Electronics I Phy 341

ELECTRONICS 1

The branch of engineering which deals with the flow of Electrons through
vacuum, gas or semiconductor is called Electronics.

Electronics essentially deals with electronic devices and their utilization.

Reference Books

1. Principle of electric circuits by Thomas L Floyd

2. Electronic devices by Thomas L Floyd
3. Basic Electronics by Bernard Grob

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

An atom is the smallest particle of an

element that retains the characteristics
of that element. Each of the known
109 elements has atoms that are
different from the atoms of all other
elements. This gives each element a
unique atomic structure. According to
the classic Bohr model, an atom is visualized as having a planetary type of
structure that consists of a central nucleus surrounded by orbiting
electrons, as illustrated in Figure 2-1. The nucleus consists of positively
charged particles called protons and uncharged particles called neutrons.
The basic particles of negative charge are called electrons.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 1

Electronics I Phy 341

Atomic Number

All elements are arranged in the periodic table of the elements in order
according to their atomic number. The atomic number equals the number
of protons in the nucleus. For example, hydrogen has an atomic number of
1 and helium has an atomic number of 2. In their normal (or neutral)
state, all atoms of a given element have the same number of electrons as
protons; the positive charges cancel the negative charges, and the atom
has a net charge of zero, making it electrically balanced.

 atomic number = no. of protons or electrons in an atom

 atomic weight = no. of protons + no. of neutrons

Shells, Orbits, and Energy Levels

As you have seen in the Bohr model, electrons orbit the nucleus of an
atom at certain distances from the nucleus and are restricted to these
specific orbits. Each orbit corresponds to a different energy level within
the atom known as a shell. The shells are designated 1, 2, 3, and so
on, with I being closest to the nucleus. Electrons further from the nucleus
are at higher energy levels.

The number of electrons in any orbit is given by 2n2 where n is the orbit
number.

Valence Electrons

Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher energy
and are less tightly bound to the atom than those closer to the nucleus.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 2

Electronics I Phy 341

This is because the force of attraction between the positively charged

nucleus and the negatively charged electron decreases with increasing
distance from the nucleus. Electrons with the highest energy levels exist in
the outermost shell of an atom and are relatively loosely bound to the
atom. This outermost shell is known as the valence shell, and electrons in
this shell are called valence electrons.

 The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons.

 The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons.

 The valence electrons determine the physical and chemical properties of a material.

Free electrons

 The valence electrons of different material possess different energies.

The greater the energy of a valence electron, the lesser it is bound
to the nucleus.
 In certain substances, particularly metals, the valence electrons
possess so much energy that they are very loosely attached to the
nucleus

 The loosely attached valence electrons move at random within the

material and are called free electrons.

The valence electrons, which are loosely attached to the nucleus, are known as free
electrons.

Energy Levels and Ionization Energy

If an electron absorbs a photon with sufficient energy, it escapes from

the atom and becomes a free electron. This is indicated by the ionization

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 3

Electronics I Phy 341

energy level in Figure 2-3. An atom or group of atoms is left with a net
charge, it is called an ion. When an electron escapes from the neutral
hydrogen atom, the atom is left with a net positive charge and becomes
a positive ion. In some cases, an atom or group of atoms can get an
electron, in that case it is called a negative ion.

 If an atom loses an electron it becomes positively charged and is

referred as positive ion.
 If an atom gains an electron it becomes negatively charged and is
referred to as negative ion.

Energy bands

 In case of a single isolated atom an electron in any orbit has definite

energy.
 When atoms are brought together as in solids, an atom is influenced
by the forces from other atoms. Hence an electron in any orbit can
have a range of energies rather than single energy. These range of
energy levels are known as Energy bands.
 Within any material there are two distinct energy bands in which
electrons may exist i.e. Valence band and conduction band.

Energy level
Conduction band

Forbidden gap

Valence band

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 4

Electronics I Phy 341

 The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is called valence band.

 The range of energies possessed by free electrons is called conduction band.
 Valence band and conduction band are separated by an energy gap in which no
electrons normally exist this gap is called forbidden gap

Electrons in conduction band are either escaped from their atoms (free
electrons) or only weakly held to the nucleus. Thereby by the electrons in
conduction band may be easily moved around within the material by
applying relatively small amount of energy. (either by increasing the
temperature or by focusing light on the material etc. ) This is the reason
why the conductivity of the material increases with increase in
temperature.

But much larger amount of energy must be applied in order to extract an

electron from the valence band because electrons in valence band are
usually in the normal orbit around a nucleus. For any given material, the
forbidden gap may be large, small or non-existent.

Classification of materials based on Energy band theory

Based on the width of the forbidden gap, materials are broadly classified
as conductors, Insulators and semiconductors.

Conduction Conduction

Conduction band band

Forbidden
overlap
band
Forbidden Gap

Gap
Valence Valence
EValence
G =6eV Gap EG =1eV
band band
band
EG =6eV

(a) Conductor (b) Insulator (c) Semiconductor

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 5

Electronics I Phy 341

Conductors

 In conuctors very large number of electrons are available for

conduction even at extremely low temperatures. Thus, conduction is
possible even by a very weak electric field.

Insulators

 Thus valence and conduction band are widely separated as shown in

fig (b). Therefore insulators do not conduct electricity even with the
application of a large electric field or by heating or at very high
temperatures.

Semiconductors

 Semiconductors are those substances whose conductivity lies in

between that of a conductor and Insulator.
Example: Silicon, germanium, Cealenium, Gallium, arsenide etc.

 In terms of energy bands, semiconductors are those substances in

which the forbidden gap is narrow. Thus valence and conduction bands
are moderately separated as shown in fig(C).

 In semiconductors, the valence band is partially filled, the conduction

band is also partially filled, and the energy gap between conduction
band and valence band is narrow.

 Therefore, comparatively smaller electric field is required to push the

electrons from valence band to conduction band . At low
temperatures the valence band is completely filled and conduction
band is completely empty. Therefore, at very low temperature a
semi-conductor actually behaves as an insulator.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 6

Electronics I Phy 341

Conduction in solids

Conduction in any given material occurs when a voltage of suitable

magnitude is applied to it, which causes the charge carriers within
the material to move in a desired direction.

Electron motion

Free electrons in the conduction band are moved under the influence
of the applied electric field. Since electrons have negative charge they
are repelled by the negative terminal of the applied voltage and
attracted towards the positive terminal.

Electric Charge

The charge of an electron and that of a proton are equal in magnitude.

Electrical charge is an electrical property of matter that exists because of
an excess or deficiency of electrons. When an excess of electrons exists in
a material, there is a net negative electrical charge. When a deficiency of
electrons exists, there is a net positive electrical charge. Materials with
charges of opposite polarity are attracted to each other, and materials
with charges of the same polarity are repelled, as indicated in Figure 2-5.
A force acts between charges. This force is called an electric field, consists
of invisible lines of force, as represented in Figure.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 7

Electronics I Phy 341

Current

Current is the rate of flow of Charge Carriers, such as electrons. Current

is usually thought of as moving in the direction of positive charge, so
from the positive power supply to the negative. However, since in metals
it is electrons that carry electric charge, the actually flow is opposite to
the way in which we think of it.

Current is the the amount of Charge, Q that passes a point in a time,

t. It is measured in Amps (A),

Voltage

Voltage (V) or Potential Difference (p.d.) is a measure of the Energy

transferred per Charge Carrier between two points.

Voltage is the Energy, E per Charge, Q. Voltage is measured

in Volts (V), which is defined as one Joule per Coulomb.

Power

Power (P) is the rate of Energy transfer. It is measured in watts (W),

where one watt is defined as one Joule per Second.

Power = I x V. From this definition of Power, we can substitute

the algebraic definitions above to produce a variety of other formulae.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 8

Electronics I Phy 341

Resistance

The property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the

flow of electricity through it.

Unit

The practical unit of resistance is ohm. A conductor is said to have a

resistance of one ohm if it permits one ampere current to flow through
it when one volt is impressed across its terminals. The symbol for ohm is
Ω.

Laws of Resistance

The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors,

(i) It varies directly as its length, I.

(ii) It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 9

Electronics I Phy 341

(iii) It depends on the nature of the material.

(iv) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.

Series Resistive Circuit:

Two elements are said to be in series if they are connected at a single

point and if there are no other current-carrying connections at this point.

· The current is the same everywhere in the circuit.

· The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of all individual resistances.

· The source voltage is divided among the resistors according to their

resistance values in a linear fashion.

Voltages in Series:
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 10
Electronics I Phy 341

Voltage Divider Rule:

The voltage dropped across any series resistor is proportional to the
magnitude of the resistor. The total voltage dropped across all resistors
must equal the applied voltage source.

Parallel Resistive Circuit:

Elements or branches are said to be in a parallel connection when they
have exactly two nodes in common.

·The Voltage across all Parallel elements in a circuit will be the same.
· An important effect of combining parallel resistors is that the resultant
resistance will always be smaller than the smallest resistor in the
combination.
· The total current is divided between the parallel resistors in linear
fashion, following the principle that smallest among the resistances would

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 11

Electronics I Phy 341

get the highest share of current and vice versa

Current Divider Rule:

The Series-Parallel Combinations:

Many circuits may be a combination of both series and parallel elements.
· The same current occurs through all series elements.
· The same voltage occurs across all parallel elements.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 12

Electronics I Phy 341

Ohm’s Law

Ohm's law state that current is directly proportional to voltage and

inversely proportional to resistance.

For a constant value of R, if the value of V is increased the value of I

increases, if V is decreased, I decreases. If V is constant and R is
increased, I decreases. Similarly if V is constant and R is decreased, I
increases. By manipulating above Equation, you can obtain expressions for
voltage and resistance.

KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW

The sum of all the voltage drops around a closed path in a circuit is equal
to the total source voltage in a loop.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 13

Electronics I Phy 341

If all the voltage drops around a

closed path are added and then
this total is subtracted from the
source voltage, the result is
zero. This result occurs because
the sum of the voltage drops
always equals the source voltage.

The algebraic sum of all the voltages (both source and drops) around a
single closed path is zero.

Therefore, another way of expressing Kirchhoff's voltage law in equation

form is

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 14

Electronics I Phy 341

KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW

Kirchhoff's current law state that “ The sum of the currents into a node
(total current in) is equal to the sum of the currents out of that node
(total current out).”

A node is any point or junction in a circuit where two or more

components are connected. In a parallel circuit, a node or junction is a
point where the parallel branches come together. For example, in the
circuit of Figure 6-12, point A is one node and point B is another.

The total current IT from the source is into node A. At this point, the
current splits up among the three branches as indicated. Each of the
three branch currents (I1, I2and I3) is out of node A. Kirchhoff's current
law says that the total current into node A is equal to the total current
out of node A that is,

If all the terms on the right side of Equation are brought over to the
left side, their signs change to negative, and a zero is left on the right
side. So KCL can be stated another way,
“The algebraic sum of all the currents entering and leaving a node is equal to
zero.”

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 15

Electronics I Phy 341

Loop Analysis (Voltage Divider)

A circuit consisting of a series string of resistors connected to a voltage
source acts as a voltage divider. Figure 5-37 shows a circuit with two
resistors in series, although there can be any number. There are two
voltage drops across the resistors, one across R1 and onother across R2.
These voltage drops are V1 and V2 , respectively.
The voltage drop around across resistor directly proportional to its
resistance values.

Voltage-Divider Formula
With a few calculations, you can develop a fonnula for detennining how
the voltages divide among series resistors. Assume a circuit with n
resistors in series as shown in Figure 5-38, where n can be any number.

Let V, represent the voltage drop across anyone of the resistors and R,
represent the number of a particular resistor, By Ohm's law, you can
express the voltage drop across R" as
Vx = 1Rx
The current through the circuit is equal to the source voltage divided by
the total resistance (I = VS/RT ). In the circuit of Figure 5-38. the total
resistance is Rl + R2 + R3 + .,. + Rn. By substitution of Vs/RT for I in
the expression above, we get

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 16

Electronics I Phy 341

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 17

Electronics I Phy 341

DC VOLTAGE SOURCE

The dc voltage source is one of the energy sources in electronic

applications, so it is important to understand its characteristics. The dc
voltage source ideally provides constant voltage to a load even when the
load resistance varies.
The voltage across its terminals, A and B, remains fixed regardless of the
value of load resistance that may be connected across its output. Figure
8-1 (b) shows a load resistor, RL' connected. All of the source voltage, Vs
is dropped across RL . Ideally, RL can be changed to any value except
zero, and the voltage will remain fixed. The ideal voltage source has an
internal resistance of zero.

In reality, no voltage source is ideal; however, regulated power supplies can

approach ideal when operated within the specified output current. All
voltage sources have some inherent internal resistance which can be
represented by a resistor in series with an ideal source, as shown in Figure
8-2(a). Rs is the internal source resistance and Vs is the source voltage.
With no load, the output voltage (voltage from A to B) is Vs. This
voltage is sometimes called the open circuit voltage.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 18

Electronics I Phy 341

THE CURRENT SOURCE

The current source is another type of energy source that ideally provides
a constant current to a load even when the resistance of the load varies.
Figure 8-4(a) shows a symbol for the ideal current source. The arrow
indicates the direction of source current, Is. An ideal current source
produces a constant value of current through a load, regardless of the
value of the load. This concept is illustrated in Figure 8-4(b), where a
load resistor is connected to the current source between terminals A and
B. The ideal current source has an infinitely large internal parallel
resistance.

If Rs is much larger than RL , most of the current is through RL and very

little through Rs. As long as RL remains much smaller than Rs, the
current through RL will stay almost constant, no matter how much R L
changes. If there is a constant-current source, you can assume that Rs is
so much larger than the load resistance that Rs can be neglected.

THE SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Some circuits consist of more than one voltage or Current source. For
example, most amplifiers operate with two voltage sources: an ac and a dc
source. Additionally, some amplifiers require both a positive and a negative
dc voltage source for proper operation. The superposition method is a
way to determine currents in a circuit with multiple sources by leaving one

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 19

Electronics I Phy 341

source at a time and replacing the other sources by their internal

resistances.

Recall that an ideal voltage source has a zero internal resistance and an
ideal current source has infinite internal resistance. All sources will be
treated as ideal.

A general statement of the superposition theorem is as follows:

The current in any given branch of a multiple-source circuit can be found

by determining the currents in that particular branch produced by each
source acting alone, with all other sources replaced by their internal
resistances. The total current in the branch is the algebraic sum of the
individual currents in that branch.

The steps in applying the superposition method are as follows:

Step 1. Leave one voltage (or current) source at a time in the circuit and
replace the other voltage (or current) sources with its internal resistance.
For ideal sources a short represents zero internal resistance and an open
represents infinite internal resistance.

Step 2. Determine the particular current (or voltage) just as if there

were only one source in the circuit.

Step 3. Take the next source in the circuit and repeat Steps 1 and 2. Do
this for each source.

Step 4. To find the actual current in a given branch, algebraically sum the
currents due to each individual source. (If the currents are in the same

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 20

Electronics I Phy 341

direction, they are added. If the currents are in opposite directions, they
are subtracted) Once you find the current, you can determine the voltage
using Ohm's law.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 21

Electronics I Phy 341

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 22

Electronics I Phy 341

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 23

Electronics I Phy 341

THEVENIN'S THEOREM

Thevenin's theorem provides a method for simplifying a circuit to a

standard equivalent form. This theorem can be used to simplify the
analysis of complex circuits.

Thevenin’s Theorem states that "Any linear circuit containing several

voltages and resistances can be replaced by just a Single Voltage in series
with a Single Resistor".

In other words, it is possible to simplify any "Linear" circuit, no matter

how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source in
series with a resistance.

The Thevenin equivalent is a two-terminal resistive circuit consists of an

equivalent voltage source (VTH) and an equivalent resistance (RTH ),
arranged as shown in Figure 8-30. The values of the equivalent voltage

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 24

Electronics I Phy 341

and resistance depend on the values in the original circuit. Any resistive
circuit can be simplified regardless of its complexity with respect to two
output terminals.

. Any component connected between these two terminals effectively "sees"

VTH in series with RTH. As defined by Thevenin's theorem, The Thevenin
equivalent resistance (RTH ) is the total resistance appearing between two
terminals in a given circuit with all sources replaced by their internal
resistances.

Although a Thevenin equivalent circuit is not the same as its original

circuit, it acts the same in terms of the output voltage and current. To
find the Thevenin equivalent of any circuit, determine the equivalent
voltage, V TH and the equivalent resistance, RTH' looking from the output

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 25

Electronics I Phy 341

terminals. In Figure 8-32(a), the voltage across the designated tenninals

A and B is the Thevenin equivalent voltage_ In this particular circuit, the
voltage from A to B is the same as the voltage across Rz because there is
no current through R3 and, therefore, no voltage drop across it. The
Thevenin voltage is expressed as follows for this particular example:

In Figure 8-32(b), the resistance between tenninals A and B with the

source replaced by a short (zero internal resistance) is the Thevenin
equivalent resistance. In this particular circuit, the resistance from A to B
is R3 in series with the parallel combination of RI and R2 Therefore, RTH
is expressed as follows:

Summary of Thevenin's Theorem

Remember, the Thevenin equivalent circuit is always in the form of an

equivalent voltage source in series with an equivalent resistance regardless
of the original circuit that it replaces. Any load resistor connected
between the terminals of a Thevenin equivalent circuit will have the same
current through it and the same voltage across it as if it were connected
to the terminals of the original circuit,

A summary of steps for applying Thevenin's theorem is as follows:

Step 1. Open the two terminals (remove any load) between which you
want to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 26
Electronics I Phy 341

Step 2. Determine the voltage (VTH) across the two open terminals.

Step 3. Determine the resistance (RTH ) between the two open terminals
with all sources replaced with their internal resistances (ideal voltage
sources shorted and ideal current sources opened).

Step 4. Connect VTH and RTH in series to produce the complete Thevenin
equivalent for the original circuit.

Step 5. Replace the load removed in Step 1 across the terminals of the
Thevenin equivalent circuit. You can now calculate the load current and
load voltage using only Ohm's law. They have the same value as the load
current and load voltage in the original circuit.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 27

Electronics I Phy 341

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 28

Electronics I Phy 341

NORTON'S THEOREM

Like Thevenin's theorem, Norton's theorem provides a method of

reducing a complex circuit to a simple equivalent form. The basic difference
is that Norton's theorem results in an equivalent current source in parallel
with an equivalent resistance.

Norton's theorem is a method for simplifying a two-terminal linear circuit

to an equivalent circuit with only a current source in parallel with a
resistor. The form of Norton's equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 8-46.
Regardless of how complex the original circuit is, it can always be reduced
to this equivalent form, The equivalent Current source is designated I N,
and the equivalent resistance is designated RN .

Norton's Equivalent Current (IN)

Norton's equivalent current (IN) is the short-circuit current between two

output terminals in a circuit.

Any component connected between these two terminals effectively "sees"

a current source IN in parallel with RN' To illustrate, suppose that a
resistive circuit has a resistor (R L ) connected between two output
terminals in the circuit, as shown in Figure 8-47(a). You want to find
the Norton circuit that is equivalent to the one shown as "seen" by R L.
To find IN, calculate the current between terminals A and B with these

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 29

Electronics I Phy 341

two terminals shorted, as shown in Figure 8-47(b). Example 8-13

demonstrates how to find IN.

Norton's Equivalent Resistance (RN )

Norton's equivalent resistance (RN ) is defined in the same way as RTH.

The Norton equivalent resistance RN, is the total resistance appearing

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 30

Electronics I Phy 341

between two output terminals in a given circuit with all sources replaced
by their internal resistances.

Examples 8-13 and 8-14 have shown how to find out IN and RN , Keep in
mind that these values can be found for any linear circuit. Once these are
known, they must be connected in parallel to form the Norton equivalent
circuit.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 31

Electronics I Phy 341

Summary of Norton's Theorem

Any load resistor connected between the output terminals of a Norton
equivalent circuit will have the same current through it and the same
voltage across it as if it were connected to the output terminals of the
original circuit. A summary of steps for theoretically applying Norton's
theorem is as follows:
Step 1. Short the two terminals between which you want to find the
Norton equivalent circuit.
Step 2. Determine the current (IN) through the shorted terminals.
Step 3. Determine the resistance (RN ) between the two open terminals
with all sources replaced with their internal resistances (ideal voltage
sources shorted and ideal current sources opened) R N = RTH.
Step 4. Connect IN and RN in parallel to produce the complete Norton
equivalent for the original circuit.
Norton's equivalent circuit can also be derived from Thevenin's equivalent
circuit by use of the source conversion method.

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

The maximum power transfer theorem is stated as For a given source

voltage, maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the
load resistance is equal to the internal source resistance.
The source resistance, Rs, of a circuit is the equivalent resistance as
viewed from the output terminals. A Thevenin equivalent circuit with its
output resistance and load is shown in Figure 8-54. When R L = RS, the
maximum power possible is transferred from the voltage source to R L for
a given value of Vs.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 32

Electronics I Phy 341

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 33

Electronics I Phy 341

THE SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM

The sinusoidal waveform or sine wave is the fundamental type of

alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage. The electrical service
provided by the power company is in the form of sinusoidal voltage and
current.
Sinusoidal voltages are produced by two types of sources, rotating
electrical machines (ac generators) or electronic oscillator circuits. Figure
11-1 shows the symbol used to represent sinusoidal voltage source. Figure
11-2 is a graph showing the general shape of a sine wave, which can be
either an alternating current or an alternating voltage. Voltage (or
current) is displayed on the vertical axis and time (t) is displayed on the
horizontal axis.

Polarity of a Sine Wave

As mentioned, a sine wave changes polarity at its zero value; that is, it
alternates between positive and negative values. When a sinusoidal voltage
source (Vs) is applied to a resistive circuit, as in Figure 11-3, an
alternating sinusoidal Current results. When the voltage changes polarity,
the current correspondingly changes direction as indicated. During the
positive alternation of the applied voltage Vs, the Current is in the
direction shown in Figure 11-3(a). During a negative alternation of the
applied voltage, the Current is in the opposite direction as shown in Figure
ll-3(b). The combined positive and negative alternations make up one cycle
of a sine wave.
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 34
Electronics I Phy 341

The time required for a sine wave to complete one full cycle is called the
period (T).

SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES

Instantaneous Value
Figure 11-15 illustrates that at any point in time on a sine wave, the
voltage (or current) has an instantaneous value. This instantaneous value
is different at different points along the curve, Instantaneous values are
positive during the positive alternation and negative during the negative
alternation. Instantaneous values of voltage and current are symbolized by
lowercase v and i, respectively.

Peak Value
The peak value of a sine wave is the value of voltage (or current) at the
positive or the negative maximum (peak) with respect to zero. Since the

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 35

Electronics I Phy 341

positive and negative peak values are equal in magnitude, a sine wave is
characterized by a single peak value.

Peak-to-Peak Value
The peak-to-peak value of a sine wave, as shown in Figure 11-17, is the
voltage or current from the positive peak to the negative peak. It is
always twice the peak value as expressed in the following equations. Peak-
to-peak voltage or current values are represented by Vpp or Ipp.

RMS Value
The term rms stands for root mean square. Most ac voltmeters display
rms voltage. The 220 volts at your wall outlet is an rms value, the rms
value, also referred to as the effective value, of a sinusoidal voltage is
actually a measure of the heating effect of the sine wave. For example,
when a resistor is connected across an ac (sinusoidal) voltage source, as
shown in Figure 11-18(a), a
certain amount of heat is
generated by the power in
the resistor, Figure 11-18(b)
shows the same resistor
connected across a dc
voltage source, The value of
the dc voltage can be adjusted so that the resistor gives off the same
amount of heat as it does when connected to the ac source.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 36

Electronics I Phy 341

The rms value of a sinusoidal voltage is equal to the dc voltage that

produces the same amount of heat in a resistance as does the sinusoidal
voltage.
The peak value of a sine wave can be converted to the corresponding
rms value using the following relationships, derived in Appendix B, for
either voltage or current.

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a passive electrical component that stores electrical charge
and has the property of capacitance.

Basic Construction
In its simplest form, a capacitor is an electrical device that stores
electrical charge and is constructed of two parallel conductive plates
separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. Connecting leads
are attached to the parallel plates. A basic capacitor is showing Figure 12-
1 (a), and a schematic symbol is shown in part (b).

Physical Characteristics of a Capacitor

The following parameters are important in establishing the capacitance and
the voltage rating of a capacitor: plate area, plate separation, and
dielectric constant.
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 37
Electronics I Phy 341

Plate Area Capacitance is directly proportional to the physical size of the

plates (plate area designated as A). A larger plate area produces more
capacitance, and a smaller plate area produces less capacitance.
Plate Separation Capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance
between the plates. The plate separation is designated d.
Dielectric Constant As you know, the insulating material between the
plates of a capacitor is called the dielectric. Capacitance is directly
proportional to the dielectric constant. The dielectric constant of a
vacuum is defined as 1 and that of air is very close to 1.

CAPACITORS IN DC CIRCUITS
A capacitor will charge up when it is connected to a dc voltage source.
The buildup of charge across the plates is dependent on the capacitance
and the resistance in a circuit.

Charging a Capacitor
A capacitor will charge when it is connected to a dc voltage source, as
shown in Figure 12-28. The capacitor in part (a) of the figure is
uncharged; that is, plate A and plate B have equal numbers of free
electrons. When the switch is closed as shown in part (b), the source
moves electrons away from plate A through the circuit to plate B as the
arrows indicate. As plate A loses electrons and plate B gains electrons,
plate A becomes positive with respect to plate B. As this charging process
continues, the voltage across the plates builds up rapidly until it is equal
to the applied voltage Vs, but opposite in polarity, as shown in part (c).
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 38
Electronics I Phy 341

When the capacitor is fully charged, there is no current. So a capacitor

blocks constant dc.

Remember the following rules about capacitors in dc circuits:

1. A capacitor appears as an open to constant voltage.
2. A capacitor appears as a short to an instantaneous change in voltage.

The RC Time Constant

The RC time constant is a fixed time interval that equals the product of
the resistance and the capacitance in a series RC circuit. Capacitors take
five RC times constant to fully charge or discharge.

CAPACITORS IN AC CIRCUITS
As you know, a capacitor blocks dc. A capacitor passes ac but with an
amount of opposition called capacitive reactance that depends on the
frequency of the ac. capacitive reactance is the opposition to sinusoidal
current, expressed in ohms. The symbol for capacitive reactance is Xc.

Capacitive reactance, Xc is in ohms when f is in hertz and C is in farads.

Notice that 2π appears in the denominator as a constant of
proportionality.
The instantaneous capacitor current is equal to the capacitance times the
instantaneous rate of change of the voltage across the capacitor.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 39

Electronics I Phy 341

The faster the voltage across a capacitor changes, the greater the current.

Phase Relationship of Current and Voltage in a Capacitor

The sinusoidal voltage waveform has a maximum rate of change (dv/dt =
max) at the zero crossings and a zero rate of change (dv/dt = 0) at the
peaks, as indicated in Figure 12-42(b).

CAPACITOR APPLICATIONS
Capacitors are widely used in many electrical and electronic applications.
1. Electrical Storage 2. Power Supply Filtering
3. DC Blocking and AC Coupling 4. Power Line Decoupling
4. Bypassing 6. Signal Filters
7. Timing Circuits 8. Computer Memories

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 40

Electronics I Phy 341

THE BASIC INDUCTOR

An inductor is a passive electrical component which exhibits the property
of Inductance.
When a length of wire is formed into a coil, as shown in Figure 13-1, it
becomes an inductor. The terms coil and inductor are used interchangeably.
Current through the coil produces an electromagnetic field. The magnetic
lines of force around each loop (turn) in the winding of the coil effectively
add to the lines of force around the adjoining loops, forming a strong
electromagnetic field within and around the coil. The net direction of the
total electromagnetic field creates a north and a south pole.

INDUCTORS IN DC CIRCUITS
Energy is stored in the electromagnetic field of an inductor when it is
connected to a dc voltage source. When there is constant direct current in
an inductor, there is no induced voltage. There is, however, a voltage drop
due to the winding resistance of the coil. The inductance itself appears as
a short to dc.
INDUCTORS IN AC CIRCUITS
An inductor passes ac with an amount of opposition called inductive
reactance that depends on the frequency of the ac.
Inductive Reactance, XL
Inductive reactance is the opposition to sinusoidal current, expressed in
ohms. The symbol for inductive reactance is XL. The formula) for
inductive reactance, XL is
Inductive reactance, XL is in ohms when is in hertz and L is in henries. As
with capacitive reactance, the is a constant factor in the equation.
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 41
Electronics I Phy 341

INDUCTOR APPLICATIONS
One of the most common applications for inductors is noise reduction
applications.
Noise Suppression
RF Chokes
Tuned Circuits

SINUSOIDAL RESPONSE OF SERIES RC CIRCUITS

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a series RC circuit, each resulting
voltage drop and the current in the circuit are also sinusoidal and have the
same frequency as the applied voltage. The capacitance causes a phase shift
between the voltage and current that depends on the relative values of
the resistance and the capacitive reactance.
The resistor voltage (VR ), the capacitor voltage (Vc), and the current (I)
are all sine waves with the frequency of the source. Phase shifts are
introduced because of the capacitance. The resistor voltage and current
lead the source voltage, and the capacitor voltage lags the source voltage.
The phase angle between the current and the capacitor voltage is always
90°. These generalized phase relationships are indicated in Figure 15-14.

The amplitudes and the phase relationships of the voltages and current
depend on the values of the resistance and the capacitive reactance. When
a circuit is purely resistive, the phase angle between the applied (source)
voltage and the total current is zero. When a circuit is purely capacitive,

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 42

Electronics I Phy 341

the phase angle between the applied voltage and the total current is 90°,
with the current leading the voltage. When there is a combination of both
resistance and capacitive reactance in a circuit, the phase angle between
the applied voltage and the total current is somewhere between 0° and
90°, depending on the relative values of the resistance and the capacitive
reactance.

IMPEDANCE OF SERIES RC CIRCUITS

The impedance of a series RC circuit consists of resistance and capacitive
reactance and is the total opposition to sinusoidal current. Its unit is the
ohm. The impedance also causes a phase difference between the total
current and the source voltage. Therefore, the impedance consists of a
magnitude component and a phase angle component.
In a purely resistive circuit. the impedance is simply equal to the total
resistance. In a purely capacitive circuit. the impedance is equal to the
total capacitive reactance. The impedance of a series RC circuit is
determined by both the resistance and the capacitive reactance. These
cases are illustrated in Figure 15-15. The magnitude of the impedance is
symbolized by Z.

Capacitive reactance is a phasor quantity and is expressed as a complex

number in rectangular form as
Xc = -jXc
where boldface Xc designates a phasor quantity (representing both
magnitude and angle and Xc is just the magnitude. In the series RC circuit
the total impedance is the phasor sum of R and - jXc and is expressed as
Z = R - jX c
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 43
Electronics I Phy 341

In ac analysis, both R and Xc are as shown in the phasor diagram of

Figure 15-17(a). with Xc appearing at a -90o angle with respect to R.
This relationship comes from the fact that the capacitor voltage in a
series RC circuit lags the current, and the resistor voltage, by 900 . Since
Z is the phasor sum of R and - jXc, its phasor representation is as shown
in Figure 15-17(b). A repositioning of the phasors, as shown in part (c),
forms a right triangle called the impedance triangle. The length of each
phasor represents the magnitude in ohms, and the angle θ is the phase
angle of the RC circuit and represents the phase difference between the
applied voltage and the current.

From right-angle triangle the magnitude (length) of the impedance can be

expressed in terms of the resistance and reactance as

The italic letter Z represents the magnitude of the phasor quantity Z

and is expressed in ohms.
The phase angle, θ, is expressed as

The symbol tan-I stands for inverse tangent. You can find the tan-I value
on your calculator. Combining the magnitude and angle, the phasor
expression for impedance in polar form is

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 44

Electronics I Phy 341

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 45

Electronics I Phy 341

The RC Lag Circuit

An RC lag circuit is a phase shift circuit in which the output voltage
lags the input voltage by a specified amount. Figure 15-30(a) shows a
series RC circuit with the output voltage taken across the capacitor. The
source voltage is the input, Vin. As you know, θ is the phase angle
between the current and the input voltage, is also the phase angle
between the resistor voltage and the input voltage because VR and l are in
phase with each other.

Since Vc lags VR by 90°, the phase angle between the capacitor voltage
and the input voltage is the difference between -90o and θ, as shown in
Figure 15-30(b). The capacitor voltage is the output, and it lags the
input, thus creating a basic lag circuit.

The RC Lead Circuit

An RC lead circuit is a phase shift circuit in which the output voltage
leads the input voltage by a specified amount. When the output of a
series RC circuit is taken across the resistor rather than across the
capacitor, as shown in Figure 15-34(a), it becomes a lead circuit.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 46

Electronics I Phy 341

SINUSOIDAL RESPONSE OF SERIES RL CIRCUITS

As with the RC circuit, all currents and voltages in a series RL circuit
are sinusoidal when the input voltage is sinusoidal. The inductance causes a
phase shift between the voltage and the current that depends on the
relative values of the resistance and the inductive reactance.
In an RL circuit, the resistor voltage and the current lag the source
voltage. The inductor voltage leads the source voltage. Ideally, the phase
angle between the current and the inductor voltage is always 90°. These
generalized phase relationships are indicated in Figure.

When a circuit is purely inductive, the phase angle between the applied
voltage and the total current is 90°, with the current lagging the
voltage. When there is a combination of both resistance and inductive
reactance in a circuit, the phase angle is somewhere between 0° and 90°,
depending on the relative values of the resistance and the inductive
reactance.

IMPEDANCE OF SERIES RL CIRCUITS

The impedance of a series RL circuit consists of resistance and inductive
reactance and is the total opposition to sinusoidal current. Its unit is the
ohm. The impedance also causes a phase difference between the total
current and the source voltage. Therefore, the impedance consists of a
magnitude component and a phase angle component. The impedance of a
series RL circuit is determined by the resistance and the inductive

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 47

Electronics I Phy 341

reactance. Inductive reactance is expressed as a phasor quantity in

rectangular form as

In the series RL circuit of Figure 16-2, the total impedance is the phasor
sum of R and jX L and is expressed as

Since Z is the phasor sum of Rand jXL , its phasor representation is as

shown in Figure 1 6-3 (b). A repositioning of the phasor, forms a right
triangle called the impedance triangle. The length of each phasor
represents the magnitude of the quantity, and θ is the phase angle
between the applied voltage and the current in the RL circuit.

The impedance magnitude of the series RL circuit can be expressed in

terms of the resistance and reactance as

The magnitude of the impedance is expressed in ohms. The phase angle, θ,

is expressed as

Combining the magnitude and the angle, the impedance can be expressed in
polar form as

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 48

Electronics I Phy 341

Assignment.
(1) Drive expression for impedance of RC parallel circuit.

(2) Drive expression for impedance of RL parallel circuit

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 49

Electronics I Phy 341

The RC Circuit as a Filter

Filters are frequency-selective circuits that permit signals of certain
frequencies to pass from the input to the output while blocking all
others. That is, all frequencies but the selected ones are filtered.
Series RC circuits exhibit a frequency-selective characteristic and therefore
act as basic filters. There are two types. The first one that we examine,
called a low-pass filter, is realized by taking the output across the
capacitor, just as in a lag circuit. The second type, called a high-pass
filter, is implemented by taking the output across the resistor, as in a
lead circuit.
Low Pass Filter You have already seen what happens to the output phase
angle in a lag circuit. In terms of its filtering action, we are interested
primarily in the variation of the output magnitude with frequency.
Figure 15-64 shows the filtering action of a series RC circuit using specific
values for illustration. In part (a) of the figure, the input is zero
frequency (dc). Since the capacitor blocks constant direct current, the
output voltage equals the full value of the input voltage because there is
no voltage dropped across R. Therefore the circuit passes all of the input
voltage to the output (10 V in, to V out).
In Figure 15-64(b), the frequency of the input voltage has been increased
to I kHz, causing the capacitive reactance to decrease to 159 Ω. For an
input voltage of 10 V rms, the output voltage is approximately 8.5 V
rms, which can be calculated using the voltage divider approach or Ohm's
law. In Figure 15-64(c), the input frequency has been increased to 10
kHz, causing the capacitive reactance to decrease further to 15.9 D. For a
constant input voltage of 10 V rms, the output voltage is now 1.57 V
rms. As the input frequency is increased further, the output voltage
continues to decrease and approaches zero as the frequency becomes very
high, as shown in Figure l5-64(d).

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 50

Electronics I Phy 341

A description of the circuit action is as follows: As the frequency of the

input increases, the capacitive reactance decreases. Because the resistance
is constant and the capacitive reactance decreases, the voltage across the
capacitor (output voltage) also decreases according to the voltage-divider
principle. The input frequency can be increased until it reaches a value at
which the reactance is so small compared to the resistance that the
output voltage can be neglected because it is very small compared to the
input voltage. At this value of frequency, the circuit is essentially
completely blocking the input signal.
It is apparent that the lower frequencies pass through the circuit much
better than the higher frequencies. This RC circuit is therefore a very
basic form of low-pass filter.
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 51
Electronics I Phy 341

High-Pass Filter Figure 15-66 illustrates high-pass filtering action, where

the output is taken across the resistor, just as in a lead circuit. When
the input voltage is dc (zero frequency) in part (a), the output is zero
volts because the capacitor blocks direct current; therefore, no voltage is
developed across R.
In Figure l5-66(b), the frequency of the input signal has been increased
to 100 Hz with an rms value of 10 V. The output voltage is 0.63 V
rms. Thus, only a small percentage of the input voltage appears on the
output at this frequency.

In Figure 15-66(c), the input frequency is increased further to 1 kHz,

causing more voltage to be developed across the resistor because of the
further decrease in the capacitive reactance. The output voltage at this

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 52

Electronics I Phy 341

frequency is 5.32 V rms. As you can see the output voltage increases as
the frequency increases. A value of frequency is reached at which the
reactance is negligible compared to the resistance. and most of the input
voltage appears across the resistor, as shown in Figure 15-66(d).
As illustrated, this circuit tends to prevent lower frequencies from
appearing on the output but allows higher frequencies to pass through
from input to output. Therefore, this RC circuit is a basic form of high-
pass filter.

The Cutoff Frequency and the Bandwidth of a Filter The frequency at

which the capacitive reactance equals the resistance in a low-pass or high-
pass RC filter is called the cutoff frequency and is designated fc.

At fc the output voltage of the filter is 70.7% of its maximum value. It

is standard practice to consider the cutoff frequency as the limit of a
filter's performance. For example, in a high-pass filter, all frequencies
above fc are considered to be passed by the filter, and all those below fc
are considered to be rejected. The reverse is true for a low-pass filter.

The range of frequencies that is considered to be passed by a filter is

called the bandwidth. Figure 15-68 illustrates the bandwidth and the
cutoff frequency for a low-pass filter.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 53

Electronics I Phy 341

The RL Circuit as a Filter

As with RC circuits, series RL circuits also exhibit a frequency-selective
characteristic and therefore act as basic filters.

Low-Pass Filter. Low pass filter pass signal (voltage and current) of low
frequency and stop signal of high frequency. In terms of the filtering
action, the variation of the magnitude of the output voltage as a function
of frequency is important. Figure 16-38 shows the filtering action of a
series RL circuit using specific values for purposes of illustration. In part
(a) of the figure, the input is zero frequency (dc). Since the inductor
ideally acts as a short to constant direct current, the output voltage
equals the full value of the input voltage (neglecting the winding
resistance). Therefore, the circuit passes all of the input voltage to the
output (10 V in, 10 V out). In Figure 16-38(b), the frequency of the
input voltage has been increased to 1 kHz, causing the inductive reactance
to increase to 62.83 Ω. For an input voltage of 10 V rms. the output
voltage is approximately 8.47 V rms, which can be calculated using the
voltage divider approach or Ohm's law.
In Figure 16-38(c), the input frequency has been increased to 10 kHz,
causing the inductive reactance to increase further to 628.3 Ω. For a
constant input voltage of 10 V rms, the output voltage is now 1.57 V
rms. As the input frequency is increased further, the output voltage
continues to decrease and approaches zero as the frequency becomes very
high, as shown in Figure 16-38(d) for f = 20kHz.
As the frequency of the input increases, less of the input voltage is
passed through to the output. That is, the output voltage decreases as
the frequency increases. It is apparent that the lower frequencies pass
through the circuit much better than the higher frequencies. This RL
circuit is therefore a basic form of low-pass filter.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 54

Electronics I Phy 341

High-Pass Filter Figure 16-40 illustrates high-pass filtering action, where

the output is taken across the inductor. When the input voltage is dc
(zero frequency) in part (a), the output is zero volts because the
inductor ideally appears as a short across the output.
In Figure 16-40(b), the frequency of the input signal has been increased
to 100 Hz with an rms value of 10 V. The output voltage is 0.63 V
rms. Thus, only a small percentage of the input voltage appears at the
output at this frequency.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 55

Electronics I Phy 341

In Figure 16-40(c), the input frequency is increased further to 1 kHz.

causing more voltage to be developed as a result of the increase in the
inductive reactance. The output voltage at this frequency is 5.32 V rms.
As you can see, the output voltage increases as the frequency increases. A
value of frequency is reached at which the reactance is very large
compared to the resistance and most of the input voltage appears across
the inductor, as shown in Figure l6-40(d).
This circuit tends to prevent lower frequency signals from appearing on
the output but permits higher frequency signals to pass through from
input to output; thus, it is a basic form of high-pass filter.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 56

Electronics I Phy 341

Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators
its ability is to conduct electrical current. A semiconductor in its pure
state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. The most common
single-element semiconductors are silicon, germanium, and carbon.

A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence electrons shares an electron with
each of its four neighbors, this sharing of valence electrons produces the
covalent bonds that hold the atoms together; each valence electron is
attracted equally by the two adjacent atoms which share it. Covalent
bonding in an intrinsic silicon crystal is shown in Figure. An intrinsic crystal
is one that has no impurities.

Energy band in semiconductor

The electrons of an atom can exist only within prescribed energy bands.
Each shell around the nucleus corresponds to a certain energy band and is
separated from adjacent shells by energy gaps, in which no electrons can
exist. Energy band diagram for an unexcited (no external energy such as
heat) atom in a pure silicon crystal is shown. This condition occurs only at
a temperature of absolute 0 Kelvin.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 57

Electronics I Phy 341

An intrinsic silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat

(thermal) energy for some valence electrons to jump the gap from the
valence band into the conduction band, becoming free electrons.

When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the

valence band within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole. For every
electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is one
hole left in the valence band, creating an electron-hole pair.
Electron and Hole Current. When a voltage is applied across a piece of
intrinsic silicon, the thermally generated free electrons in the conduction
band are attracted toward the positive end. This movement of free
electrons is one type of current in a semi conductive material and is called
electron current.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 58

Electronics I Phy 341

Another type of current occurs in the valence band, where the holes
created by the free electrons exist. Electrons remaining in the valence
band are still attached to their atoms and are not free to move randomly
in the crystal structure as are the free electrons. However, a valence
electron can move into a nearby hole with little change in its energy level.
thus leaving another hole where it came from. Effectively the hole has
moved from one place to another in the crystal structure. This is called
hole current.
Doping
The conductivity of silicon and germanium can be drastically increased by
the controlled addition of impurities to the intrinsic semi conductive
material. This process, called doping, increases the number of current
carriers (electrons or holes). The two categories of impurities are n-type
and p-type.

N- Type Semiconductor
To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in intrinsic silicon,
pentavalent impurity atoms are added. These are atoms with five valence
electrons such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and
antimony (Sb). Four of the valence electrons are used to form the

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 59

Electronics I Phy 341

covalent bonds with silicon atoms, leaving one extra electron. This extra
electron becomes a conduction electron. Because the pentavalent atom
gives up an electron, it is often called a donor atom. A conduction
electron created by this doping process does not leave a hole in the
valence band because it is in excess of the number required to fill the
valence band.

Majority and Minority Carriers

Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon (or germanium)
doped with pentavalent atoms is an N-type semiconductor. The electrons
are called the majority carriers in n-type material. Although the majority
of current carriers in n-type material are electrons, there are also a few
holes that are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated.
Holes in an n-type material are called minority carriers.

P- Type Semiconductor
To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent impurity
atoms are added. Such as boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga).. All
three of valence electrons are used in the covalent bonds; and since four
electrons are required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is added.
Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as
an acceptor atom. Majority carrier hole and minority carrier are free
electrons.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 60

Electronics I Phy 341

DIODE
If a piece of n-type and p-type are brought together, a p n junction
forms at the boundary between the two regions and a diode is created.
The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms
and only a few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers). The
n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the impurity
atoms and only a few thermally generated holes (minority carriers).

Formation of the Depletion Region

As you have seen, the free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting
in all directions. At the instant of the p n junction formation the free
electrons near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the
junction into the p region where they combine with holes near the
junction.
When the p n junction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as they
diffuse across the junction. This creates a layer of positive charges near
the junction. As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 61
Electronics I Phy 341

holes as the electrons and holes combine. This creates a layer of negative
charges near the junction. These two layers of positive and negative
charges form the depletion region. After the initial surge of free electrons
across the p n junction, the depletion region has expanded to a point
where equilibrium is established and there is no further diffusion of
electrons across the junction.

Barrier Potential
In the depletion region there are many positive charges and many negative
charges on opposite sides of the p n junction, The forces between the
opposite charges form a "field of forces" called an electric field,
The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region is
the amount of voltage required to move electrons through the electric
field. This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is
expressed in volts.
The barrier potential of a p n junction depends on several factors,
including the type of semi conductive material, the amount of doping, and
the temperature. The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for
silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at 25°C.

BIASING A DIODE
No electrons move through the p n junction at equilibrium. Generally the
term bias refers to the use of a dc voltage to establish certain operating
conditions for an electronic device. In relation to a diode, there are two
bias conditions: forward and reverse.
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 62
Electronics I Phy 341

Forward Bias
To bias a diode, you apply dc voltage across it. Forward bias is the
condition that allows current through the p n junction. In Figure a dc
voltage source connected across a diode in the direction to produce
forward bias. This external bias voltage is designated as VBias ' The resistor,
R, limits the current to a value that will not damage the diode.

Notice that the negative side of VBias is connected to the n region of the
diode and the positive side is connected to the p region. This is one
requirement for forward bias. A second requirement is that the bias
voltage VBias must be greater than the barrier potential.
A fundamental picture of what happens when a diode is Forward-biased is
shown in Figure. Because like charges repel, the negative side of the bias
voltage source "pushes" the free electrons which are the majority carriers
in the n region toward the pn junction. This flow of free electrons is
called electron current. The negative side of the source also provides a
continuous flow of electrons through the external connection (conductor)
and into the n region as shown.

The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the free electrons for
them to overcome the barrier potential of the depletion region and move
on through into the p region. Once in the p region, these conduction

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 63

Electronics I Phy 341

electrons have lost enough energy to immediately combine with holes in

the valence band.
Now, the electrons are in the valence band in the p region, simply because
they have lost too much energy overcoming the barrier potential to
remain in the conduction band. Since unlike charges attract, the positive
side of the bias-voltage source attracts the valence electrons toward the
left end of the p region. The holes in the p region provide the medium or
"pathway" for these valence electrons to move through the p region. The
electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left. The holes,
which are the majority carriers in the p region, effectively (not actually)
move to the right toward the junction, as you can see in Figure 1-21. This
effective flow of holes is called the hole current. You can also view the
hole current as being created by the flow of valence electrons through the
p region, with the holes providing the only means for these electrons to
flow.

Reverse Bias
Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the
diode. Notice that the positive side of V Bias is connected to the N region
of the diode and the negative side is connected to the p region. Also note
that the depletion region is shown much wider than in forward bias or
equilibrium.

Reverse Current

The extremely small current that exists in reverse bias after the
transition current dies out is caused by the minority carriers in the n and

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 64

Electronics I Phy 341

p regions that are produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs.

The small numbers of free minority electrons in the p region are "pushed"
toward the pn junction by the negative bias voltage.

When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they "fall down the
energy hill" and combine with the minority holes in the N region as
valence electrons and flow toward the positive bias voltage, creating a
small hole current.

Reverse Breakdown

Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be neglected.

However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value called
the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will drastically increase. The
high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority electrons so
that as they speed through the p region, they collide with atoms with
enough energy to knock valence electrons out of orbit and into the
conduction band. The newly created conduction electrons are also high in
energy and repeat the process. If one electron knocks only two others out
of their valence orbit during its travel through the p region. The numbers
quickly multiply. As these high energy electrons go through the depletion
region, they have enough energy to go through the n region as conduction
electrons, rather than combining with holes. The multiplication of
conduction electrons just discussed is known as avalanche and results in a

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 65

Electronics I Phy 341

very high reverse current that can damage the diode because of excessive
heat dissipation.

V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias

When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is a current.

This current is called the forward current and is designated I F. Figure
illustrates what happen as the forward-bias voltage is increased positively
from 0 V. With 0 V across the diode, there is no forward current. As
you gradually increase the forward-bias voltage, the forward current and
the voltage across the diode gradually increase, as shown in Figure. When
the forward-bias voltage is increased to a value where the voltage across
the diode reaches approximately 0.7 V (barrier potential), the forward
current begins to increase rapidly. As you continue to increase the
forward-bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but
the voltage across the diode increases only gradually above 0.7 V. This
small increase in the diode voltage above the barrier potential is due to
the voltage drop across the internal dynamic resistance of the semi
conductive material.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 66

Electronics I Phy 341

Diode Structure and Symbol

A diode is a single pn junction device with conductive contacts and wire

leads connected to each region. There are several types of diodes. but the
schematic symbol for a general-purpose or rectifier diode is same. The n
region is called the cathode and the p region is called the anode. The
"arrow" in the symbol points in the direction of conventional current
(opposite to electron flow).

The Ideal Diode Model

The ideal model of a diode is a simple switch. When the diode is forward-
biased, it acts like a closed (on) switch. When the diode is reverse biased,
it acts like an open (off) switch. The barrier potential, the forward
dynamic resistance, and the reverse current are all neglected.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 67

Electronics I Phy 341

The ideal V-I characteristic curve graphically depicts the ideal diode
operation. Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance
are neglected, the diode is assumed to have a zero voltage across it when
forward-biased, as indicated by the portion of the curve on the positive
vertical axis.

VF = 0 V

The forward current is determined by the bias voltage and the limiting
resistor using Ohm's law.

Since the reverse current is neglected, its value is assumed to be zero.

The reverse voltage equals the bias voltage.

V R = V BIAS

The Practical Diode Model

The practical model adds the barrier potential to the ideal switch model.
When the diode is forward-biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch in
series with a small equivalent voltage source equal to the barrier potential
(0.7 V) with the positive side toward the anode. This equivalent voltage
source represents the fixed voltage drop (VF) produced across the forward-
biased pn junction of the diode and is not an active source of voltage.

The forward current is determined as follows by first applying Kirchhoff's

voltage law to Figure l-34(a):

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 68

Electronics I Phy 341

The diode is assumed to have zero reverse current, IR = 0 A

VR = V BIAS

The Complete Diode Model

The complete model of a diode consists of the barrier potential, the small
forward dynamic resistance (rd), and the large internal reverse resistance
(rR). The reverse resistance is taken into account because it provides a
path for the reverse current, which is included in this diode model.

When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in series with

the barrier potential voltage and the small forward dynamic resistance (rd-
). When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in parallel
with the large internal reverse resistance (rR), The barrier potential does
not affect reverse bias, so it is not a factor.
Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 69
Electronics I Phy 341

IR = V bias / r’R

Break down is not considered as its not a normal operation for most
diodes.

Diode Limiters

A diode limiter (also called clipper) that limits or clips the

positive/negative part of the input voltage.

Positive Limiter. As the input voltage goes positive; the diode becomes
forward biased and conducts current. Because the cathode is at ground
potential (0 V), the anode cannot exceed 0.7V (assuming silicon). So
point A is limited to +0.7V when the input voltage exceeds this value.
When the input voltage goes back below 0.7 V, the diode is reverse biased
and appears as an open. The output voltage looks like the negative part of

the input voltage.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 70

Electronics I Phy 341

If R1 is small compared to RL then Vout = Vin

Negative Limiter. If the diode is turned around the negative part of the
input voltage is clipped off. When the diode is forward biased during the
negative part of the input voltage, point A is held at -0.7 V by the
diode drop.

When the input voltage goes above -0.7 V, the diode is no longer
forward-biased; and a voltage appears across R L proportional to the input
voltage.

Biased Limiters

The level to which an ac voltage is limited can be adjusted by adding a

bias voltage, VBlAS , in series with the diode, The voltage at point A
must equal V BlAS + 0.7 V before the diode will become forward-biased
and conduct. Once the diode begins to conduct, the voltage at point A is
limited to V BlAS + 0.7 V so that all input voltage above this level is
clipped off. To limit a voltage to a specified negative level, the diode and
bias voltage must be connected as in Figure below. In this case the voltage

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 71

Electronics I Phy 341

at point A must go below - VBIAS - 0.7 V to forward-bias the diode and

initiate limiting action as shown.

By turning the diode around, the positive limiter can be modified to limit
the output voltage to the portion of the input voltage waveform above
VBIAS - 0.7 V, as shown by the output waveform in Figure 2-39(a).
Similarly, the negative limiter can be modified to limit the output voltage
to the portion of the input voltage waveform below - V BIAS + 0.7 V,

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 72

Electronics I Phy 341

EXAMPLE NO.01- Students are to solved it)

Diode Clampers

A clamper adds a dc level to an ac voltage. Clampers are sometimes known

as dc restorers. Figure shows a diode clamper that inserts a positive dc
level in the output waveform. The operation of this circuit can be seen by
considering the first negative half-cycle of the input voltage. When the
input voltage initially goes negative, the diode is forward biased, allowing
the capacitor to charge to near the peak of the input (Vp (in) - 0.7 V),
as shown. Just after the negative peak, the diode is reverse-biased. This
is because the cathode is held near Vp(in)-0.7 V by the charge on the
capacitor. The capacitor can only discharge through the high resistance of
RL. So, from the peak of one negative half-cycle to the next, the
capacitor discharges very little. The amount that is discharged, of course,
depends on the value of RL. For good clamping action, the RC time
constant should be at least ten times the period of the input frequency.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 73

Electronics I Phy 341

The net effect of the clamping action is that the capacitor retains a
charge approximately equal to the peak value of the input less the diode
drop. The capacitor voltage acts essentially as a battery in series with the
input voltage. The dc voltage of the capacitor adds to the input voltage
by superposition.

If the diode is turned around, a negative dc voltage is added to the input

voltage to produce the output voltage as shown.

RECTIFIER

Because of their ability to conduct current in one direction and block

current in the other direction, diodes are used in circuits called rectifiers

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 74

Electronics I Phy 341

that convert ac voltage into dc voltage. Rectifiers are found in all dc

power supplies that operate from an ac voltage source.

The rectifier converts the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.

The Half-Wave Rectifier

A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor R L forming a

half-wave rectifier. During one cycle of the input voltage ( frequency 60
Hz), using the ideal model for the diode, When the sinusoidal input
voltage (Vin ) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and conducts
current through the load resistor. The current produces an output voltage
across the load RL which has the same shape as the positive half-cycle of
the input voltage.

When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle,
the diode is reverse-biased. There is no current, so the voltage across the
load resistor is 0 V.

The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the ac input voltage
appear across the load. Since the output does not change polarity, it is a
pulsating dc voltage with a frequency of 60 Hz.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 75

Electronics I Phy 341

Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage

The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is the value
you would measure on a dc voltmeter. Mathematically, it is determined by
finding the area under the curve over a full cycle, and then dividing by 2π,
the number of radians in a full cycle. V AVG is approximately 31.8% of VI
for a half-wave rectified voltage.

Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output

In the previous discussion, the diode was considered ideal. When the
practical diode model is used with the barrier potential of 0.7 V taken
into account, this is what happens. During the positive half-cycle, the
input voltage must overcome the barrier potential before the diode
becomes forward-biased. This results in a half-wave output with a peak
value that is 0.7 V less than the peak value of the input, as shown in
Figure 2-5. The expression for the peak output voltage is

Vp(out) = Vp(in) - 0.7 V

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the peak value of the input voltage,
and the diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of repetitive
reverse voltage. For the diode in Figure 2-8, the
maximum value of reverse voltage, designated as PlV,
occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of the

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 76

Electronics I Phy 341

input voltage when the diode is reverse-biased.

PIV = Vp (in)

Half-Wave Rectifier with Transformer-Coupled Input Voltage

A transformer is often used to couple the ac input voltage from the

source to the rectifier. Transformer coupling provides two advantages.
First, it allows the source voltage to be stepped up or stepped down as
needed, second, the ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier,
thus preventing a shock hazard in the secondary circuit.

The secondary voltage of a transformer equals the turn’s ratio’ n’ times

the primary voltage.

, ,

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 77

Electronics I Phy 341

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the

load during the entire 360 degree of the input cycle, whereas a half-wave
rectifier allow current through the load only during one-half of the cycle.
The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage with a frequency
twice the input frequency that pulsates every half-cycle of the input, as
shown

The average value for a full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice that
of the half-wave. V AVG is approximately 63.7% of V p for a full-wave
rectified voltage.

The Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

A center-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two

diodes connected to the secondary of a center-tapped transformer, as
shown in Figure 2-13. The input voltage is coupled through the
transformer to the center-tapped secondary. Half of the total secondary

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 78

Electronics I Phy 341

voltage appears between the center tap and each end of the secondary
winding as shown.

For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarities of the

secondary voltages are as shown in Figure 2-14(a). This condition forward-
biases diode D1 and reverse-biases diode D2. The current path is through D1
and the load resistor RL as indicated. For a negative half-cycle of the
input voltage, the voltage polarities on the secondary are as shown in
Figure. This condition reverse-biases D1 and forward-biases D2. The current
path is through D2 and RL as indicated. Because the output current during
both the positive and negative portions of the input cycle is in the same
direction through the load, the output voltage developed across the load
resistor is a full-wave rectified dc voltage.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 79

Electronics I Phy 341

Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage

If the transformer's turns ratio is 1, the peak value of the rectified

output voltage equals half the peak value of the primary input voltage less
the barrier potential. Half of the primary voltage appears across each half
of the secondary winding

Vp(sec) = Vp(pri) / 2

Peak Inverse Voltage

Each diode in the full-wave rectifier is alternately forward biased and then
reverse biased. The maximum reverse voltage that each diode must
withstand is the peak secondary voltage Vp(sec). This is shown in Figure,
where D2 is assumed to be reverse biased and D1 is forward biased to
illustrate the concept.

When the total secondary voltage V sec has the polarity shown, the
maximum anode voltage of D1 is + V(sec)/2 and the maximum anode
voltage of D2 is -V(sec)/2. Since D1 is assumed to be forward-biased, its
cathode is at the same voltage as its anode minus the diode drop; this is
also the voltage on the cathode of D2.

The peak inverse voltage across D2 is

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 80

Electronics I Phy 341

The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as shown. When the input
cycle is positive as, diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased and conduct
current in the direction shown. A voltage is developed across RL that looks
like the positive half of the input cycle. During this time, diodes D 3 and
D4 are reverse biased.

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 81

Electronics I Phy 341

When the input cycle is negative as in Figure (b), diodes D 3 and D4 are
forward biased and conduct current in the same direction through RL as
during the positive half cycle. During the negative half-cycle, D1 and D2 are
reverse biased.

A full-wave rectified output voltage appears across RL as a result of this

action.

Bridge Output Voltage. During the positive half-cycle, D1 and D2 are

forward-biased. Neglecting the diode drops, the total secondary voltage
appears across the load resistor. The same is true when D 3 and D4 are
forward biased during the negative half-cycle.

V(Out) = Vp(sec) (ideal mode)

Course Instructor Mr. Pir Muhammad Page 82