The CE Diagram is
basically used to
investigate a
problem, exploring,
identifying, and
displaying the
possible causes.
Why use Cause and Effect Analysis
Cause and Effect Analysis is a valuable tool for:
• Focusing on causes not symptoms capturing the
collective knowledge and experience of a group
• Providing a picture of why an effect is happening
• Establishing a sound basis for further data
gathering and action
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To identify the relationship between the
effects in a given situation and all of the
possible causes.
To find problem sources/solutions
Cause and Effect Analysis can also be used
to identify all of the areas that need to be
tackled to generate a positive effect.
• Created in 1943 by Professor Kaoru Ishikawa of Tokyo
University and adopted by Dr. W. Edwards Deming.
• A Cause and Effect diagram (also known as a
Fishbone or Ishikawa diagram) graphically illustrates
the results of the analysis and is constructed in steps.
• Cause and Effect Analysis is usually carried out by a
group who all have experience and knowledge of the
cause to be analyzed.
• Cause-and-Effect diagrams graphically display
potential causes of a problem
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An Analysis Tool
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Atool used to analyze
possible causes of a specific
problem or condition
1. Identify the Problem/Issue
◦ Select a particular problem, issue or effect.
◦ Make sure the problem is specific, tightly defined
and relatively small in scope and that everyone
participating understands exactly what is being
analyzed.
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2. Brainstorm
◦ Conduct a Brainstorm of all the possible causes of the
effect, i.e., problem.
Have a mixed team from different parts of the
process (e.g., assemblers and testers).
Get a “fresh pair of eyes” - from someone who is not
too close to the process.
Fast and furious - go for quantity rather than quality
(of ideas) at first.
Involve everyone, or question why he/she is here.
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3. Draw fishbone diagram
Place the effect at the head of the “fish”
Include the 6 recommended categories shown below
People Method Machine
Problem
or Issue
Material Environment Measurement System
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4. Align Outputs with Cause Categories
◦ Review your brainstorm outputs and align with the
recommended major cause categories, e.g., the People,
Method, Machine, Material, Environment and
Measurement System.
Note:
These may not fit every situation and different major categories
might well be appropriate in some instances, however, the total
should not exceed six. Other categories may include
Communications, Policies, Customer/Supplier Issues etc.
Tip !
The 6 categories recommended will address almost all scenarios. However, there is no
one perfect set of categories. You may need to adapt to suit the issue being analyzed.
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5. Allocate Causes
◦ Transfer the potential causes from the brainstorm to the
diagram, placing each cause under the appropriate category.
◦ If causes seem to fit more than one category then it is
acceptable to duplicate them. However, if this happens
repeatedly it may be a clue that the categories are wrong and
you should go back to step 4.
◦ Related causes are plotted as ‘twigs’ on the branches.
Branches and twigs can be further developed by asking
questions such as ‘what?’, ‘why?’ ‘how?’, ‘where?’ This avoids
using broad statements that may in themselves be effects.
Beware, however, of digging in and getting into bigger issues
that are completely beyond the influence of the team.
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6. Analyze for Root Causes
◦ Consider which are the most likely root causes of the effect. This
can be done in several ways:
Through open discussion among participants, sharing views
and experiences. This can be speeded up by using Consensus
Decision Making.
By looking for repeated causes or number of causes related to
a particular category.
By data gathering using Check Sheets, Process Maps, or
customer surveys to test relative strengths through Pareto
Analysis.
Once a relatively small number of main causes have been
agreed upon, Paired Comparisons, can be used to narrow
down further.
Some groups find it helpful to consider only those causes
they can influence.
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7. Test for Reality
◦ Test the most likely causes by, e.g., data gathering and observation
if this has not already been done.
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• The activities of the workers.
• Variations caused by skill, knowledge, competency and
attitude
Types of Questions that may be Asked
Note, this is not a definitive list of questions that may be asked to identify potential source of variation
• Does the person have adequate supervision and support?
• Does the person know what he is expected to do in his job?
• How much experience does the person have?
• Does the person have the proper motivation to do his best work?
• Is the person satisfied or dissatisfied with his job?
• Is the person more- or less-productive at certain times of the day?
• Do physical conditions such as light or temperature affect their work?
• Does the person have the tools/equipment needed to do the job?
• Who does the person contact when problems arise?
• Is the work load reasonable?
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• The methods used to produce the products.
• Variations caused by inappropriate methods or processes.
Types of Questions that may be Asked
Note, this is not a definitive list of questions that may be asked to identify potential source of variation
• How is the method used defined?
• Is the method regularly reviewed for adequacy?
• Is the method used affected by external factors?
• Have other methods been considered?
• How does the operator know if the method is operating effectively?
• Is statistical analysis used to verify the effectiveness of the method?
• What adjustments must the operator make during the process?
• Have any changes been made recently in the process?
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• The equipment used to produce the products.
• Variations caused by temperature, tool wear and vibration.
Types of Questions that may be Asked
Note, this is not a definitive list of questions that may be asked to identify potential source of variation
• How old is the equipment or machinery?
• Is it maintained regularly?
• Is the machine affected by heat or vibration or other physical factors?
• How does the operator know if the machine is operating correctly?
• Is statistical analysis used to verify the capability of the machine?
• What adjustments must the operator make during the process?
• Have any changes been made recently in the process?
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• The "ingredients" of a process.
• Variations caused by materials that differ by industry, product
and stage of production.
Types of Questions that may be Asked
Note, this is not a definitive list of questions that may be asked to identify potential source of variation
• How is the material produced?
• How is the material verified?
• How old is the material?
• How is quality judged prior to your operation?
• What is the level of quality?
• How is the material packaged?
• Can temperature, light or humidity affect the material quality?
• Who is the material supplier?
• Has there been a change in suppliers?
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• The methods used to control the environment.
• Variations caused by temperature changes, humidity etc.
Types of Questions that may be Asked
Note, this is not a definitive list of questions that may be asked to identify potential source of variation
• How are environmental conditions monitored?
• How are environmental conditions controlled?
• How is the environment control measuring equipment calibrated?
• Are there changes in conditions at different times of the day?
• How does environmental change impact the processes being used?
• How does environmental change impact the materials being used?
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• The methods and instruments used to evaluate products.
• Variations caused by measuring techniques, or calibration and
maintenance of the instruments.
Types of Questions that may be Asked
Note, this is not a definitive list of questions that may be asked to identify potential source of variation
• How frequently are products inspected?
• How is the measuring equipment calibrated?
• Are all products measured using the same tools or equipment?
• How are inspection results recorded?
• Do inspectors follow the same procedures? (Is there a set of
standards?)
• Do inspectors know how to use the test equipment?
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MANP OWER MATERIAL
PROCES S K NO WLEDGE THERMA L E XPA NSION
SHIFT PA RT DE FORMA TION
TRAINING MACHINABILITY
OV ERTIME STRENGTH
INSP ECTION A VAILAB ILITY
PART DIMENSIONAL
QUALITY
FEE D FORCE SP EED INSE RT
NC PROGRAM GRADE
TYP E
PO SITIO NI NG ACCURA CY
TEMP
TOOL PA TH CUT DE PTH HOLDING FIXTURE
REPE ATAB ILI TY
GA UG E
RIGI DI TY
COOLANT BA CK LA SH
REPE ATAB ILI TY
REPRODUCABI LITY
METHO D MACHINE
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What are the main causes for the delay in
process at the teller in a bank (effect)
????
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Human error
slow network
computer
Downtime
environment and poor process.
These causes need to be brain stormed for
further secondary causes like Fatigue due to
insufficient light leads to environment related
cause.
Inexperienced teller leads to human error.
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Draw a CE diagram of bad coffee experience
at a restaurant
????
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Kaoru Ishikawa
Known for “Democratizing Statistics”
The Basic Seven Tools made statistical analysis less
complicated for the average person
Good Visual Aids make statistical and quality
control more comprehendible.
Flowcharts
A graphical picture of a PROCESS
Start and Process
End Decision
The process flow
Connector
A flowchart represents an algorithm or
process with the help of pictorial symbols.
We can visualize boxes of pictorial symbols
connecting with arrows to represent sequence
of activities.
Pictorial symbols can be diamonds to
represent decision points.
Rectangles for activities.
Ovals for beginning and ending points.
Circle for Connector
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Flowcharts help in identifying points or bottle
necks where problems might occur
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A flowchart of routine checkup process by a
patient in some hospital
???
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A check sheet is a tool to collect data in real
time about the problems or complaints.
A check sheet is designed for quick, easy and
efficient recording of desired information
which can help in the problem identification.
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A bank manager is interested in knowing the
errors in entering the profile information of
customers in application of saving accounts
for all days of a week
?????
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The manager classified the information or
different types of errors and made that form
or template ready.
1. Name
2. Address
3. Telephone number
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Now, he/she can record the number of errors
on a particular day using marks or checks.
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A histogram is a graphical display of data collected
over a period of time plotted as a frequency
distribution shown as bars.
The data is classified into categories of some
variable.
These categories are non-overlapping intervals.
The bars for all categories present the proportion
of cases or numbers fall under each category.
We can plot the data collected in the check sheet
table
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Suppose the following exam grades were
obtained in a course of 50 students:
78 87 65 64 93 56 67 76 75 88 96 45 33 76
75 78 82 90 78 76 73 70 67 69 65 89 70 76
73 45 31 75 56 50 77 79 84 83 86 71 73 75
77 69 59 64 63 78 75 95
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Decide on how many classes to use and the
range each class should cover (class width or
interval).
W = next value after largest value in data - smallest
value in data
total number of classes
Highest value = 96 Lowest value = 31
W = (97 - 31)/ 6
= 11
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Sort the data points into classes and
count the number of points in each class:
Class Frequency
31 - 41 2
42 - 52 3
53 - 63 4
64 - 74 14
75 - 85 19
86 - 96 8
Total 50
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Here is how the Excel output will look like..
Bin Frequency
31-41 2
42-52 3
53-63 4
64-74 14
75-85 19
86-96 8
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50
51
52
53
54
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56
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