Topic 4: SECOND

LANGUAGE LEARNING
Research-based
explanations of
second language
learning
Different research-based explanations
1. The mind is the computer.
2. Explicit and implicit knowledge
3. Language is forming habits.
4. Language is communication.
5. Language is grammar; language is vocabulary
6. The role of translation
7. Learning is about people
(Harmer, 2015, pp. 41 - 53)
 HOME READING – Class 1591
WEEK 5
1. The mind is the computer. GROUPS 1, 2, 3
2. Explicit and implicit knowledge GROUPS 4, 5, 6
3. Language is forming habits. GROUPS 7, 8
WEEK 6
1. Language is communication. GROUPS 1, 2
2. Language is grammar; language is vocabulary GROUPS 3, 4
3. The role of translation GROUPS 5, 6
4. Learning is about people GROUPS 7, 8
(Harmer, 2015, pp. 41 - 53)
 HOME READING – Class 1592
WEEK 5
1. The mind is the computer. GROUPS 1, 2
2. Explicit and implicit knowledge GROUPS 3, 4
3. Language is forming habits. GROUPS 5, 6
WEEK 6
1. Language is communication. GROUPS 1, 2
2. Language is grammar; language is vocabulary GROUPS 3, 4
3. The role of translation GROUPS 5
4. Learning is about people GROUPS 6
(Harmer, 2015, pp. 41 - 53)
 Issue 1: THE MIND
IS THE COMPUTER
 What does the
computer/human brain need
to in order to process?
 • Language learning is the result
INPUT of mental processing based on
the input we receive.
• Input was a sufficient
condition for language
acquisition to take place.
(Stephen Krashen, American
linguist, 1980s)
 Acquisition vs Learning

Input hypothesis
(Krashen, 1984)
 • Language which we ACQUIRE
subconsciously (especially when it is
anxiety free) is language we can easily
use in spontaneous conversation
because it is instantly available when
we need it. Language that is LEARNT,
Input hypothesis on the other hand, is not available for
spontaneous use.
(Krashen, 1984)
 • Language which we ACQUIRE
subconsciously (especially when it is
anxiety free) is language we can easily
use in spontaneous conversation
because it is instantly available when
we need it. Language that is LEARNT,
on the other hand, is not available for
spontaneous use.
Input hypothesis • The ONLY use for LEARNT language is
(Krashen, 1984) to help us to monitor (check) our
spontaneous communication.
 Comprehensible
input

Input hypothesis
(Krashen, 1984)
 Comprehensible input

Input hypothesis relaxed

(Krashen, 1984) setting
 Which of the following teaching and learning
activities reflect Input Hypothesis?
1. The teacher hangs posters of familiar objects (such as colors, animals) and activities
(such as action verbs) with English spellings around the classroom.
2. The teacher gets the students to repeat the dialogue many times so that they can
use correct intonation.
3. The teacher tries to give simple English instructions accompanying with gestures to
beginner students.
4. A pre-intermediate student switches to an English-speaking TV channel while she is
doing her housework or homework.
5. The teacher provides the students necessary vocabulary before assigning them a
task to do in pair.
6. The teacher teaches the class a new song in English although it does not relate to
the grammar lesson on that day.
7. The teacher assigns students to read news in English on
https://breakingnewsenglish.com everyday.
Input hypothesis - From what you have learnt about
Implications Krashen’s Input hypothesis, what can you
infer about language teaching and
learning?
 Input hypothesis -
Implications

• The most useful thing we could do with our students -

perhaps the only thing - would be to expose them to large
amounts of comprehensible input in a relaxed setting.
• Perhaps we might have the students learn language
consciously at some later stage for the sake of their
writing, for example, but otherwise, if we wanted them to
be effective at spontaneous communication,
comprehensible input would be enough.
 Input hypothesis -
Evaluation

• To what extent do you agree or

disagree with Krashen’s input
hypothesis? Use your own
experience of language
learning to support your
opinions.
 Input hypothesis - Evaluation

'While it does such a great job in generating native-speaking

LI proficiency in infants, it does not seem to work efficiently
when we want to master an L2 at a later stage in our lives’
(Darnyei, 2013: 163).
‘Students may reach a point from which they fail to see
further progress on some features of second language unless
they also have access to guided instruction’
(Lightbown and Spada, 2013: 107)
 Issue 2:
EXPLICIT &
IMPLICIT
KNOWLEDGE
…?... LEARNING
…?... LEARNING: a reading lesson
IMPLICIT LEARNING
EXPLICIT LEARNING: a reading lesson
 What are different in the
2 ways of learning
EXPLICIT & reading?
IMPLICIT
KNOWLEDGE
What are the pros and
cons of each way?
 • incidental learning
IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE • allow students to meet lots of
comprehensible language;
• allow students to gain the
language subconsciously;
• provide motivating, interesting
materials;
• are a bridge to the eventual
reading of native-level reading
materials.
(The Extensive Reading Foundation’s Guide to
Extensive Reading)
EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE: a reading lesson

• Learners are drawn attention to

linguistic features, such as word
forms, grammar, word meaning.
• Linguistic features and reading
skills, such as skimming,
guessing the meaning from
context, are deliberately
practiced.
 IMPLICIT VS EXPLICIT: PROS & CONS

IMPLICIT EXPLICIT
✓Motivating, relevant and real-life Topics might be not of students’
tasks interests.
✓Does not require conscious attention Requires attention
An uninstructed incidental approach ✓Direct instruction clearly adds value to
to L2 vocabulary acquisition does the learning process and leads to
result in lexical gains, but they are greater learning. (Sonbul & Schmitt,
modest. 2010: 257)
Students only reach basic levels. ✓‘Guided instruction’ is necessary for
students’ further progress (Lighbown &
Spada, 2013)
 IMPLICIT & EXPLICIT LEARNING

• To what extent do you agree or

disagree with graded readers
assignment in your Reading &
Writing courses? Use your own
experience of language
learning to support your
opinions.
 Implicit and Explicit - Conclusion

• ‘Making sure that students are exposed to the highest-

priority language forms (words, fixed phrases, structures,
aspects of pronunciation) that they learn and practise
these forms, and that they become skilled at using them
fluently and appropriately' (Swan, 2010: 4).
Issue 3: LANGUAGE IS FORMING
HABITS
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
 Habit Formation

• Habits can be acquired through conditioning

 Identify the UCS, CS and CR in the following
conditioning activities
1. A child joins in with other classmates to sing a song. They have
positive feelings that the classroom is a safe and fun place to be
when singing the song.

UCS: a song
UCR: positive
feelings

NS → CS
the safe and fun
classroom
 Identify the UCS, CS and CR in the following
conditioning activities
1. A child joins in with other classmates to sing a song. They have positive
feelings that the classroom is a safe and fun place to be when singing the
song.
2. A child fails a test and is criticized, which makes him anxious; thereafter,
she associates tests with anxiety.
3. Students don’t feel nervous when speaking in front of the class because
the teacher has created a supportive and encouraging environment.
4. Students have headaches and muscle tension whenever they have class
with a specific teacher. What might be the possible reasons for this?
5. In group, give 2 examples of classical conditioning in a school or home
setting (1 positive & 1 negative)
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Stimulus Response Reinforcement

Constant repetition

New behavior is acquired.

 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Stimulus Response Reinforcement

The light goes The rat presses The food is
on. a bar. dropped.

T: ‘There’s a picture
SS: ‘There’s a T: ‘Good
on the wall.’
clock on the job/Correct/Well
T shows SS the next
wall.’ done’
flashcard ‘clock’
 Form habits in language learning

• Watch the demonstration of a teacher teaching English and

answer the questions below.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mqd7OdJoLn0 (6 mins)
1. What do the students learn?
2. How does the teacher form the students’ habits in
language learning?
3. What is your opinion about her way of teaching?
 Do you think habit
formation is a good
way to learn English?
 Habit formation in language learning

• It was seen as mindlessly repetitive, and there were

'numerous strong criticisms of the idea that habit-
forming by itself offers a full explanation of how
languages are learned - It fails to allow for the role of the
human mind in learning, of consciousness, thought, and
unconscious mental processes’ (Hall, 201 1: 65)
 Habit
Does repetition
formation in So, is it not have a place in
language necessary at all? teaching English
nowadays?
learning
Meaningful repetition
 Repetitive games and plays

• Chain writing:
If I were you, I would…
• A: If I were you, I would stay at home.
• B: If I stayed at home, I would learn to dance.
• C: If I learnt to dance, I would get my husband to teach me.
• D: …
 Input Hypothesis
Implicit vs Explicit knowledge
Language is forming habits
 Fill in each blank with an appropriate word or phrase

1. Some early linguists believed that language learning is the result of mental
processing based on the …(1)… we receive.
2. According to Krashen (1984), input was a sufficient condition for language …(2)…
to take place.
3. The difference between acquisition and learning is that while acquisition is
…(3)…, learning is deliberate.
4. Krashen’s input hypothesis suggested that for successful acquisition, a student
has to be exposed to …(4)… input i+1 in a relaxed setting.
5. In explicit learning, learners are drawn attention to …(5)… features, such as word
forms, grammar, word meaning
6. …(6)… knowledge allows students to gain the language subconsciously.
7. …(7)… is mindlessly repetitive, which fails to allow mental processes in learning.
8. For drilling to be effective, teachers have to find ways of making it …(8)…
1. Input; 2. acquisition; 3. subconscious; 4. comprehensible; 5.
linguistic; 6. Implicit; 7. habit formation; 8. meaningful
1. Some early linguists believed that language learning is the result of mental
processing based on the …(1)… we receive.
2. According to Krashen (1984), input was a sufficient condition for language …(2)…
to take place.
3. The difference between acquisition and learning is that while acquisition is
…(3)…, learning is deliberate.
4. Krashen’s input hypothesis suggested that for successful acquisition, a student
has to be exposed to …(4)… input i+1 in a relaxed setting.
5. In explicit learning, learners are drawn attention to …(5)… features, such as word
forms, grammar, word meaning
6. …(6)… knowledge allows students to gain the language subconsciously.
7. …(7)… is mindlessly repetitive, which fails to allow mental processes in learning.
8. For drilling to be effective, teachers have to find ways of making it …(8)…
Issue 4: LANGUAGE IS
COMMUNICATION
 References

• Harmer, J. (2015). The practice of English language teaching (5th

ed.). UK: Longman