DESIRE ACADEMY PHYSICS NOTES (CLASS-X)

UNIT 10 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND WAVES

Review Questions (Punjab Book)

10.1. What is simple harmonic motion? What are the necessary conditions for a body to execute
simple harmonic motion?

Simple Harmonic Motion:

Simple harmonic motion is the type of vibratory motion in which acceleration of the body is directly
proportional to the displacement from mean position and is always directed towards mean position.

Conditions for Simple Harmonic Motion:

Following are the necessary conditions for simple harmonic motion.

 Restoring force must be acting on the system which tends the vibrating body to move towards the
mean position.
 The system must have inertia.
 Simple harmonic motion is an idealization that applies only when friction and other resistive forces are
neglected.

10.2. Think of several examples in everyday life of motion that are simple harmonic.

Following are the examples of the bodies executing simple harmonic motion.
 Motion of pendulum of a clock.
 Motion of strings of guitar when these are plucked to produce sound.
 Up and down motion of a wooden cork or a leaf in water waves.
 Motion of a ball in a bowl.

10.3. What are damped oscillations? How damping progressively reduces the amplitude of
oscillations?

Damped Oscillations:
The oscillations of a system in the presence of some resistive force are called damped oscillations.

Vibratory motion of ideal system, in the absence of

any friction or resistance, continues indefinitely under
the action of a restoring force.

Practically, in all systems the force of friction retards

the motion, so the systems do not oscillate
indefinitely. The friction reduces the mechanical

PHYSICS
energy of the system as time passes, the motion is
said to be damped. This damping progressively
reduces amplitude of oscillations.

10.4. How can you define the term wave? Elaborate

the difference between mechanical and
electromagnetic waves? Give examples of each.

Wave:
A wave is a disturbance in the medium which causes the particles of the medium to undergo vibratory

COMPLETE EXERCISE NOTES

motion about their mean position in equal intervals of time.
Difference between mechanical and electromagnetic waves:

Mechanical Waves Electromagnetic Waves

(PUNJAB, FEDERAL & KPK BOARD) (i) Such waves which require a
material medium for their
(i) Such waves which do not require a material
medium for their production and propagation are
production and propagation are electromagnetic waves.
FOR CLASS – 10th mechanical waves.

(ii) These waves consist of crest and (ii) These waves consist of transverse electric and
trough pattern in case of magnetic field propagating together perpendicular
transverse waves and compression to each other.
and rarefaction pattern in case of

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longitudinal waves. 10.6. Draw a transverse wave with an amplitude of 2 cm and a wavelength of 4 cm. Label a crest
and trough on the wave.
Compression Rarefaction
Given below the displacement-distance graph representing a transverse wave with an amplitude of
2 cm and a wavelength of 4 cm.

Longitudinal Waves
3.00 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒙 / 𝒄𝒎
Crest
Wavelength 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒙𝒐 𝟐 𝒄𝒎
2.00
Trough

1.00
Transverse Waves

0.00
2 4 6 8 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑺 / 𝒄𝒎
(iii) Their speed is less than the speed of (iii) Their speed is equal to the speed of light
light. -1.00
(iv) Water waves, waves in rope and sound (iv) Radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light,
waves are the examples of mechanical ultraviolet rays, X-rays and gamma rays are the -2.00
waves. examples of electromagnetic waves. 𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝝀
𝟒 𝒄𝒎
-3.00
10.5. Distinguish between longitudinal and transverse waves with suitable examples.
10.7. Derive a relationship between speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave. Write a formula
Longitudinal Waves Transverse Waves relating speed of a wave to its time period and wavelength.

(i) Such mechanical waves which particles (i) Such mechanical waves which particles of a The relationship between the velocity, frequency and wavelength of a wave is known as wave equation.
of a medium vibrate parallel to the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction Wave is in fact a disturbance that travels from one place to another hence having a specific velocity of
direction of propagation of waves are of propagation of waves are called transverse travelling. This is called velocity of wave which is defined by:
called longitudinal waves. waves.

(ii) These waves consist of pattern of (ii) These waves consist of pattern of crests and If distance travelled by the wave is equal to one wavelength then time taken by it is equal to time
compressions and rarefactions. troughs. Portion of the wave above the period hence we can write:
Compressions are the regions where normal position is called crest and portion of
particles of the medium are closer and the wave below the normal position is called
rarefactions are the regions where trough.
particles of the medium are spaced apart. But reciprocal of time period is equal to frequency , i.e.

Above equation is called the wave equation. It is true for all types of waves. i.e. longitudinal and
transverse waves. It is to be remembered wave velocity and wavelength depends upon the medium of
the wave and frequency of the wave depends upon the source or vibrator that produces the wave.
Compression Rarefaction
10.8. What are means of energy transfer without transfer of matter? Justify this statement with
the help of a simple experiment.

Waves are the means of energy transfer without transfer of

matter.

Experiment:
(iii) Distance between two consecutive (iii) Distance between two consecutive crests or Drop a stone into a pond of water. Water waves will be
compressions or rarefactions is equal to troughs is equal wavelength. produced on the surface of the water which will travel
wavelength. outwards. Place a cork at some distance from the falling
(iv) Waves in a slinky spring and sound (iv) Water waves, waves in a rope or slinky spring stone. When waves reach the cork, it will move up and down
waves are the examples of longitudinal are examples of transverse waves. along with the motion of the water particles by getting energy
waves. from the wave.

This activity shows that water waves like other waves transfer
energy from one place to other without transferring of matter, i.e. water.

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10.9. Explain the following properties waves with reference to ripple tank experiment:
(a) Reflection (b) Refraction (c) Diffraction

(a) Reflection

When waves moving in one medium fall on the surface of another medium they bounce back into the
first medium such that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This phenomenon is
called reflection of waves.

Generate the straight waves in the ripple tank. These waves are said to be incident waves. Place a
barrier in the ripple tank in making a certain angle with the direction of propagation of incident waves.
These waves reflect from the barrier. As the barrier is placed at an angle to the wave front the reflected If waves pass through the slit with a size larger than wavelength of the wave, only a small diffraction
waves can be seen to obey the law of reflection. i.e. the angle of incident will be equal to the angle of will occur near the corners of the obstacle.
reflection.
Barrier
Angle of
incidence
Normal Normal

Angle of
Incident waves ∠𝒊 Reflection
Barrier
∠𝒓

Reflected Waves 10.10. Does increasing the frequency of a wave also increase its wavelength? If not, how are these
quantities related?

On increasing the frequency of the wave its wavelength does not increase but it decreases while
wave velocity remains unchanged. Thus, frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional to
(b) Refraction each other.
When waves enter from one medium in to the second medium at some angle or their direction of travel Conceptual Questions (Punjab Book)
may change. This phenomenon is called refraction of waves.
10.1. If the length of a simple pendulum is doubled what will be the change in its time period?
The speeds of waves depend upon the depth of water. If a
transparent glass sheet is submerged in the ripple tank, Time period of a simple pendulum is determined by the relation given below:
the depth of water in the tank will be shallower above the
sheet than elsewhere. Suppose the edge of the sheet is
parallel to the plate of the vibrator. When waves enter the √ ………………………… (i)
region of shallow water their wavelength decreases. As
frequency of the waves depends upon the frequency of Where is the length of the pendulum. And is the gravitational acceleration.
vibrator, so frequency of water waves remains the same in
both the parts of water. This shows that wave speed is Take new length of the pendulum:
greater in deep region of water and smaller in the shallow
region. , then new time period is given below:

For the observation of refraction of water waves, √

we repeat this experiment such that the edge of
the sheet is at some angle to the wavefront. Now
we will observe that in addition to the change in √
wavelength the waves change their direction of
propagation as well. The direction of propagation
is always normal to the wavefronts. This change √ ( √ ) …………………………… (ii)
of direction of water waves while passing from a
region of deep water to that of shallower is called
From (i) and (ii) we get:
refraction f waves.
√
(c) Diffraction
So it is verified from the above result that if the length of the simple pendulum is doubled
The bending or spreading of waves around the
then new time period will be √ times the original time period.
sharp edges or corners of obstacles is called
diffraction.
10.2. A ball is dropped from a certain height onto the floor and keeps bouncing. Is the motion
of the ball is simple harmonic? Explain.
Generate plane waves in a ripple tank and place two obstacles in line in such a way that separation
between them is equal to the wavelength of water waves. After passing through a small slit between
The motion of the bouncing ball when dropped from a certain height is not simple harmonic.
the two obstacles, the waves will spread in every direction and change into almost semicircular pattern.
Because
Diffraction of waves can only be observed clearly size of slit between the obstacles is comparable with
 There is no fixed point (mean position) about which the body vibrates.
the wavelength of wave.

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 There is no restoring force that tends the body to move towards mean position.
 Acceleration always directed downward either the body is falling down or moving upward. While in √
case of SHM acceleration is always directed towards the mean position
 Acceleration of the ball remains same in any case. While in case of SHM acceleration is directly
proportional to the displacement from mean position.
 Velocity of the ball is maximum when it hits the ground. While in case of SHM the body has i.e.
maximum velocity at mean position.
Hence it is proved that if displacement of a body executing SHM is 0.707 times the amplitude
10.3. A student performed two experiments with a simple pendulum. He/ She used two bobs when kinetic and potential energies of the body are equal.
of different masses by keeping other parameters constant. To his/her astonishment the
time period of the pendulum did not change! Why? OR

Consider the example of mass attached to a spring. Potential energy at a displacement from
Time period of the simple pendulum does not depend upon the mass of the bob. It depends upon
mean position is given below:
the length of the pendulum and value of gravitational acceleration . ( √ )
Although the student uses two different pendulums with different masses of the bobs but both the Where is spring constant.
pendulums have the same length and are at same place where value of remains same. That is
why the time period of the pendulums does not change. Kinetic energy of the mass spring system at the same displacement is given below:

10.4. What types of wave do not require any material medium for their propagation? Where is the amplitude of vibration.

Electromagnetic waves do not require any material medium for their propagation. They can travel Given that
through vacuum. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays, X-rays and
gamma rays are the examples of electromagnetic waves. Therefore

10.5. Plane waves in ripple tank undergo refraction when they move from deep to shallow
water. What change occurs in the speed of the waves?

When plane waves in ripple tank undergo refraction while

moving from deep to shallow water their speed
decreases. This is due to decrease in wavelength of water
waves in shallow water.

Quick Quiz: (page no. 4)

What is the displacement of an object in SHM when

Taking square root on both sides, we get
kinetic energy and potential energy are equal?

Consider the example of mass attached to a spring. Potential energy at any point is given below:
√
Where is spring constant and is displacement from mean position.

Total energy of the mass spring system is given below: i.e.

Where is the amplitude of vibration. Hence it is proved that if displacement of a body executing SHM is 0.707 times the amplitude
when kinetic and potential energies of the body are equal.
As total energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies. Therefore
Check your understanding: (page no. 5)

Tell whether or not these motions are examples of simple harmonic motion:

Given that Therefore (a) Up and down motion of a leaf in water pond.
Yes it is SHM
(b) Motion of ceiling fan.
No it is not SHM
(c) Motion of hands of clock.
No it is not SHM
(d) Motion of plucked strings fixed at both its ends.
Yes it is SHM
(e) Movement of honey bee.
No it is not SHM

Quick Quiz: (page no. 8)

Do mechanical waves pass through vacuum, that is, empty space?

Taking square root on both sides, we get

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No mechanical waves cannot pass through vacuum as these waves require material medium for their According to the given condition if the mass of the spring system is doubled then the above equation
propagation. becomes,

Quick Quiz: (page no. 13)

a‟ = ( )
What do dark and bright fringes on the screen of ripple tank represent?
a‟ = ( )
Dark and bright fringes on the screen represent trough and crest of water waves respectively in the
ripple tank.
a‟ = a
Crest of the waves functions like a convex lens, so it converges the light rays coming from the lamp and
appears as bright line on the screen. 4. A simple pendulum has a time period of T. what will happen to its time period if its threaded
length is shortened to half?
Trough of the waves functions like a concave lens, so it diverges the light rays coming from the lamp and
appears as dark line on the screen. Ans: As we know the time period of a simple pendulum can be found by the formula:
Activity: (page no. 14)
T=2 √
See the following figure to answer the following
questions.
According to the given condition if the length of the pendulum is cut to half: l ‟= , so above equation
1. What happens to the angle of refraction when water becomes:
waves pass from deep to shallow part of the water?

When water waves enter from deep to shallow water angle of

T‟ = 2 √
refraction decreases. It is because of decrease in speed of
water waves in shallow water.

2. Do the magnitudes of angle of incidence and angle of T‟ = 2 √

refraction equal?

No, angle of incidence is not equal to the angle of refraction. T‟ = 2 √

√
But angle of incidence is greater than the angle of refraction.

Conceptual Questions (NBF Book) T‟ = T

√

1. Give an example of vibratory motion which is not SHM. Give a reason for your selection. So the time period will decrease times to the original Time period.
√

Ans: Consider the motion of a guitar string when it is plucked. When the string is displaced from its
5. A simple pendulum has a time period of 4s. Will it‟s remain same or changed if steel bob is
equilibrium position and released, it oscillates back and forth, creating a sound wave.
replaced by wood bob of same size.
However, the motion of the guitar string is not SHM because the tension in the string is not constant
Ans: The time period of a simple pendulum is given by:
throughout the oscillation. As the string oscillates, it stretches and compresses, causing the tension to
change, which in turn affects the frequency and amplitude of the motion.
T=2 √
2. At the extreme position, the velocity is zero but acceleration is maximum in SHM. How can
you theoretically explain it? Where:

Ans: In SHM, when an oscillating object reaches its maximum displacement from the equilibrium position, it T is the time period of the pendulum
momentarily stops before changing direction and moving back toward the equilibrium position. This
means that at this point, the velocity of the object is zero. L is the length of the pendulum

However, since the object is changing direction, it must also be accelerating. The acceleration of the g is the acceleration due to gravity
object is maximum at this point since it is the point where the object starts to move back toward the
equilibrium position. Assuming that the length of the pendulum remains constant, the time period of the pendulum depends
only on the acceleration due to gravity and is independent of the mass or material of the bob.
3. What will happen to the acceleration of the mass-spring system if its mass is doubled?
Therefore, if a steel bob of a given size has a time period of 4 seconds, then replacing it with a wood
Ans: If the mass of a mass-spring system is doubled, the acceleration of the system will decrease by a factor bob of the same size would not change the time period of the pendulum, as long as the length of the
of two, assuming that the force applied to the system remains constant. pendulum remains the same.

This can be explained by considering the equation of motion for the mass-spring system: 6. Same masses are attached to different springs one is vibrating faster. Why?

a=( ) Ans: The frequency of vibration of a mass-spring system depends on the stiffness of the spring and the mass
of the object. The frequency of vibration is given by the equation:

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Diffracted waves occur when a wave encounters an obstacle or passes through an opening that causes
f= √
it to bend and spread out in all directions. The amount of diffraction that occurs depends on the size of
the obstacle or aperture, as well as the wavelength of the wave.
Therefore, if two springs of different stiffness are attached to masses of equal mass, the system with
the stiffer spring will vibrate at a higher frequency than the system with the less stiff spring.

Therefore, if the masses attached to different springs are the same, the stiffness of the springs will
determine the frequency of vibration.

7. A simple pendulum has a time period T in Murree, it has different time period in Karachi, and
what would you do to make its time period same as it was in Murree.

Ans: The time period of a simple pendulum depends on its length and the acceleration due to gravity at its
location. The formula for the time period of a simple pendulum is:

T=2 √

The acceleration due to gravity varies with the location on Earth, so the time period of a simple
pendulum will be different at different locations. Therefore, to make the time period of the pendulum
the same as it was in Murree, we need to adjust its length for the new location.

By adjusting the length of the pendulum according to this equation, we can make the time period of the
pendulum the same as it was in Murree, even at the new location in Karachi.

8. What will happen to the frequency of the wave in a ripple tank if the time period of the
electrical vibrator is decreased? What will happen to the wave speed?

Ans: In a ripple tank, the frequency of the wave is directly proportional to the time period of the electrical
vibrator. This means that if the time period of the electrical vibrator is decreased, the frequency of the
wave will increase.

The wave speed, on the other hand, depends on the properties of the medium in which the wave is
traveling. In a ripple tank, the medium is usually water. The wave speed in water is determined by its
wavelength and the depth of the water.

If the frequency of the wave increases (due to a decrease in the time period of the electrical vibrator),
the wavelength of the wave will decrease (since wave speed remains constant), according to the
formula:

Wave speed = frequency x wavelength

Therefore, if the wavelength decreases, the wave speed will remain constant (since the depth of the
water is also constant in a ripple tank).

9. Why do water waves refract at the boundary of shallow water and deep water in ripple tank
experiment?

Ans: Water waves refract at the boundary of shallow water and deep water in a ripple tank experiment
because of the difference in wave speed between the two regions.

In a ripple tank, the wave speed is determined by the depth of the water. Shallow water has a lower
wave speed than deep water because the depth of the water affects the speed at which the waves can
travel. This means that when a wave in a ripple tank encounters the boundary between shallow water
and deep water, the part of the wave in shallow water will slow down, while the part of the wave in
deep water will continue to travel at a higher speed.

10. Under what conditions are the waves diffracted the most?

Ans: Waves are diffracted the most when the size of the obstacle or aperture through which they pass is
similar to or smaller than their wavelength.

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Numerical Problems (NBF Book) the K.E is maximum so at this position the velocity of the particle will be maximum. At extreme position
the particle come to rest and due to restoring force it moves backward. Therefore, at extreme position
1. A simple pendulum has time period of 2s. It is called second pendulum. Find the length of second it K.E is zero. So, at this position the velocity of the particle will be minimum or zero.
pendulum on Earth and on Moon? (gm=g/6=1.62ms-2)
Q3. Is the restoring force on a mass attached to spring in simple harmonic motion ever zero? If
2. A simple pendulum has time period of 5 seconds. What should be length of pendulum on Moon to have so, where?
same time period? Gravitational acceleration on moon is 1/6th of the gravitational acceleration on Earth.
Ans: Yes, the restoring force in SHM become zero at the mean position. According to Hook‟s law, we have
3. A pendulum of length 2m is vibrating at a planet. It completes its one vibration in time 5s. What is value F=-kx---------(1)
of g (gravitational acceleration) at this planet?
In equation (1) „x‟ represents the displacement of vibrating body from mean position. Now at the mean
4. What is the time period of mass spring system if mass attached to spring is 500g and its spring constant is position, we have x=0
20N/m?
so, equation (1) becomes F=-k(0)
5. If 10 waves are produced on a long-stretched spring of length one meter. What is wavelength of the
waves? What will be frequency of the wave if speed of waves is 12m/s? F=0 ------ (2)

6. In a ripple tank of length 1.6m, waves cover this length in 2 seconds. If distance between two consecutive Equation (2)
troughs is 20cm then find the number of waves, frequency of waves and their time period?
shows that the restoring force is zero at mean position.
7. Calculate the frequency of red light of wavelength 700nm in vacuum?
Q4. If we shorten the string of the pendulum to half its original length, what is the effect on its
KPK Book time period and frequency?

Assignments: Ans: i) we know that the time period of simple pendulum is given by

1. When an object oscillates with a frequency of 0.5 Hz, what is its time period?
√
2. Determine the restoring force of a spring displaced 1.5 m, with the spring constant of 30.0 N/m.

3. A body of mass 0.2 kg is attached to a spring placed on a frictionless horizontal surface. The spring Put ℓ= ℓ/2 in eq (1), as length of string decreased to half, so we get
constant of spring is 4 N/m. Find the time period of oscillating mass spring system.

4. At what angle must a pendulum be displaced to create a restoring force of 4.00 N on a bob with a √
mass of 500.0g?

5. What is the gravitational field strength at the top of the Mount Everest at an altitude of 8954.0m, if a
pendulum with a length of 1.00m has a period of 2.01 sec? √
-2
6. A sound wave of wavelength 1.7x10 m. Calculate the frequency of sound if its velocity is 343.4
m/s?
√ ( √ )
Conceptual Questions (KPK Book)

Q1. Is every oscillatory motion simple harmonic? Give example.

√
Ans: No, it is not necessary for every oscillatory motion to be simple harmonic motion. Since all restoring
forces are not proportional to the displacement. While for SHM the following two conditions must be
satisfied. √

a) The acceleration of the vibrating body is directly proportional to the displacement and is directed Equation (2) shows that the time period will decreased by the factor when the length of the string
√
towards the mean position. becomes half.

b) The resorting force is proportional to the displacement and is directed towards the mean position. ii) The frequency of the simple pendulum is given by formula
Example: Motion of simple pendulum and spring mass system are both oscillatory and simple harmonic
motion. Whereas, the Earth revolving around the Sun, a bouncing ball are examples of oscillatory
√
motion but not simple harmonic motion.

Q2. For a particle with simple harmonic motion, at what point of the motion does the velocity Put ℓ= ℓ/2 in eq (3), as length of string decreased to half, so we get
attain maximum magnitude? Minimum magnitude?

Ans: For a particle executing SHM its total energy at any instant of time is constant. That is the sum of √
kinetic and potential energy remains the same at every point. When the particle is at mean position,

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Q8. Why waves refract at the boundary of shallow and deep water?
√
Ans: Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to
another. In refraction, both speed and wavelength of waves change. The speed of a wave depends
√ √ upon the properties of a medium through which it travels. The speed of waves is not same in shallow
and deep water. Wave travel faster in deep water as compared to shallow water. Refraction occurs as
the speed of the wave changes. Thus, if water waves are passing from deep water into shallow water,
√ ( √ ) they slow down. The speed of wave is proportional to the wavelength. So when waves are transmitted
from deep water into shallow water, its speed and wavelength decreases and wave change its direction
√ i.e. refracted.

Equation (4) shows that the frequency will increase by the factor √ when the length of the string Q9. What is the effect on diffraction if the opening is made small?
becomes half.
Ans: Diffraction is the bending of waves around corners of an obstacle. The amount of bending of a wave
Q5. A thin rope hangs from dark high tower so that its upper end is not visible. How can the depends upon the relative size of the wavelength of the wave and size of the opening. If the opening is
length of the rope be determined? much larger than the wavelength, then very less bending occurs which is un-noticeable. However, the
separation is comparable to the size of the wavelength, and then a considerable bending occurs and can
Ans: To determine the length of rope we attach a stone to its lower end of rope, so that the arrangement be seen easily with naked eye. Thus, the wave bends more and more if the opening is made small.
becomes like a simple pendulum.
Numerical Problems (KPK Book)
Now time period of simple pendulum is
1. A mass hang from a spring vibrates 15 times in 12sec. Calculate (a) the frequency and (b) the period of
the vibration.
( √ )
2. A spring requires a force of 100.0N to compress it to a displacement of 4cm.what is its spring constant?

3. A second pendulum is a pendulum with period of 2.0 sec. How long must a second pendulum be on earth
(g=9.8m/s2) and moon (where g=1.62 m/s2)? What is the frequency of second pendulum at earth and on
moon?

4. Calculate the period and frequency of a propeller on a plane if it completes 250 cycles in 5.0 sec.

5. Water waves with wavelength 2.8m, produced in a ripple tank, travel with a speed of 3.80m/s. What is the
frequency of the straight vibrator that produced them?
Now set pendulum into vibration and note the time period of pendulum for one vibration which gives
the time period. Put values of “g”, “T” and “ ” in eq(1) the length of rope can be calculated. 6. The distance between successive crests in a series of water waves is 4.0m and the crests travels 9.0m in
4.5 sec. What is the frequency of the waves?
Q6. Suppose you stand on a swing instead of sitting on it. Will your frequency of oscillation
increase or decrease? 7. A station broadcasts an AM radio wave whose frequency is 1230×10 3 Hz (1230kHz on the dial) and an FM
radio waves whose frequency is 91.9×106Hz (91.9 MHz on the dial). Find the distance between adjacent
Ans: The swing may be considered as a simple pendulum. As we know that crests in each wave.

Where ℓ =length of the pendulum, which is equal to the distance from the point of suspension to the
center of mass of the person on the swing. Earlier, when a person is sitting on the swing, the Centre of
mass was far from the point of suspension. As person stand up on the swing the length between the
centre of mass of a person and the point of suspension decreases. It is clear from equation (1), that
frequency of oscillation is inversely proportional to the square root of length of the pendulum. So
frequency of oscillation increases as length decreases when the person stands up instead of sitting.

Q7. Explain the difference between the speed of transverse wave traveling along a cord and the
speed of a tiny colored part of the cord?

Ans: Transverse waves are those in which particles of the medium vibrate at right angle to the direction of
propagation of wave motion. Consider a cord having a colored tiny part. It‟s one end is fixed and the
other end is in our hand. If we move our hand up and down transverse waves are produced moving in
forward direction. As these are transverse waves, so each part of the string moves up and down i.e.
vibrating up and down, while the transverse waves move in the forward direction. Thus, transverse
waves move in the forward direction while the colored tiny part of the string moves up and down
executing SHM.

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UNIT 11 SOUND Before the vibration of tuning fork, the density of air molecules on the right side is uniform. When the
right prong of the tuning fork moves from mean position O to B, it exerts some air pressure on the
Review Questions (Punjab Book) adjacent layer of air molecules and produces a compression. This compressed air layer in turn
compresses the layer of air next to it and so on. A moment later, the prong begins to move from B
11.1. What is the necessary condition for the production of sound? towards A. Now pressure in the adjacent layer of air decreases and a rarefaction is produced. This
rarefaction is transferred to the air layer next to it and so on. As the prong of tuning fork moves back
There are three components in the production of sound. and forth rapidly, a series of compressions and rarefactions are created one after the other in the air.
In this way sound waves propagate through the air.
 The first thing you need is a physical object that is vibrating, because sound is produced by vibrating
bodies. As the direction of propagation of sound waves is along
 The second thing you need is a medium to carry out the vibrations. For example air. the direction of oscillating air molecules, this shows the
 The last necessary piece in the production of sound is an ear to hear the sound and turn it into longitudinal nature of sound waves.
something meaningful.
11.5. Sound is a form of a wave. List at least three
11.2. What is the effect of the medium of the speed of sound? In which medium sound travels reasons to support the idea that sound is a wave.
more faster; air, solid or liquid? Justify your answer.
Sound is a form of a wave because
Sound waves can be transmitted by any medium containing particles that can vibrate. They cannot i. It is produced by vibrating bodies.
pass through vacuum. However, the nature of medium will affect the speed of sound waves. ii. It carries energy without the displacement of matter.
In general, the speed of sound in a liquid is about five times greater than that in gases and the speed iii. It exhibits the phenomena of reflection, refraction and
of sound in solids is about fifteen times greater than in gases. diffraction.
For example at , speed of sound in air is , in sea water is and in iron
is . 11.6. We know that the waves manifest phenomena of
reflection, diffraction and refraction. Does sound
11.3. How can you prove the mechanical nature of sound by a simple experiment? also manifest these characteristics?
Yes sound manifests the phenomena of reflection,
Sound waves require some material medium for their propagation. This can be proved by bell jar diffraction and refraction.
apparatus.
The bell jar is placed on the platform of a vacuum pump. 11.7. What is difference between the loudness and intensity of sound? Derive the relationship
between the two.
An electric bell is suspended in the bell jar with the help of two wires connected to a power supply. By
setting ON the power supply, electric bell will begin to ring. We can hear the sound of the bell. Now Loudness
start pumping out air from the bell jar by Loudness is the characteristics of sound by which we can distinguish between loud and faint sound.
means of vacuum pump. The sound of the Loudness is sensation of hearing produced by the ear i.e. it depends upon the physical condition of
bell starts becoming more and more ear.
feeble and eventually dies out, although Power
the bell is still ringing. When we put the Supply
air back into the jar, we can hear the Intensity of Sound
sound of the bell again. Intensity of sound is the sound energy flowing per second through a unit area held perpendicular to
the direction of sound waves.
From this activity we conclude that Intensity of sound is a physical quantity and can be measured accurately. SI unit of intensity of sound
sounds waves are mechanical waves as Bell Jar is watt per square metre ( ).
Electric
these require a material medium for their Bell
propagation. Relationship between Loudness and Intensity of Sound
Switch
To Vacuum Pump Loudness „L‟ of a sound is directly proportional to the logarithm of intensity of sound.
11.4. What do you understand by the
longitudinal waves? Describe the
longitudinal nature of sound waves. Above relation is called Webber Fechner‟s Law. Where is the constant of proportionality.
Bell Jar Apparatus
Longitudinal Waves Sound Intensity Level ( )
Such mechanical waves in which particles of the medium vibrate back and forth along the direction of
propagation of waves are called mechanical waves. Let be the loudness of unknown sound of intensity then according to Weber Fechner‟s Law:
--------------------------- (i)
Longitudinal Nature of Sound Waves And
Nature and propagation of sound waves produced by vibrating tuning fork can be understood by be the loudness of faintest audible sound of intensity then according to Weber Fechner‟s Law:
tuning fork as shown in the following figure. ------------------------ (ii)

The difference of Loudness of unknown sound and loudness of faintest audible sound is called
sound intensity level ( .

i.e. Sound Intensity Level Loudness of unknown sound – loudness of faintest audible sound
----------------------- (iii)
Compression Rarefaction
Putting the values of and from equations (i) and (ii) in equation (iii)

---------------------- (iv)

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The value of depends not only on the units of and but also on the unit of sound intensity level.
If intensity of any unknown sound is 10 times greater than the intensity of faintest audible sound 11.10. What are the units of loudness? Why do we use logarithmic scale to describe the range of
i.e. then the sound intensity level ( ) of such sound is taken is unit called bell and value of the sound intensities we hear?
becomes 1. Therefore using in equation (iv), we get:
(bel) --------------- (v) Units of loudness is bel or decibel (dB).

bel is a very large unit of intensity level of a sound. Generally, a smaller unit called decibel is used. Because of the great range of intensities over which the ear is sensitive, we use a logarithmic scale
Decibel as abbreviated as dB. As 1 bel =10 dB then equation (v) becomes: rather than an arithmetic intensity scale is used. Given below the relation, that describes the loudness
(dB) ----------- (vi) as sound intensity level in logarithmic scale.
Above relation shows the relationship between loudness and intensity of sound. (dB)
11.8. On what factors does the loudness of sound depend?
11.11. What is difference between frequency and pitch? Describe their relationship graphically.
Loudness of sound depends upon the following factors:
Frequency
1. Amplitude of the vibrating body
No. of waves passing though a point of medium in one second is called frequency of waves.
The loudness of sound varies directly with the amplitude of the vibrating body. The sound produced
by a sitar will be loud if we pluck its wires violently. Similarly, when beat a drum forcefully, the
Pitch
amplitude of its membrane increases and we hear a loud sound.
Pitch is the characteristics of sound by which we can distinguish between a shrill and a grave sound.

The pitch of a sound depends upon the frequency of the sound. Higher the frequency of the sound
means higher the pitch and shriller will be the sound and vice versa.

For example, the frequency of voice of ladies and children is higher than that of men, therefore voice
of ladies and children is shrill and of high pitch.

Relationship between frequency and pitch of sound is illustrated by the following diagram.

2. Area of vibrating body

The loudness of sound also depends upon the area of vibrating body. Greater the area of vibrating
body louder will be the sound and vice versa.

For example, sound produced by a large drum is louder than then sound produced by small drum,
because larger drum has a larger vibrating area.

If we strike a tuning fork on a rubber pad, a feeble sound is heard. But if the vibrating tuning fork is
placed vertically on the surface of a bench, we will hear a louder sound as table surface (i.e. larger
11.12. Describe the effect of change in amplitude on loudness and the effect of change in
surface area) starts vibrating.
frequency on pitch of sound.
3. Distance from the vibrating body
Effect of Amplitude on Loudness
Loudness of sound also depends upon the distance of vibrating body from the listener. Greater the
distance of vibrating body from the listener fainter will be sound to listener. It is because of decrease
The loudness of sound varies directly with the amplitude of the vibrating body. The sound produced
in amplitude of sound waves due to increase in distance.
by a sitar will be loud if we pluck its wires violently. Similarly, when beat a drum forcefully, the
amplitude of its membrane increases and we hear a loud sound.
4. Physical Condition of Ear
Loudness also depends upon the physical condition of ears of the listener. A sound appears louder to
Effect of Frequency on Pitch
a person with sensitive ears than to a person with defective ears.
The pitch of a sound depends upon the frequency of the sound. Higher the frequency of the sound
5. Intensity of Sound.
means higher the pitch and shriller will be the sound and vice versa.
Greater the intensity of sound louder will be the sound. Loudness of a sound is directly proportional to
the logarithm of intensity of sound.
For example, the frequency of voice of ladies and children is higher than that of men, therefore voice
of ladies and children is shrill and of high pitch.
11.9. What do you mean the by the term intensity level of the sound? Name and define the unit
of intensity level of sound.
11.13. If the pitch of the sound is increased, what are the changes in the following?
Sound Intensity Level ( )
(a) The frequency
The difference of Loudness of unknown sound and loudness of faintest audible sound is called
sound intensity level ( . Unit of intensity level of sound is bel. If the pitch of the sound is increased, its frequency will increase.
(b) The wavelength
Definition of bel If the pitch of the sound is increased, its wavelength will decrease.
If intensity of any unknown sound is 10 times greater than the intensity of faintest audible sound (c) The wave velocity
i.e. then the sound intensity level ( ) of such sound is 1 bell. If the pitch of the sound is increased, its velocity will remain same.
(d) The amplitude of the wave
bel is a very large unit of intensity level of a sound. Generally, a smaller unit called decibel is used.
If the pitch of the sound is increased, its amplitude will remain same.
Decibel as abbreviated as dB. As 1 bel =10 dB then

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11.14. If we clap or speak in front of a building while standing at a particular distance, we rehear
sound after sometime. Can we explain how does this happen? Noise has negative effects on human health as it can cause conditions such as hearing loss, sleep
disturbance, aggression, hypertension and high stress levels.
If we clap or speak in front of a building while standing at a particular distance, we rehear sound after
some time. This sound that we rehear is called echo and is a result of reflection of sound. Noise can also cause accidents by interfering with communication and warning signals.

Explanation: 11.18. Describe the importance of acoustic protection.

The sensation of sound persists in our brain for about 0.1 s after the sound has been quieted. To hear Acoustic Protection
a clear echo, the time interval between our sound and the reflected sound must be at least 0.1 s. If
reflected sound reach our ear earlier than 0.1 s then it will merge in the original sound, so we do not The technique or method used to absorb undesirable sounds by soft and porous surfaces is called
hear echo. acoustic protection.

If we consider the speed of sound to be at normal temperature in air and we will hear the Reflection of sound is more prominent if the surface is rigid and smooth, and less if the surface is soft
echo after . The total distance covered by the sound from the point of generation to the reflecting and irregular.
surface and then back to the point of generation should be at least .
Absorption
Thus for hearing distinct echoes, the minimum distance between the obstacle and source of sound
must be half of this distance, i.e. 17 m. Soft, porous materials, such as draperies and rugs absorbs large amount of sound energy and thus
quiet echoes and softening noises. Thus by using such materials in noisy places we can reduce the
Echoes may be heard more than once due to successive or multiple reflections. level of noise pollution. However, if the surface of the classrooms or public hall or too absorbent, the
sound level may be low for the audiences.
11.15. How can you find the speed of sound by echo method? What factors can affect the accuracy
of this method? Reverberation

Experiment: Measurement of speed of sound by echo method Sometimes, when sound reflects from the wall, ceiling and floor of a room, the reflecting surfaces are
too reflective and the sound becomes garbled. This is due to multiple reflections called reverberation.
Apparatus: Measuring tape, stopwatch, flat wall that can produce a good echo.
Applications of Acoustics
Procedure:
In the design of lecture halls, auditoriums or theatre halls, a balance must be achieved between
1. Use the tape to measure a distance of 50 metres from the wall. reverberation and absorption. It is often advantageous to place reflecting surfaces behind the stage
2. Now clap your hands in front of the wall at a distance of 50 metres and check if you can clearly hear to direct sound to the audience.
an echo from the wall. Make sure the echo is not heard from any other wall in the area. The time by
the sound to travel 100 metres is the time difference between the clap and echo. Generally the ceilings of lecture halls, conference halls and theatre halls are curved so that sound
3. Now restart the clapping and start the stopwatch at the first clap. Count the number of claps and stop after reflection may reach all the corners of the hall. Sometimes curved sound boards are placed
the clapping and the stopwatch when you hear the echo of the 10th clap (say). behind the stage so that sound after reflection distributed evenly across the hall.
4. Now find the average time for the 10 claps. The average time will be time for one echo.
5. Now use the formula , we can calculate the speed of sound. 11.19. What are the uses of ultrasound in medicine?

Factors that can affect the accuracy of the method are:  In medical field, ultrasonic waves are used to
diagnose and treat different ailments. For
 Humidity diagnosis of different diseases, ultrasonic waves
 Variation in temperature of the air. are made to enter the human body through
 Reflection of sound is heard from any other walls. transmitters. These waves are reflected differently
 Direction of air blow. by different organs, tissues or tumors etc. The
reflected waves are then amplified to form an
11.16. What is the audible frequency range for human ear? Does this range vary with the age of image of internal organs of the body on the
people? Explain. screen. Such an image helps in detecting the
defects in these organs.
The range of the frequencies of sound waves which a human ear can hear is called audible frequency
range. This range of frequency lies between and .
 Powerful ultrasound is now being used to remove
blood clots formed in the arteries.
A normal human ear can hear a sound only if its frequency lies between and . In other
words a human ear neither hears a sound of frequency less than nor a sound of frequency more
than .
 Ultrasound can also be used to get the pictures of thyroid gland for diagnosis purposes.

Different people have different range of audibility. It also decreases with the age. Young children can
hear sounds of but old people cannot hear sounds even above .

11.17. Explain that noise is a nuisance.

The sound that has unpleasant or jarring effect on our ears is called noise. Noise corresponds to
irregular and sudden vibrations produced by some sounds.

Noise is an undesirable sound that is harmful for health of human and other species. Transportation
equipment and heavy machinery are the main sources of noise pollution. For example noise of
machinery in industrial areas, loud vehicle horns, hooters and alarms.

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Conceptual Questions (Punjab Book) 11.8. Will two separate 50 dB sounds together constitute a 100 dB sound? Explain.

11.1. Why two tin cans with a string stretched between them could be better way to No, two separate 50 dB sounds together do not constitute a 100 dB sound.
communicate than merely shouting through the air?
As (dB), Where and is the intensity of any unknown sound.
When we shout in air, our sound spreads in all From above relation we get:
direction and sound energy decreases before Intensity of dB sound
reaching to the listener‟s ears. So the sound is not
Intensity of two dB sounds together
properly heard by the listener.
Now (dB)
When we speak in one of two tin cans having
dB
stretched string between them, sound of our voice
vibrates the can, this causes string to vibrate and ) dB
sound waves rapidly reach to other tin can through dB
the string with small loss of energy. Listener to the dB
other tin can hears the sound more conveniently
dB
and relatively louder.
dB
11.2. We can recognize persons speaking with the same loudness from their voice. How is this This shows that two dB sounds together form dB sound. i.e. 53.01 dB sound is twice as loud
possible? as dB sound.

We can recognize persons speaking with the same loudness from their voice due to difference in the
quality of their sounds. 11.9. Why ultrasound is useful in medical field?

11.3. How can you listen to your friend round a corner, but you cannot watch him/her. Why? Ultrasonic waves carry more energy and higher frequency than audible sound waves. Therefore
according to the wave equation , the wavelength of ultrasonic waves is very small and is very
This is due to diffraction of sound waves. The wavelength of sound waves is large and comparable useful for detecting very small objects. Hence ultrasonic are useful in medical field.
with the spaces between the doors, walls, buildings. So sound waves are easily diffracted around the
corners of the walls and buildings. While light rays have very small wavelengths and cannot be Quick Quiz: (page no. 22)
diffracted. That is why we can listen to our friend round a corner, but we cannot watch him/her.
Identify which part of these musical instruments vibrates to produce sounds:

11.4. Why must the volume of a stereo in a room with wall-to-wall carpet be tuned higher than (a) electric bell (b) Loud speaker (c) Piano
in a room with a wooden floor?
(d) Violin (e) Flute
Soft and porous surfaces absorb more sound waves, thus reduces the level of sound while hard and
smooth surfaces reflect more sound waves. That is why the volume of a stereo in a room with wall- (a) Electric bell: In an electric bell, when electric power is switched on, a hammer strikes the gong, so
to-wall carpet be tuned higher than in a room with a wooden floor. the gong vibrates and sound is produced.
(b) Loud Speaker: In a loud speaker, a diaphragm, attached to an electromagnetic coil, vibrates due to
11.5. A student says that the two terms speed and frequency of the wave refer to the same variations in electrical signals and sound is produced.
thing. What is your response? (c) Piano: When a piano key is pressed, a hammer strikes the strings. So strings vibrate and sound of a
particular note is produced.
No, the two terms speed and frequency do not refer to the same thing. Because: (d) Violin: When you pull the bow over the strings the hairs on the bow causes the strings to vibrate and
 Speed is the distance travelled by the wave in unit time while frequency is the number of waves sound of particular note is produced.
passing through a point of the medium in unit time.
 Speed of the waves depends upon the nature of medium while frequency of the waves is independent (e) Flute: When we blow into the narrow hole of flute at one end, a stream of air particles vibrate in tube
of the medium. of flute and sound is produced.

11.6. Two people are listening to the same music at the same distance. They disagree on its Quick Quiz: (page no. 24)
loudness. Explain how this could happen?
1. Why the voice of women is more shrill than that of men?
Two people are listening to the same music at the same distance. They disagree on its loudness.
Because: Voice of women is more shrill than that of men because the women‟s voice is of higher frequency and
 Loudness depends upon the physical condition of the ears of the listener. The two people may have higher pitch than that of men.
different hearing sense due to different physical conditions of ears.
OR 2. Which property of sound waves determines its: (a) loudness (b) pitch?
 Music source is placed between the two people in an open air. The direction of air is towards one
person and away from other person. Loudness will be more for former and less will be for later. (a) Amplitude of sound waves determines its loudness.
(b) Frequency of sound waves determines its pitch.
11.7. Is there any difference between echo and reflection of sound? Explain.

Usually echo and reflection of sound are considered to be the same terms. Echo is such a reflection of 3. What would happen to the loudness of sound with the increase in its frequency?
sound in which a reflected sound wave reaches the ear more than 0.1 seconds after the original
There is no effect on the loudness of a sound when its frequency is increased.
sound wave was heard. If the elapsed time between the arrivals of the two sound waves is more than
0.1 seconds then the sensation of the first sound will have died out. In this case, the arrival of the
second sound wave will be heard as a second separate sound.

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Self-Assessment: (page no. 22)

1. Explain how sound is produced by a school bell? 5. How much intensity level increases when intensity of louder sound is doubled the intensity
of faintest audible sound?
When hammer strikes the school bell, it starts vibrating and a loud sound is produced.
Ans: The intensity level of a sound is a logarithmic measure of the sound intensity and is expressed in
2. Why sound waves are called mechanical waves?
decibels (dB). It is defined as:
Sound waves require medium for their production and propagation, so these are called mechanical
waves. Intensity level (dB) = 10 log

3. Suppose you and your friend are on the moon. Will you be able to hear any sound produced by Where I is the sound intensity and I0 is the reference intensity, which 10-12Wm-2 for the faintest audible
your friend?
sound.
As there is no material medium on the moon for the propagation of sound waves, hence we cannot
According to the given condition the intensity of the faintest audible sound is I 0, and the intensity of a
hear the sound produced by our friend on the moon.
louder sound is 2I0, then the increase in intensity level would be:
Conceptual Questions (NBF Book)
Intensity level (dB) = 10 log
1. Why does sound travel faster in solids than in liquids and gases?
Intensity level (dB) = 10 log (2)
Ans: Sound travels faster in solids than in liquids and gases due to the difference in the elastic properties of
the three media. Intensity level (dB) = 10 (0.3010)

Sound waves are mechanical waves that travel by transferring energy from one particle to another in Intensity level (dB) = 3dB
the medium through which they propagate. In solids, the particles are tightly packed and bound
together by strong intermolecular forces, making them highly resistant to compression and 6. Two singers are singing together simultaneously with intensity level of 60dB of each in a
deformation. This means that sound waves can propagate faster in solids, as the vibrations caused by hall. (a) Is intensity of sound in the hall is doubled? (b) Is the intensity level of sound is
the wave can be transmitted quickly through the rigid medium. doubled?

In contrast, liquids and gases have particles that are more loosely packed and have weaker Ans: (a) If two singers are singing together simultaneously with an intensity level of 60 dB each in a hall,
intermolecular forces. As a result, they are less resistant to compression and deformation, and sound and the intensity of the sound in the hall is doubled, then the new intensity level in the hall would be 66
waves propagate more slowly through them. dB. This means that the sound in the hall would be slightly louder than before, but not twice as loud.

2. Why are we able to distinguish between two sounds of same loudness? (b) If the intensity level of sound is doubled, then the new intensity of sound would be 10 times the
original intensity. So, if the intensity level of the sound produced by the singers is doubled from 60 dB
Ans: Loudness is a subjective perception of the intensity of a sound and is related to the amplitude, or the to 120 dB, then the new intensity of sound would be 10 times louder than the original intensity. This
strength, of the sound wave. However, two sounds with the same loudness can still have differences in means that the sound produced by the singers would be very loud, and prolonged exposure could be
their frequency or wavelength, which affects their pitch, or the perceived highness or lowness of the harmful to human hearing.
sound.
7. If pitch of sound is increased then what is its effect on (a) frequency of sound (b) speed of
3. Vibrating mobile phone on wooden table sounds louder then held in hand. Why? sound (c) loudness of sound (d) intensity of sound (d) wavelength.

Ans: When the phone vibrates, it produces sound waves that travel through the air and are heard by our Ans:
ears. However, when the phone is placed on a solid surface such as a wooden table, the sound waves
also cause the table to vibrate. The table then acts as a resonator, which means that it vibrates at its (a) Frequency of sound: The pitch of sound is directly related to its frequency. Increasing the pitch of
natural frequency in response to the sound waves produced by the phone. This amplifies the sound sound means increasing its frequency, and vice versa. Therefore, if the pitch of sound is increased, the
waves, making them louder and more noticeable to our ears. frequency of sound also increases.

4. During a match is cricket stadium you see a batsmen striking the ball but you hear stroke (b) Speed of sound: The speed of sound depends on the properties of the medium through which it
sound slightly later. Explain this time difference? travels and is independent of its pitch. Therefore, increasing the pitch of sound has no effect on the
speed of sound.
Ans: The time difference between seeing a batsman striking the ball and hearing the stroke sound in a
cricket stadium is due to the difference in the speed of light and the speed of sound. (c) Loudness of sound: The loudness of sound depends on its intensity, which is related to the amplitude
of sound waves. The pitch of sound does not affect the intensity of sound waves, so increasing the pitch
When the batsman strikes the ball, the sound waves are generated by the impact and travel through of sound has no effect on its loudness.
the air in all directions. However, sound waves travel at a much slower speed than light waves. Light
waves, which enable us to see the event, travel at approximately 3×108ms-1 in air, while sound waves (d) Intensity of sound: As mentioned earlier, the intensity of sound is related to the amplitude of sound
travel at approximately 343 ms-1 in air. waves. Increasing the pitch of sound has no effect on the amplitude of sound waves, so it does not
affect the intensity of sound.

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KPK Book

8. Vibrating bodies produce sound. When a pendulum vibrates we do not hear sound. Why? ASSIGNMENTS:

Ans: In the case of a pendulum, its vibrations are very small and do not produce enough energy to create 11.1 Suppose that when a certain sound intensity level (dB) triples, the sound intensity (in W/m 2) also
audible sound waves. Additionally, the frequency of the pendulum's vibrations is typically very low, triples. Determine this sound intensity level.
usually below the range of human hearing.
11.2 If the time between seeing lightning and hearing the thunder is 5.0s. The speed of sound is 343m/s,
9. Two students are talking in the corridor of your school you can hear them in your class room how far away is the lightning?
but you cannot see them. Why?
11.3 What is the frequency of sound with wavelength 0.25m in air with temperature of 32 oC?
Ans: Sound waves can travel through walls and reach your classroom, but light waves cannot travel through
walls, which is why you cannot see the students. 11.4 A man stands in between two parallel cliffs and fires a gun; he hears two successive echoes after 3s
and 5s. What is the distance between cliffs?
10. How curtains do helps to reduce loudness of sound?
Conceptual Questions (KPK Book)
Ans: Curtains can help to reduce the loudness of sound by absorbing some of the sound waves that would
otherwise bounce off hard surfaces, such as walls and windows, and reflect back into the room. When Q1. Why sound produced by a simple pendulum is not heard?
sound waves hit a curtain, they cause the fabric to vibrate, which helps to convert some of the sound
Ans: The waves produced by a simple pendulum not heard because the frequency of these waves is less than
energy into heat energy.
20Hz and the membrane of human ear can only detect those sound whose frequency is greater than
11. What steps would you take to stop echoing in a large room? 20Hz and below than 20,000Hz. The frequency of waves produced by a simple pendulum is less than
20Hz that is why we cannot hear such sounds of low frequencies.
Ans: To stop echoing in a large room, there are several steps you can take:
Q2. If a ringing bicycle bell is held tightly by hand, it shops producing sound. Why?
Install Acoustic Panels: Acoustic panels are designed to absorb sound waves, thereby reducing the
amount of sound that bounces around the room. Ans: When a body vibrates sound is produced due to vibrations. Thus if a ringing bicycle bell is held tightly
by hand, it stops producing sound because its vibrations die out and as a result bell will produce no
Add Furniture: Adding furniture to the room can help to break up the sound waves and prevent them sound.
from bouncing around the room.
Q3. Why is the intensity of an echo less than that of original sound?
Hang Curtains or Drapes: Just like acoustic panels, curtains or drapes can help to absorb sound
waves and reduce echoing. Ans: The intensity of an echo less than that of original sound because intensity decreases with distance and
the sound has traveled from the source to a reflecting surface and back. When the sound strikes with
Use Carpets or Rugs: Hard floors can contribute to echoing in a room. Adding a carpet or rug can help wall, it imparts some of its energy to the wall. Thus the reflected waves possess less energy and
to absorb sound waves and reduce echoing. become less intense. Therefore, the intensity of an echo is less intense than the original sound waves.

Position Speakers Carefully: If you have speakers in the room, make sure to position them away Q4. In which medium air or water, an echo heard sooner. Why?
from walls and corners, which can cause sound waves to bounce around the room.
Ans: An echo is heard sooner in water as compared to air because the speed of sound depends on the
Numerical Problems (NBF Book) elasticity of the medium. The more elastic a medium the greater will be the speed of sound and vice
versa. So water is more elastic than air. The sound will travel faster in water that is why, we heard on
1. In a busy street, traffic noise has intensity of 10-5Wm-2. Find the intensity level in decibel. echo sooner in water as compare to air.

2. Mosquito buzzing has intensity level of 40dB, calculate the intensity of this buzzing sound. Q5. Why sound cannot be heard on moon?

3. What is intensity level of threshold of hearing and threshold of pain? Ans: Sound waves are longitudinal waves which needs a material medium for their propagation. In moon
atmosphere there is no material medium that is why sound cannot be heard on moon.
4. Speed of sound waves in water at 25oC is 1480m/s. if their wavelength is 70cm, find the frequency of
these sound waves? Q6. If a person places his ear on rails of railroad for determination of coming train. Why is this
done, and how does it work?
5. What is speed of sound at 15oC in air if speed of sound is 332m/s at 0oC?
Ans: The person places his ear on rails of railroad in order to indicate the coming train earlier because sound
6. Find the range of wavelengths for audible sounds if the minimum frequency is 20Hz and maximum
travels faster in solids (steel) as compared to air. In steel the speed of sound is about 4500 m/s while
frequency is 20kHz.
in air it is just 343 m/s (at temperature of 20o C). Due to high speed of sound in steel, when ear is
placed on the rail, a person may easily hear the sound due to vibration of railroad which indicates the
7. During thunderstorm, thunder sound is heard after 3 seconds of lightening flash. Find the distance of
coming train before he see it.
clouds from ground. (Speed of sound=340m/s)
Q7. When you watch a thunderstorm, you see the lightning first, and you hear the thunder
8. SONAR (Sound Navigation and ranging system) sends ultrasound signal towards sea bed. It is received
afterward. Why is the thunder delayed?
back after 5.3s. if speed of sound in sea water is 1550m/s. find the depth of sea bed.

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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
Ans: The thunder light is seen earlier than thunder sound is heard because light travels much faster than
sound in air. Speed of light in air is 3×10 8 m/s whereas the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s. Thus, UNIT 12
because of this reason we see the light of thunder much earlier than we hear its sound.
Review Questions (Punjab Book)
Q8. If the speed of sound is dependent on frequency, would music from marching band be
enjoyed? 12.1. What do you understand by reflection of light? Draw a diagram to illustrate reflection at a
plane surface.
Ans: No, if the speed of sound is dependent on frequency, then it will not be possible for us to enjoy the
music from marching band. The universal relation for the speed of sound wave is given by Reflection of light:

When light travelling in a certain medium falls on the surface of another medium, a part of it is
bounced back in the same medium. This phenomenon is called reflection of light.
Eq (1) shows that, the speed of sound is not dependent on the frequency of sound. If the speed
depends upon the frequency of sound, then sound of different instruments (having different
When ray of light from its source along the path AO falls on the reflecting surface, it is reflected
frequencies) will be heard at different speeds. This will produce an unpleasant effect on our ear and we
along the path OB. ON is the normal at the point of incidence O. The ray AO is called incident ray
get disturbed.
and ray OB is called reflected ray. Angle between ray AO and normal ON i.e. ∠AON is called angle
of incidence denoted by i and angle between ray OB and normal ON i.e. ∠BON is called angle of
Q9. Why does your voice sound fuller in the shower?
reflection represented by r.
Ans: Mostly our bathroom is made up of tiles or others hard non-absorbent surfaces. Sound reflects better
from these types of surfaces. The multiple reflections from these walls enrich the sound and making
voice louder and more powerful. Reverberation also makes the sound richer and fuller. It occurs when
Normal
Source of light
our ear picks many echo‟s in a very short interval of time. There occurs resonance as well, as a result of N
which we hear loud sound. It occurs when the frequency of the sound wave produced matches the
frequency of the shower. Due to these effects the sound in a shower is fuller and richer. A Angle of Angle of B
Q10. Why is it so quiet after a snowfall? incidence Reflection
Incident Reflected
Ans: Snow is porous and is a good sound absorber. When snow accumulates on the ground, it acts as a i r
sound absorber, damping sound waves like other sound absorbing materials. Snow wraps everything in ray ray
a thick blanket, which acts as a sound barrier. A very little sound energy is reflected when sound waves
hit the snow surface. Due to its porous nature, sound waves enter into its surface and make multiple
O (Point of incidence)
reflections, due to which considerable amount of energy is absorbed. Thus there is so quite after a
snowfall. Reflecting surface (mirror)
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS (KPK Book)
12.2. Describe the following terms used in reflection:
1. The sound intensity 3m from a jackhammer is 8.20×10 -2 W/m2. What is the sound intensity in (i) Normal (ii) Angle of incidence
decibels? (use the usual reference level of Io =1.00×10-12W/m2) (iii) Angle of reflection

2. A ship is anchored where the depth of water is 120m. An ultra-sonic signal sends to the bottom of the (i) Normal: Normal is a perpendicular line on the reflecting surface (mirror) at the point of incidence.
lake returns in 0.16s. What is the speed of sound in water? (ii) Angle of incidence: Angle between incident ray and normal is called angle of incidence.
(iii) Angle of reflection: Angle between reflected ray and normal is called angle of reflection.
3. A gunshot from a .22 rim fire rifle has an intensity of about I= (2.5×10 13) Io. Do we need to wear ear
protection? (Considering that prolonged exposure to sounds above 85 decibels can cause hearing 12.3. State laws of reflection. Describe how they can be verified graphically.
damage or loss).
Laws of Reflection:
4. What sound intensity level in dB is produced by earphones that create an intensity of 4.00 ×10 -2
W/m2? (Use the usual reference level of Io =1.00×10-12W/m2).
(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and
5. What is the speed of sound in air at -20o C? the normal at the point of incidence all
lie on the same plane.
6. Army man wear binoculars see the flash from enemy tank fire 5 sec before the fire is heard, he
records 26o C temperature on his personal thermometer. What is the distance of the tank from him?
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection. i.e. ∠ i ∠r
7. Calculate the wavelengths of sounds at the extremes of the audible range, 20Hz and 20,000Hz, at
Graphical Verification of Laws of
normal temperature of 20oC?
reflection:
8. Ishfaq stands between two high rise buildings A and B, such that he is at 33m distance from building
Materials Required:
A. When he blows the whistle, he hears first echo after 0.2s and second echo after 0.8s. Calculate (a)
A plane mirror with a support to hold it vertical, a drawing board, sheet of white paper, protractor,
the Speed of sound and (b) distance of building B from him?
measuring scale, pins, drawing pins or adhesive tape.

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Procedure: 12.5. Define the following terms used in refraction:

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing N (i) angle of incidence (ii) angle of refraction
board using drawing pins. P Q
2. Draw a thin line SS‟ in the middle of the (i) Angle of incidence:
P1 P4
paper. Also draw a normal ON to the line SS‟
at point O as shown in Figure Angle between the incident ray and the normal is called angle of incidence.
P2
3. Draw a thin line PO at any angle to the line i r
SS‟. Place the mirror vertically on line SS‟ with P3 (ii) Angle of refraction:
the help of a support so that its polished S S’
surface faces line PO. Angle between the refracted ray and the normal is called angle of refraction.
O
4. Vertically fix two pins P1 and P2 with their
tips, separated by a suitable distance of about P’2 12.6. What is meant by refractive index of a material? How would you determine the refractive index
5 to 6 cm at two points on line PO. Look at of a rectangular glass slab?
the images P‟1 and P‟2 of pins P1 and P2 P’1
respectively from the same side of the plane N’ Refractive Index:
mirror.
5. Fix two pins P3 and P4, vertically such that their feet appear to be in the same straight line as that Refractive index of a material medium w.r.t. is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in air to
of images P‟1 and P‟2. Look through the feet of pins P1 and P2, whether the feet of images of pins the speed of light in that material.
P3 and P4, as seen in the mirror appear to be on the same straight line. If it is so, you have i.e.
correctly fixed the pins P3 and P4.
Refractive index of a material can also be determined by Snell‟s Law. This states that:
6. Remove all the pins and the mirror. Mark the positions of feet of pins P3 and P4. Draw a thin line
OQ joining the points that mark the position of feet of pins P3 and P4. The line OQ shows the path If a light ray is entering from one transparent medium to another transparent medium, then the
of the reflected ray corresponding to the incident ray along the line PO, at the point of incidence. ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is equal to a
7. Measure angles ∠ and ∠ . constant. This constant is called refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium. It
8. Repeat the experiment for two more angles of incidence.
is denoted by . i.e. .
Conclusion:

Refractive index of rectangular glass slab can be determined by using Snell‟s law by knowing the
On measuring angles PON (∠i) and NOQ (∠r) we found that ∠ ∠ . That is angle of incidence is
values of angle of incidence in air and angle of refraction in glass slab.
equal to the angle of reflection.
12.7. State laws of refraction of light and show how they may be verified using rectangular glass
We also found that incident ray PO, reflected ray OQ and normal NON‟ all lie on the same plane. slab and pins.
Hence Laws of reflections are verified by the above experiment.
Laws of refraction:
12.4. Define refraction of light. Describe the passage of light through parallel-sided transparent
material.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence is called all lie on the
same plane.
Refraction of light:
(ii) The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence „i‟ to the sine of the angle of refraction „r‟ is equal to a
constant. This constant is called refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium. It
When light enters from one transparent medium to another transparent medium at a certain angle
is denoted by n
then it deviates from its original path. This phenomenon is called refraction of light.
i.e. ; it is also called Snell‟s law
Explanation:
Graphical Verification of Laws of Refraction: A
Refraction of light can be explained with help of N Normal
A Materials Required:
following diagram. A ray of light AO travelling from Normal Incident B i
air falls on the surface of a glass block. At the air- i
Incident Glass slab, drawing pins, common pins, pencil, ray O
glass interface, ray of light AO changes direction
drawing board, protractor, white paper
and bends towards the normal and travels along ray O Refracted ray
the path OB inside the glass block. The rays AO
Procedure: r
and OB are called incident ray and refracted ray Refracted N’
respectively. The angle „i‟ made by incident ray ray
r 1. Fix a drawing paper on a drawing board with the
with the normal is called angle of incidence. The
help of drawing pins.
angle „r‟ made by refracted ray with normal is
2. Place a glass slab on the paper and mark its
called angle of refraction. When refracted leaves Glass Slab
boundary with the help of pencil.
the glass, it bends away from the normal and P
Glass Block 3. Fix two pins A and B about 5 cm to 7 cm apart
travel along the path BC. B C Emergent ray
from each other on one side of the slab. The pins
should be fixed in such a way that they form a
Emergent certain angle with the glass slab. D
ray
C
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4. The images of pins A and B can be seen on the other side of the glass slab.
5. Fix two pins C and D in such a way that the images of the pins A and B and the pins C and D come 12.9. State conditions of total internal reflection.
in straight line. The distance between the pins C and D should be 5 cm to 7 cm.
6. Remove the pins and encircle the points with pencil. There are two conditions for total internal reflection.
7. Remove the slab also. (i) The light ray should travel from denser medium to rare medium.
8. Join A and B by drawing a straight line and produce it to meet the boundary at O. (ii) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle.
9. Also join the C and D by drawing a straight line and produce it to meet on the glass boundary at P.
10. Join O and P. 12.10. What is critical angle? Derive a relationship between the critical angle and the refractive index
11. Draw a perpendicular line NON‟ at point O. NON‟ is also called as normal. of a substance.
12. ABO is the incident ray. OP is the refracted ray. AON is the angle of incidence „i‟. PON‟ is the angle
of refraction „r‟. Critical Angle:
13. Measure the angle of incidence „i‟ and angle of refraction „r‟. Calculate the ratio of sin i and sin r. Angle of incidence in denser medium, for which corresponding angle of
The ratio is called refractive index of the glass w.r.t. air. refraction in rare medium is of , is called critical angle.
14. Take two more readings by changing the positions of the pins.
Relationship between Critical Angle and Refractive Index
Conclusion:
Suppose a light ray is travelling from glass (denser medium) to air (rare
 We observe that the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence O, all medium) in such a way that angle of incidence in glass will be critical
lie on the same plane. angle „C‟ when angle of refraction is in air. In this case glass and air
 We also observe that in all three readings the value of the ratio will be constant. For glass this are respectively first and second medium.
Let be the refractive index of first medium (glass) w.r.t. second medium (air), then Snell‟s law
ratio is found to be equal to 1.5.
can now be written as:
 Hence the laws of refraction are verified by the above experiment.
12.8. What is meant by the term total internal reflection?

Total Internal Reflection:

Here ∠ and ∠ , so
When light enters from denser medium to rare medium in such a way that angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle, then light does not suffer refraction, it is totally reflected back in
the same medium obeying laws of reflection. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

Critical Angle:
Above equation gives the relationship between refractive index „n‟ of a medium and its critical
angle „C‟.
Angle of incidence in denser medium, for which corresponding angle of refraction in rare medium
is of , is called critical angle.
12.11. What are optical fibres? Describe how total internal reflection is used in light propagating
through optical fibres.
Explanation:

Optical fires are very fine strands of transparent glass or

When a ray of light travelling in denser medium enters into a rare medium, it bends away from the
plastics through which light can be traveled. The inner part
normal. If the angle of incidence „i‟ increases, the angle of refraction „r‟ also increases. For a
of the fibre is called core that carries light and outer
particular value of angle of incidence, the angle of refraction becomes . The angle of incidence,
concentric shell is called cladding. The core is made of
that causes the refracted ray in rare medium to bend through is called critical angle. When the
transparent glass or plastic of relative high refractive index
angle of incidence becomes greater than critical angle, no refraction occurs. The entire light is
(i.e. n = 1.53) and the cladding is made of glass or plastic
reflected back into the denser medium. This is known as total internal reflection.
of relatively low refractive index (n = 1.39).

Once light is entered in the core, it makes angle of incidence

greater than the critical angle at every core cladding
interface and reflected back into the core. In this way light
travels many kilometers with very small loss of energy and
emerges out of the other end of optical fibre after many
total internal reflections.

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Given below the rules for refraction of light through the both convex and concave lenses

Refraction through convex lens Refraction through concave lens

(i) A light ray coming parallel to the principal

(i) A light ray coming parallel to the principal
axis, after refraction through the convex axis, after refraction through the concave
lens it passes through the principal focus of lens it appears to come from the principal
the lens. focus of the lens.

12.12. Define the following terms applied to a lens:

(i) principal axis (ii) optical centre (iii) focal length

(i) Principal Axis

A line joining the centers of curvatures (2F) and optical center (C) of the lens is called principal
axis.

(ii) Optical center (ii) A light ray passing through the principal focus
(ii)of A light ray passing coming towards the
the convex lens, after refraction through principal focus of the convex lens, after
Geometrical center of the lens is called optical center. It is denoted by C. the lens it becomes parallel to the principal refraction through the lens it becomes
axis of the lens. parallel to the principal axis of the lens.
(iii) Focal Length

Distance between optical center (C) and principal focus (F) of the lens is called focal length. It is
denoted by .

𝒇 𝒇

Principal axis Principal axis

2F F C F 2F 2F F C F 2F

(iii) A light ray passing through the optical

(iii) A light ray passing through the optical
center of the convex lens, after refraction center of the concave lens, after
Convex Lens Concave Lens through the lens it does not deviate from refraction through the lens it does not
12.13. What is meant by principal focus of a (a) convex lens (b) concave lens? its original path. deviate from its original path.
Illustrate your answer with ray diagrams.
(a) Principal Focus of Convex Lens

The light rays coming parallel to the principal axis of Principal Focus
the convex lens. After refraction through the convex
lens all the light rays pass through a point on the Principal Axis
principal axis. This point is called principal focus of F
the convex lens. Principal focus of the convex lens is
called real focus because light rays actually pass
through this point after refraction.
12.15. With the help of a ray diagram, how you can show the thin converging lens as a magnifying
(b) Principal Focus of Concave Lens glass.

The light rays coming parallel to the principal axis of A thin converging lens (convex lens) acts as a magnifying glass when an object is placed between
the concave lens. After refraction through the concave Principal Focus optical center and principal focus of the
lens all the light rays appear to diverge from a point on lens. In this case virtual, erect and Convex Lens
the principal axis. This point is called principal focus of enlarged image of the object is formed.
the concave lens. Principal focus of the concave lens is Principal Axis And we observe a magnified image of
Virtual
called virtual focus because light rays appear to pass Image C
F the object. Object
through this point after refraction.

12.14. Describe how light is refracted through convex lens.

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12.16. A coin is placed at a focal point of converging lens. Is an image formed? What is its nature? Prism:

When a coin is placed at a focal point of A prism is a transparent solid that has two faces that are parallel and congruent. These are called
converging lens, its image is formed at Image at infinity the bases of the prism. A triangular prism has two triangular faces that are parallel to each other
Convex Lens
infinity. The image formed is virtual, erect and three rectangular faces.
and highly magnified. This case is Parallel rays
represented by the ray diagram as shown in F C F
A Triangular Prism
the figure.
Angle of Prism:

Angle between two rectangular faces opposite the base of the prism is called angle of prism. It is
12.17. What are the differences between real and virtual images? denoted by and it is in measurement.

Real Images Virtual images Suppose an incident light ray PQ is entering the face
AB of the prism from air at point E making an angle
(i) The image formed by real points, through (i) The image formed by virtual pints, through of incidence „i‟ with the normal NN‟. It enters the
which light rays actually pass, is called which light rays appear to pass, is called glass and bends towards the normal as refracted ray
real image. virtual image. EF i.e. towards base BC of the prism. Refracted ray
(ii) Real image can be obtained on the screen. (ii) Virtual image cannot be obtained on the EF makes an angle of refraction „r‟ with normal NN‟.
(iii) Real image is always formed inverted. screen. The refracted ray emerges out from prism at point F
(iii) making angle of emergence „e‟ with the normal MM‟.
(iv) In case of mirrors real image is formed in Virtual image is always formed erect.
Emergent ray RS bends away from the normal i.e.
front of the mirror, while in case of lenses (iv) In case of mirrors virtual image is formed
again towards base BC of the prism.
real image is formed on the opposite side behind the mirror, while in case of lenses Refraction of light through a prism
of the object. virtual image is formed on the same side
If we produce incident ray PQ to point H and emergent ray RS backward to point G as shown in the
of the object.
diagram, angle HGF is formed which is called angle of deviation. It is denoted by D.
Angle of Deviation
12.18. How does a converging lens form a virtual image of a real object? How does a diverging lens
can form a real image of a real object? Angle between extended incident ray and emergent ray is called angle of deviation.
Virtual and enlarged image is formed by
converging lens when an object is placed Convex Lens Value of angle of deviation depends upon the value of angle of incidence. If we increase the angle
between its optical center and principal of deviation from its small value, angle of deviation first decrease, reaches to minimum value then
focus. The formed is on the same side of starts to increase. Minimum value of angle of deviation is called angle of minimum deviation. It
Virtual C
the object. is denoted by Dm. For angle of minimum deviation, two points are to be kept in mind.
Image Object
However the diverging lens cannot form a (i) Refracted ray EF is parallel to base BC of the prism and
real image of a real object. (ii) Angle of incidence „i‟ is equal to the angle of emergence „e‟.

Refractive index „ ‟ of the material of the prism w.r.t. air can be determined by using the formula:
12.19. Define power of a lens and its units.

( )
Power of a Lens
( )
Reciprocal of focal length of a lens is called power of the lens.
i.e. Where is the angle of prism and is the angle of minimum deviation.

12.21. Define the terms resolving power and magnifying power.

SI unit of the power of the lens is “Dioptre”, denoted by a symbol D. If is expressed in meters
then power is equal to 1 D. i.e. . Resolving Power:

Dioptre The resolving power of an instrument is ability to distinguish between two closely placed objects or
point sources.
1 Dioptre is the power of the lens whose focal length is 1 meter. Magnifying Power:

As the focal length of the convex lens is positive, so its power is also positive. Whereas the power Magnifying power or angular magnification of
of a the concave lens is negative, because it has negative focal length. magnifying glass is the ratio of visual angle
subtended by the image seen through a magnifying
12.20. Describe the passage of light through a glass prism and measure the glass to visual angle subtended by the object when
angle of deviation. placed at the least distance of distinct vision, when see
through the naked eye.

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12.22. Draw the ray diagrams of (i) simple microscope (ii) compound microscope (iii) refracting
Magnifying power where is the least distance of distinct vision and is the focal telescope.
d (i) Ray diagram of simple microscope
length of the convex lens.

𝒇
(ii) Ray diagram of compound microscope

(iii) Ray diagram of refracting telescope

𝒇𝒐
𝒇𝒆
Light rays
coming from
distant object

Virtual
Image

12.23. Mention the magnifying powers of the following optical instruments.

(i) simple microscope (ii) compound microscope
(iii) refracting telescope.

(i) Simple Microscope

Magnifying power of simple microscope is given by the

following relation: 𝑑

Where is the focal length of the convex lens and

is the distance between the image and the eye.
(ii) Compound Microscope
𝑓
Magnifying power of a compound microscope is

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given by the following relation: 12.25. What is meant by the terms nearsightedness and farsightedness? How can these defects be
corrected?
( )
Near Sightedness (Myopia)

Where is the length of compound microscope, i.e. the distance between objective and eye piece, The person suffering from near
is the focal length of objective lens, is the focal length of eye piece and is the distance sightedness can see near objects
between final image and the eye. clearly but cannot see distant objects
clearly.
(iii) Refracting Telescope
This defect may be due to the eye ball
Magnifying power of a refracting 𝒇𝒐 being too large or the eye lens is thick
telescope is given by the relation: 𝒇𝒆 and its focal length is short. Light rays
from a distant object are focused in
front of the retina instead of at retina
and blurred image is produced. Far
point of such defected eye is less than
Where is the focal length of the infinity.
objective lens and is the focal
length of the eye piece. The near sightedness can be corrected
by using spectacles having concave
𝒇𝒆 lenses of suitable powers. Light rays
from the distant objects are now
diverged by this lens before entering
the eye and image is focused on the
𝒇𝒐
retina by the eye lens. To the observer, these light rays appear to come from his far point and
therefore focused on the retina, thus forming a sharp image.

𝑳 Far Sightedness (Myopia)

𝒅
The person suffering from far sightedness can see distant objects clearly but cannot see near
objects clearly.

This defect may be due to the eye ball being

12.24. Draw ray diagrams to show the formation of images in the normal human eye. too short or the eye lens is thin and its focal
length is large. Light rays from the object
placed at near point of the normal (i.e. at 25
cm) are focused behind the retina instead of
Cornea Retina at the retina and blurred image is produced.
Lens
Near point of such defected eye is more
Rays coming from upper than 25 cm.
point of the object
The far sightedness can be corrected by
using spectacles having convex lenses of
suitable powers. The convex lens refracts
the light rays of the object placed at 25 cm
from the eye and converge them to form an
image on the retina. To the observer, these
Rays coming from lower light rays appear to come from his near
point of the object point and therefore focused on the retina,
Object
Image on thus forming a sharp image.
the retina

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Conceptual Questions (Punjab Book) the distance between eye chart and the patient if optician‟s testing room is small. In the following
diagram optician‟s room is small about 3.5 m wide. By use of plane mirror in front of the patient,
12.1. A man raises his left hand in a plane mirror; the image facing him is raising his right hand. the distance between the patient and the image of eye chart becomes 6 m. Apparently testing
Explain why. becomes wider.

One of the characteristics of image formed by plane mirror is that:

Image formed by plane mirror is laterally inverted. i.e. right side of the
objects appears to be left side and left side of the object appears to be
right side.

That is why a man raises his left hand in a plane mirror; the image facing
him is raising his left hand.
12.7. How does the thickness of a lens affect its focal length?
12.2. In your own words, explain why light waves are refracted at a
boundary between two materials.  If a lens is thick then it has a large curvature and it focuses the parallel light rays at shorter
distance, so its focal length is short, and
When light enters from one material to another medium, its A Normal  If a lens is thin then it has a small curvature and it focuses the parallel light rays at larger
i Air (Rare Medium)
speed changes, so its direction also changes and hence distance, so its focal length is long.
refraction of light occurs. O
r
When light enters from rare medium to denser medium say from
Glass Block
air to glass then its speed decreases, so it bends towards the (Denser Medium)
normal and when light enters from denser medium to rare B
medium say from glass to air then its speed increases, so it
bends away from the normal.
12.3. Explain why a fish under water appears to be at a different depth below the surface than
it actually is. Does it appear deeper or shallower?

Fish under water appears to be shallower than its actual depth. This is Thick lens – Short focal length Thin lens – long focal length
because of refraction of light. Light rays from the fish enters
the air from water are bent away from the normal. When 12.8. Under what conditions will a converging lens form a virtual image?
refracted rays are produced backward, they will meet less at
depth where virtual image of the fish is formed. Hence the rays Virtual and enlarged image is formed by
after refraction appear to come from a virtual image of the fish
converging lens when an object is placed
which is above the actual position of the fish as shown in the Apparent Depth Convex Lens
diagram. Real Depth between its optical center and principal
focus. The formed is on the same side of the
Virtual
12.4. Why or why not concave mirrors are suitable for object.
Image Object
makeup?
12.9. Under what conditions will a converging C
Concave mirrors are suit able for makeup. Because when lens form a real image that is the same
person stands between principal focus and pole of the concave size as the object?
mirror of large focal length, he/she sees virtual, erect and
enlarged image of his face in the mirror. Hence concave mirrors act as
magnifiers. When an object is placed at 2F of the
converging lens its image is formed at 2F on the other
side of the object. The image formed is real, inverted
and equal in size of the object.
12.5. Why is the driver‟s side mirror in many cars convex rather than
plane or concave? 12.10. Why do we use refracting telescope with large
objective lens of large focal length?
Due to diverging property of convex mirror, it has large field of view. Convex mirror enables us to
see large area into its small portion. That is why driver‟s side mirror Large objective lens gathers great amount of light from the astronomical objects so that stars and
in many cars is convex rather plane or concave. Driver in the side
other heavenly objects look much brighter. And large focal length of the objective lens gives large
mirrors are able to see traffic coming behind his car so that he may
drive car safely. magnification power ( . Thus we use refracting telescope (especially astronomical telescope)
12.6. When an optician‟s testing room is small, he uses a mirror to with large object lens of large focal length to get maximum brilliance and magnification of
help him test the eyesight of his patients. Explain why. astronomical objects.

In case of plane mirror, distance of image from the mirror is equal

to the distance of the object from the mirror. This property of the plane mirror is used to increase

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Self Assessment: (page no. 43)

Whether the bending of light be more or less for a medium with high refractive index?

Bending of light is more for a medium with a high refractive index.

Self Assessment: (page no. 54)

Where a pen is placed in front of a convex lens if the image is equal to the size of the
pen? What will be the power of the lens in dioptres?

When the pen is placed at 2F of the converging lens

its image is formed at 2F on the other side. The
image formed is real, inverted and equal in size of
the pen.

Power of Lens:

Reciprocal of focal length „ „ of the lens is called

power „ ‟ of the lens. If focal length of the lens is
taken in meters then power of the lens is in
dioptres.

Convex lens formula:

Where is focal length, is distance of the object from the lens and is the distance of the image
from the lens.

From (1) and (2)

Given that

If is in metres then power of the lens is in diopres(D).

Quick Quiz: (page no. 59)

How the size of pupil of our eye will change:

(a) in dim light? (b) in bright light?

The iris (the coloured part of our eyes) is a muscle that controls the
size of our pupil (the hole in the iris that allows light to enter the eye).
The muscles of the iris respond reflexively to the amount of light we
are seeing.

In dim light: When we look in dim light, the iris contracts, the pupil
get larger (dilates) to allow more light into
our eye. This is necessary to see well since
there is little light in the scene and we have
to capture as much of it as possible.

(a) In bright light: When we look at a very

bright scene, the iris expands, the pupils
get smaller (contracts) to allow less light
into the eye. This is a good thing since we
don't need to allow so much of the light in
to see well when the scene is bright.

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Point to ponder: (page no. 40) 4. Which mirrors are used for the rear view of vehicles and why?

In large shopping centres, convex mirrors are used for security purposes. Do you know Ans: The mirror used for the rear view of vehicles is a flat mirror, which means it has a smooth, flat, and
why? reflective surface that does not curve inward (concave) or outward (convex). A flat mirror reflects light
without altering the image, providing a clear and accurate representation of the objects behind the
Due to diverging property of convex mirror, it has large field of
view. Convex mirror enables us to see large area into its small vehicle.
portion. That is why in large shopping centres, convex mirrors are
used for security purposes. It helps us to avoid of any stealing or 5. If a person is walking in a pool why do his legs appear shorter in water?
theft and for better supervision.
Ans: When a person is walking in a pool, their legs appear shorter in water due to a phenomenon is known
as refraction. Refraction occurs when light passes through a medium with a different refractive index,
which causes the light to change direction and speed.

6. Why do diamonds sparkle brightly?

Point to ponder: (page no. 42)
Ans: Diamonds sparkle brightly due to a combination of their optical properties, which include their high
Why the position of fish inside the water seems to be at less depth than that of its actual refractive index, high dispersion, and strong light-reflecting capabilities.
position?
A diamond's high refractive index means that when light enters the diamond, it bends or refracts more
Fish under water appears to be shallower than its actual depth. This is because of refraction of than it would in most other materials. This bending of light causes the diamond to act like a prism,
light. Light rays from the fish enters the air from water are bent away from the normal. When separating white light into its component colors and creating a rainbow-like effect known as dispersion.
refracted rays are produced backward, they will
meet less at depth where virtual image of the fish 7. When white light passes through a prism it disperses into its seven colors. Why does
is formed. dispersion take place in the prism?

Hence the rays after refraction appear to come Ans: When white light passes through a prism, it disperses into its seven colors due to a phenomenon known
from a virtual image of the fish which is above the as refraction. Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another and changes direction
actual position of the fish as shown in the diagram. due to the change in the speed of light in each medium.

In the case of a prism, the prism material is denser than air, so the speed of light in the prism is slower
than in the air. When white light enters the prism, each color of light refracts at a slightly different
angle because the angle of refraction depends on the wavelength of the light. Since each color has a
slightly different wavelength, each color refracts at a different angle as it passes through the prism.

8. A magnifying glass can burn the paper. How is it possible?

Ans: A magnifying glass can burn paper due to a phenomenon known as the "focusing effect." When sunlight
Conceptual Questions (NBF Book)
passes through the convex lens of a magnifying glass, it is refracted and converged onto a single point,
which is known as the "focal point."
1. When you look at the front side of the polished spoon your image is inverted and from the
back of your spoon, your image is erect. Explain why?
If the magnifying glass is held at the right distance and angle, the focused light can become intense
enough to heat the paper to its ignition point, causing it to burn. This happens because the focused
Ans: When light reflects off a shiny surface like a spoon, it changes direction. When you look at the front of
light has a high concentration of energy per unit area, which can generate enough heat to cause the
the spoon, the light from your face is reflected and then bent to make the image appear upside-down.
paper to catch fire.
When you look at the back of the spoon, the light is reflected in a way that makes the image appear
right-side up.
9. Your grandfather uses spectacles to read newspapers. You see through the spectacles and
observe that the objects behind them were inverted. Why was it so observed?
2. Which mirror is used by girls for makeup and why?
Ans: When you see through your grandfather's spectacles and observe that the objects behind them are
Ans: The type of mirror used for makeup purposes is typically a concave mirror. A concave mirror is a mirror
inverted, it is because the spectacles are equipped with concave lenses. Concave lenses are thinner at
with a reflective surface that curves inward, like the inside of a bowl. When light reflects off a concave
the center and thicker at the edges, and they are designed to diverge light rays.
mirror, it converges and forms a magnified image of the object being reflected. This makes it easier to
see fine details of the face, which is why concave mirrors are commonly used for makeup and
When light from an object enters the concave lens of your grandfather's spectacles, it is refracted or
grooming.
bent outward, causing the image to appear smaller and inverted. The inverted image is formed because
the light rays that pass through the top of the lens are refracted more than those that pass through the
3. Why are large convex mirrors fixed at blind turns of mountains?
bottom of the lens. This causes the image to appear upside down relative to its actual orientation.
Ans: Large convex mirrors are often fixed at blind turns of mountains to improve safety for drivers. Blind
10. Under what conditions is a convex lens nearly act as diverging lens?
turns are curves in the road that are not visible to drivers until they are already approaching them,
making it difficult to see oncoming traffic or other hazards. When convex mirrors are placed
Ans: A convex lens is designed to converge light rays and bring them to a focal point. However, under
strategically at these blind turns, they help to increase visibility and reduce the risk of accidents.
certain conditions, a convex lens can act as a diverging lens and cause light rays to spread out instead
of coming together.

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One condition under which a convex lens can act as a diverging lens is when the object is placed very Q7. Will a nearsighted person who wears corrective lenses in her glasses be able to see clearly
close to the lens. In this case, the image formed by the lens may be virtual, upright, and smaller than underwater when wearing those glasses?
the object. The image may also appear to be located behind the lens, on the same side as the object.
Ans. She will not see clearly under water when wearing those glasses because of the different refractive
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS (KPK Book) index of water than air. Water has a refractive index of 1.33 which is much greater than that of air
(1.002). The high refractive index of water affects the refraction of light rays due to which she (near
Q1. Which type of lens would you use to start fire from light from sun concave or convex, would sighted person) will not be able to see clearly in water by wearing glasses having corrective lenses.
work best? At what distance from the lens should the paper be held for best results?
Q8. When you use a simple magnifying glass, does it matter whether you hold the object to be
Ans: We will use a convex lens to start fire from light of sun. A convex lens focuses or converges the parallel examined closer to the lens that its focal length or farther away? Explain.
sun rays to a single point after refraction through the lens. The focusing point is known as principle
focus “F”. The paper should be placed at a distance equal to the focal length of the lens. The lens Ans. A double convex lens may be used as a simple magnifying glass (or simple microscope). A convex lens
converge sunlight on the paper. After sometime the paper heat up and catches fire instantly. always forms a real and inverted image on the opposite side of the lens, when the object is place away
from the focal point. For virtual, erect and magnified image, the object should be placed within the focal
Q2. If a concave mirror produces a real image, is the image necessarily inverted? Explain. length of the lens. Thus, to use a simple magnifying glass, the object should lie within the focal length
of the lens, so that to get an erect, enlarged and virtual image of the object.
Ans: A real image is an image formed when light rays actually pass through the point where the image is
formed. Real image can be produced by a concave mirror only if the object is placed beyond focal point Q9. In blind turns on hilly roads, mirrors are used to help drivers. Are these mirrors plane
(F) of the mirror. This real image will always be inverted. This is because a concave mirror focuses light mirrors, concave mirrors or convex mirrors? Explain.
rays, thus inverting the real image. However, if the object is placed between pole “P” and focus “F”, the
image formed will be upright and virtual not real. That is why it is said that a real image formed by a Ans. Convex mirrors are generally used at blind corners, as they give a wider field of view. They also form
concave lens will always be inverted. erect, virtual and diminished images of objects lying away from the focal point. On the other hand,
plane mirrors form erect images of the same size reducing the field of view. And concave mirrors form
Q3. Are rearview mirrors use in cars concave or convex? erect and virtual images only when the object lie within its focal length. So, only convex mirrors are
used at blind turns on hilly roads to help drivers for safe driving.
Ans. Convex mirrors are useful for rare view in vehicles, as they provide a larger field of view than the
concave mirror. Convex mirrors give erect, virtual and diminished image of distant objects with a wider ASSIGNMENTS (KPK Book)
field of view. On the other hand, concave mirror forms inverted images of the distant objects with a
smaller field of view. Thus for a broader field of view, erect and clear images, convex mirrors are used. 12.1: A dentist uses a concave mirror with focal length 2.0cm to examine some teeth. If the tooth under
examination is 1.1cm high and mirror is place at 0.9 cm. Calculate the distance of image formed, the
Q4. A magician during a show makes a glass lens with n=1.47 disappear in a trough of liquid. height of the image and magnification.
What is the refractive index of the liquid? Could the liquid be water?
12.2: A convex security mirror in a warehouse has a -0.50m focal length. A 2.0m tall forklift is 5.0m from the
Ans. The refractive index of the liquid should be equal to the refractive index of glass lens (i.e. 1.47) for it to mirror. What is the image position and image height?
disappear in the liquid. Because if the lens is surrounded by liquid having the same refractive index as
the lens, then no reflection and no refraction occurs and the lens becomes invisible. The liquid could not 12.3: If the speed of light in kerosene oil is 2.08 × 108 m/s, calculate the index of refraction.
be water because the refractive index of water is 1.33 which is much less than that of glass lens. It can
be glycerin or turpentine both are “clear” liquid with their refractive index equal to 1.47. 12.4: Find the index of refraction for medium 2, if medium 1 in air with index of refraction na= 1.00, the
incident angle is 30.0° and the angle of refraction is 22.0°. Compare the result with the table and
Q5. Suppose that you were handed a lens and a ruler and told to determine the focal length of identify the nature of medium 2.
the lens. How would you proceed?
12.5: What is the critical angle for light traveling in a polystyrene (a type of plastic with index of refraction for
Ans. We can easily find the focal length of a lens using ruler (or meter rod). In open air, make the rays polystyrene as 1.49) pipe surrounded by air (take index of refraction of air to be 1.00)?
focused on a wall (finding the point where the all rays are concentrated, which will be the principal
focus of lens) and measure the distance between the lens and the wall with the help of meter rod. This 12.5: An object is placed 30.0 cm in front of a converging lens and then 12.5 cm in front of a diverging lens.
will be the focal length of the given lens. Both lenses have a focal length of 10.0cm. For both cases, find the image distance and the
magnification. Describe the images.
Q6. Can we achieve total internal reflection from optically rare medium to optically dense
medium? 12.7: An 8cm focal length converging lens is used as a jeweler‟s loupe, which is a magnifying glass. Estimate
the magnification (a) when the eye is relaxed, and (b) if the eye is focused at its near point.
Ans. No, we cannot achieve total internal reflection when light travels from optically rare medium to optically
dense medium. For total internal reflection the following conditions must be satisfied. 12.8: If the focal length of the eye piece is increased, does the magnitude of the magnification increase or
decrease. Check your response by calculating the magnification when the focal length of the eyepiece is
1. The incident light must pass from an optically dense medium into an optically rare medium (e.g from 3.5cm.
water to air or from glass to air).
12.9: An astronomical telescope has the following specifications: fo= 985 mm and fo = 5.00mm. From these
2. The angle of incidence in denser medium must be greater than the critical angle of the medium. Thus data points, find (a) the angular magnification and (b) the approximate length of this telescope.
total internal reflection will not take place if light is travelling from optically rare medium to optically
dense medium (e.g from air to water).

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ELECTROSTATICS
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS (KPK Book)

Q1. A 1.50cm high object is placed 20.0cm from a concave mirror with radius of curvature 30.0cm.
UNIT 13
Determine (a) the position of the image, and (b) its size, also draw the ray diagrams. REVIEW QUESTIONS (Punjab Book)

Q2. A candle of height 8.0cm is located at a distance of 300 mm from a convex mirror, its virtual image is 13.1. How can you show by simple experiment that there are two types of electrical charges?
formed behind the mirror at a distance of 3.0cm from the pole (or vertex). Find the focal length of the
There are two types of electrical charges;
mirror and height of the image formed.
1. Positive charges.
Q3. Calculate the speed of light is zircon with index of refraction n = 1.923, a material used in jewelry to
2. Negative charges.
replicate diamond.

Q4. A light ray strikes an air / water surface at an angle of 46o with respect to the normal. The refraction The existence of these charges can be proved by the following experiment
index of water is 1.33. Find the angle of refraction when the direction of ray is (a) from air to water and
(a) Take a plastic rod. Rub it with fur and suspend it horizontally by a silk a thread. Now take another
(b) from water to air.
plastic rod and rub it with fur and bring it near to the suspended rod. We will observe that both the
Q5. An optical fiber is made from flint glass with index of refraction 1.666 and is surrounded by a cladding rods will repel each other. It means during rubbing both the rods were charged.
made of crown glass with index of refraction 1.52. What is the critical angle?

Q6. Suppose the book page is held 7.50cm from a convex lens of focal length 10.0cm and concave lens of
focal length -10cm, what magnification is produced in each case?

Q7. Gulalai is viewing a flea using a magnifier with f = 3.0cm. If her near point is at N = 25cm then
calculate the maximum magnification she can get.

Q8. A telescope has a magnification of 40.0 and a length of 1230mm. What are the focal lengths of the
objective and eyepiece?

(b) Now take a glass rod and rub it with silk and suspend it horizontally. When we bring the plastic rod
rubbed with fur near to the suspended glass rod, we observe that both the rods attract each other.

Conclusion:

In the first activity, both the rods are of plastic and both of them have been rubbed with fur. So
we assume that both the rods have developed same kind of charge on them.

In the second activity, rods are unlike and have been rubbed with different kind of cloths. So
attraction between them implies that charges on two rods are of different kind, i.e. of opposite
nature.

Test reveals that plastic rod acquires negative charge after being rubbed with fur and glass rod
acquires positive charge when rubbed with silk cloth.

13.2. Describe the method of charging bodies by electrostatic induction.

The process of charging a conductor without any contact with a charged body is called charging by
induction.

Given below is the method of charging two metal spheres with equal and opposite charge.

Step 1: Two metal spheres A & B are mounted on insulated stands and kept in contact with each other.
The electrons and protons in them are evenly distributed.

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The gold leaf electroscope is a sensitive instrument for detecting the presence and nature of
charges on a body.
A B
Working principal:

Gold leaf electroscope works on the principle of “Electrostatic

A positively charged rod is brought near to sphere A. By doing so electrons from sphere B are Induction”. Brass Disk

attracted towards near the rod in the sphere A. Under this condition deficiency of free
Construction: Cork (Insulator)

electrons is created on the sphere B and it alone has positive charges say protons in excess, while
It consists of a brass rod with a brass disk at the top and two thin Brass Rod
sphere A alone has excess negative charge due to gain of electrons.
leaves of gold foil hanging at the bottom. The rod passes through an
insulator that keeps the rod in place. Charges can move freely from Aluminium Foil
the disk to the leaves through the rod. A thin aluminium foil is
attached on the lower portion of the inside jar. Usually the
A B aluminium foil is grounded by a connecting copper wire. This
Earth
protects the leaves from the external electrical disturbances.
Gold Leaf Electroscope
13.5. Suppose you have a glass rod which becomes positively charged
when you rub it with wool. Describe how would you charge the electroscope:
(i) Negatively? (ii) Positively?
Step 2: Keeping the positively charged rod at the same place near to sphere A, sphere B is moved away
from the sphere A using the insulating stand. If we test the two spheres, we will find that two (i) In order to charge the electroscope negatively, first connect the disk of the electroscope with
spheres will be oppositely charged. earthed aluminium foil by a connecting copper wire. Bring the positively charged rod near the disc
of electroscope. Negative charges (electrons) from the ground are attracted towards the disk due
to phenomenon of electrostatic induction. Now if we break the earth connection and then remove
the rod, the electroscope will be left with negative charges which are evenly distributed throughout
A B the electroscope.

(ii) In order to charge the electroscope positively, touch the disk of electroscope with the positively
charged glass rod. The charge of the rod will be neutralized as the some electrons from the disk
will be transferred to the rod leaving the disk with the deficiency of electrons so electroscope is
said to be positively charged due to excess of positive charges.
Step 3: Now move the positively charged rod away from the sphere A. After removing the rod, the
13.6. With the help of electroscope how can you find the presence of charge on a body?
charges are uniformly distributed over the surfaces of the both spheres.
Detecting the presence of Charge:

In order to detect the presence of charge on anybody, bring the body near the disk of uncharged
A B electroscope. If the body is neutral, there will be no deflection of the gold leaves. But if the body is
positively or negatively charged, the leaves of the electroscope diverge.

For example if the body is negatively charged then due to electrostatic induction, positive charge
will appear on the disk while negative charge will appear on the leaves. The leaves of the
electroscope repel each other and diverge because leave gets similar charge. The divergence of
leaves will depend on the amount of charge.

In this process, an equal and opposite charges appear on each metal sphere. This is called 13.7. Describe how you would determine the nature of charge on a body by using electroscope.
charging by induction.
In order to determine the nature of charge on the body, first charge the electroscope either
positively or negatively. Bring the charged body near the disk of the charged electroscope. If the
13.3. How does electrostatic induction differ from charging by friction? divergence of the gold leaves increases, the body has the same charge as that of the electroscope
and if the divergence of the gold leaves decreases, the body has the opposite to that of
In the process of electrostatics induction, an insulated conductor develops positive charge at one electroscope.
end and negative charge at the other end when a charged body is brought near to it. Charges just
arranged at the opposite ends of the insulated conductor, no charges are entered into or leave For example the electroscope is positively charged. If divergence of the gold leaves increases after
from it, so insulated conductor as a whole is neutral during the process of electrostatic induction. bringing the charged body near to the disk of the electroscope, the body has positive charge and
the body has negative charge if the divergence of the leaves decreases.
While in charging by friction, two bodies are rubbed with each other and charges (electrons) are
transferred from one body to other body. The body which gains electrons becomes negatively 13.8. Explain Coulomb‟s law of electrostatics and write its mathematical form.
charged and other body becomes positively charged due to deficiency of electrons in it.
Coulomb‟s Law:
13.4. What is gold leaf electroscope? Discuss its working principle with a labeled diagram.
“The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the
Gold Leaf Electroscope: product of the magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.”

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Let and be the two point charges separated by a distance . Force of attraction or repulsion
between them is given below according to the Coulomb‟s Law:

/ If the potential of point is and that of point is , the potential energy of the charge at these
points will be and respectively. The change in potential energy of the charge when it moves
from point to point will be equal to . This energy is utilized in doing some useful work.
Combining (i) and (ii), we get. Thus

Energy supplied by the charge

If then
Where is constant of proportionality. Its value depends upon the nature of the medium between
the point charges. If the medium between the two point charges is air, then the value of in SI
units will be Thus potential difference is the energy supplied by unit positive charge as it moves from one point
to the other in the direction of the field.
Coulomb‟s law is true only for point charges whose sizes are very small as compared to the
distance between them. 13.13. What do you mean by capacitance of a capacitor? Define units of capacitance.

13.9. What is meant by electric field and electric intensity? Capacitance:

Electric Field: Capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the amount of charge that increases the potential
difference between the plates by 1 volt.
The region around a charge in space, in which a test charge can feel its electrostatic effect in the
form of force, is called electric field. Capacitance „C‟ of a capacitor is the ability to store charge. It is given by the ratio of charge „Q‟
and potential difference „V‟ between the plates as:
Electric Intensity:

The strength of an electric field at any point in space is known as electric field intensity.
OR Farad:
Electric intensity of a point in the field is defined as the force acting on unit positive charge placed
at that point. SI unit of capacitance is farad (F), defined as:
13.10. Is electric intensity a vector quantity what will be its direction? If one coulomb of charge is given to either of two plates of the capacitor and this increases the
potential difference between the plates by one volt, then the capacitance of the capacitor would be
Electric intensity is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same as that of the force acting on unit one farad.
positive test charge. If the test charge is free to move, it will always move in the direction of 13.14. Derive the formula for the equivalent capacitance for a series combination of a number
electric intensity. of capacitors.
13.11. How would you define potential difference between two points? Define its units.
Series Combination of Capacitors:
Potential Difference:
In series combination, the capacitors are
Energy supplied by unit positive charge as it moves from one point to another point in the connected side by side i.e. the right plate of
direction of the field is called potential difference between two points. one capacitor is connected to the left plate of +Q +Q +Q
the next capacitor and so on. Series
Volt (V):
combination of the capacitors has the following
Unit of potential difference is volt (V). If one joule of energy is supplied by unit positive charge characteristics.
when it moves from one point to another point in the direction of the field, then the potential 1. Each capacitor has the same charge across it.
difference between two points is one volt. If the battery supplies +Q charge to the left
plate of the capacitor . Due to induction –
13.12. Show that potential difference can be described as energy transfer per unit charge
between the two points. charge is induced on its right plate and +Q
charge on the left plate of the capacitor . And
When a charge is released in an electric field, it moves from a point of higher potential say to a so on. i.e.,
point of lower potential say , as shown in the following figure. 2. The potential difference across each capacitor
Higher Potential Lower Potential depends upon its capacitance. i.e.
Potential difference across
+ - Potential difference across

Potential difference across

+ -
A F B 3. Sum of potential differences across all capacitors is equal to the voltage of the battery. Hence
+ q
+ -
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+ -

+ -
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…………………………. (i)
4. The series combination is replaced by a single capacitor, that stores same amount of charge with
the same battery of the voltage . This single capacitor is called equivalent capacitance denoted
by .So voltage across is given as
5. Putting the value of in equation (i).

( )
Dividing by on both sides.

Mica Capacitor
6. In case of „ ‟ capacitors connected in series, we have
Electrolytic Capacitor:

Note: The equivalent capacitance of the series combination is smaller than the smallest capacitance in An electrolytic capacitor is often used to store large amount of charge at relatively low voltages. It
the combination. consists of metal foil in contact with an electrolyte (A solution that conducts charge by virtue of the
motion of the ions contained in it). When a voltage is applied between the foil and the electrolyte,
13.15. Discuss different types of capacitors. a thin layer of metal oxide (an insulator) is formed on the foil, and this layer serves as the
dielectric. Very large capacitances can be attained because the dielectric layer is very thin.
There are two major types of capacitors.

1. Fixed capacitors 2. Variable capacitors. Ceramic Capacitors:

Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or
1. Fixed Capacitors:
ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low
capacitance values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6 mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high
Fixed capacitors are such capacitors in which the plates are immoveable. These capacitors provide
dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high capacitance‟s can be obtained
constant capacitance. Type of fixed capacitors depends upon the dielectric medium between the
in a small physical size.
plates. Fixed capacitors include paper capacitor, mica capacitor and electrolytic capacitor etc. Ceramic capacitors are generally superior to other types and therefore can be used in vast ranges
of applications
Paper Capacitor:

The paper capacitor has cylindrical shape. Usually, an oiled or greased paper or thin plastic sheet

is used as dielectric between two aluminium foils. The paper or plastic sheet is firmly rolled in the
form of a cylinder and is then enclosed into a plastic case. Ceramic Capacitor
Electrolytic Capacitor
Mica Capacitor:

In mica capacitors, mica is used as dielectric between the two metal plates. Since mica is very
2. Variable Capacitor:
fragile, it is enclosed in a plastic case or in a case of some insulator. Wires attached to the plates
project out of the case for making connections. If the capacitance is to be increased, large number In variable type of capacitors, some arrangement is
of plates is piled up, one over the other with layers of dielectric in between and alternative plates made to change the area of plates facing each
are connected with each other. other. It is generally a combination of many
capacitors with air as dielectric. It consists of two
sets of plates. One set remains static while other
set can rotate so the distance between the plates
does not change and they do not touch each other.
Paper Capacitor The common area of the plates of the two sets
which faces each other, determines the value
capacitance. Thus, the capacitance of the capacitor
can be increased or decreased by tuning the rotatable plates in or out of the space between the
static plates. Such capacitors are usually used for tuning in radio sets.

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Electrostatic Precipitator: Many heavy industrial plants, such as steel-making furnaces and
13.16. What is the difference between fixed and variable capacitors? coal-fired power stations, produce large quantities of smoke. This smoke carries small particles of
ash and dust into the environment, causing health problems and damage to buildings. One way of
Fixed Capacitor Variable Capacitor removing these pollutants from the smoke is to use electrostatic precipitators.
As the smoke initially rises up the chimney it passes through s mesh of wires that are charged.
1. These capacitors provide constant 1. These capacitors provide variable (The wires are at a voltage of approximately .) As they pass through the mesh. The ash
capacitance. capacitance. and dust particles become negatively charged. Higher up the chimney these charged particles are
attracted by and stick to large metal earthed plates. The cleaner smoke is then released into the
2. Their plates remain fixed at their positions. 2. These have two set of plates. One set of atmosphere. When the earthed plates are completely covered with dust and ash, they a given a
sharp rap. The dust and ash fall into collection boxes, which are later emptied.
i.e. distance between the plates and common plates remains static and other set rotates in
area between the plates remain unchanged. and out between the static plates.

3. These are used in fan, motors, air 3. These are used in tuning circuits of
conditioners, coolers and electronics circuits transmitters, receivers and transistors
of computers. radios.

13.17. Enlist some uses of capacitors.

Uses of capacitors

1. Capacitors are used to differentiate between high frequency signals and low frequency signals. For
example, capacitors are used in resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies.
2. Capacitors are used in table fans, ceiling fans, exhaust fans, fan motors in air conditioners,
coolers, motors of washing machines, air conditioners etc. for their smooth working.
3. Capacitors are used in electronic circuits of computers.
4. Capacitors are used in power supply where they smooth the output of full or half wave of rectifiers.
In a large coal-fired power station, 50 – 60 tonnes of dust and ash may be removed from smoke
5. Capacitors are used for camera flash. Electric energy stored in the capacitor is used to run camera
each hour.
flash for fraction of second.
13.19. What are hazards of static electricity?

13.18. Discuss one application of static electricity. 1. Fire or explosions:

Electrostatic Powder Painting A fire or an explosion may occur due to excessive build-up of electric charges produced by friction.

Automobile manufacturers use static electricity to paint a For example, electric charges accumulate on an air craft during flight due to air resistance and can
new car. The body of a car is charged and then the paint is
cause explosion during filling of fuel into the air craft. To avoid of such havoc the tyres of the air
given the opposite charge by charging the nozzle of the
sprayer. Due to mutual repulsion, charged particles coming craft are made of slightly conductive rubber so that the large amount of charge build-up on the
out of the nozzle form a fine mist and evenly distributed on body of the aircraft during flight can be discharged harmlessly during touchdown.
the body of the car. Charged paint particles are attracted to Electric charges also accumulate on trucks transporting flammable liquids like gasoline. This can
the car and stick to the body of the car, just like a charged cause explosion when electric charge from the body of the truck is discharged near to the
balloon sticks to a wall. Once the paint dries, it sticks to the flammable liquids. To avoid of such situation metallic chains are often hung from the metallic body
car‟s body much better and smoother, as it spreads of the trucks at rear sides. This transfers the electric charge, just created on the truck, to the
uniformly on the body of the car. This method of painting
ground.
the automobiles is very effective, efficient and economical
on large scale.
2. Lightning:

OR It is common to see flashes of lightning just before and

also during thunderstorm. This is due to the large
quantity of electric charge being built up in the heavy
thunderclouds. The thunderclouds are charged by friction
between the water molecules in the thunderclouds and
the air molecules.

When the charge on the thunderclouds is sufficiently high,

it can ionize the air which then provides a conduction
path for the huge quantity of charge to be discharged to
the nearest sharpest object on the ground.

This explains why it is very dangerous to swim in the open sea, play
in an open filed or hide under a tree during a thunderstorm.

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Electric charge accumulates on a gasoline trucks due to friction between air and the truck during
To prevent lightning from damaging tall buildings, lightening conductors are used. The purpose of transportation of gasoline. This can cause explosion when electric charge from the body of the
the lightning conductor is to provide a steady discharge path for the huge number of electrons in truck is discharged near to the flammable liquids. To avoid of such situation metallic chains are
the air to flow from the top of the building to the earth. In this way the chances of lightning bolt,
often hung from the metallic body of the trucks at rear sides. This transfers the electric charge,
due to sudden discharge, is minimized.
just created on the truck, to the ground.

13.7. If a high voltage power line fell across your car while you were in the car, why should you not
Conceptual Questions (Punjab Book) come out of the car?

13.1. An electrified rod attracts pieces of paper. After a while these pieces fly away! Why? Car acts as a Faraday‟s cage. When a high voltage power line fell across a car, while we are sitting
in the car, a large electric field is established outside the car. But inside the car the electric field is
Suppose a glass rod is rubbed with silk, it becomes positively charged (an electrified rod). When
zero. So we are safe inside the car. But if touch the ground, while coming out of the car, the
this glass rod is brought close to the pieces of paper, by electrostatic induction, a negative charge
charge will be discharged to the ground through our body, that may prove fetal.
appears on pieces of paper due to which these pieces of paper attracted towards the rod. But
when these pieces of paper touch the charged rod, some of electrons from the pieces of paper are
13.8. Explain why, a glass rod can be charged by rubbing when held by hand but an iron rod cannot
transferred to the glass rod and then pieces of paper also become positively charged, due to which
be charged by rubbing, if held by hand?
there will be the force of repulsion between rod and pieces of paper, hence the pieces of paper fly
away from the rod.
Glass is an insulator so when a glass rod is charged by rubbing it, the charge is created only on
the surface of the glass rod and charge on the surface of the rod will not be discharged to the
13.2. How much negative charge has been removed from a positively charged electroscope if it has a
ground through our body when we hold the rod by our hands. However iron is a good conductor of
charge of ?
electricity. When iron rod is rubbed, charge just created on the rod is discharged to the ground
through our body when held by our hands.
of negative charge has been removed from an electroscope to produce a positive
charge of on the electroscope.
Quick Quiz: (page no. 76)

13.3. In what direction will a positively charged particle move in an electric field? If we double the distance between two charges, what will be the change in the force
between the charges?
In an electric field positively charged particle will move from a point of higher potential to o point
of lower potential. i.e the positively charged particle will move in the direction of electric field. If we double the distance between two charges the force between
them is reduced to one fourth according to coulomb‟s law. 𝑑
13.4. Does each capacitor carry equal charge in series combination? Explain.
Given below is the mathematical verification.
Yes each capacitor carries equal charge in series combination. If the battery supplies +Q charge 𝑭 𝑭
Let and be two charges and separated by a distance d with
to the left plate of the capacitor . Due to electrostatic induction – charge is induced on its right
air as medium between them. Coulomb‟s force between them is
plate and +Q charge on the left plate of the capacitor and so on.
given below by the relation. 𝑑

+Q -Q +Q -Q +Q -Q ……………………….(i) 𝑭 𝑭

If the distance between them is made twice i.e., then coulomb‟s force between them is given
below:

13.5. Each capacitor in parallel combination has equal potential

……………………….(ii)
difference between two plates. Justify the statement.

From (i) and (ii) we get,

In parallel combination left plates of all capacitors are
connected to same point i.e. to the positive terminal of the
battery and right plates of all capacitors are connected to the
other point i.e. to the negative terminal of the battery. That is
Hence from above equation it is shown that if we double the distance between the charges then
why each capacitor in this combination has the same potential
force between them becomes one fourth of the original force.
difference, which is equal to the voltage of the battery.

13.6. Perhaps you have seen a gasoline truck trailing a metal chain beneath it. What purpose does
the chain serve? Quick Quiz: (page no. 80)

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Is the equivalent capacitance of parallel capacitors larger or smaller than the forth at a particular rate through the resistor. As this happens, energy is transferred to the
capacitance of an individual capacitor in the combination? resistor. Hence the capacitor allows AC current to flow through the circuit.

The equivalent capacitance of parallel combination of capacitors is equal to the sum of Point to ponder: (page no. 84)
capacitances of all capacitors, so equivalent capacitance of parallel capacitors is larger than the
capacitance of an individual capacitor in the combination. How would you suspend 500,000 pounds of water in air with no visible means of
support? (Hint: build a cloud)
Quick Quiz: (page no. 81)
We could suspend 500000 pounds of water in the air with no visible means of support, only by
Is the equivalent capacitance of series capacitors larger or smaller than the capacitance converting it in clouds, because clouds are made of water droplets and ice crystals. Together these
of an individual capacitor in the combination? droplets and crystals weigh many tons but a cloud‟s weight is spread out over a large area plus the
clods droplets and crystals are very small (about 1 micron). A cloud‟s individual particles are so
The reciprocal of equivalent capacitance of series combination of capacitors is equal to the sum of small to have any appreciable terminal velocity, so warm air rising from the earth surface is able
reciprocal of capacitances of all capacitors, so equivalent capacitance of series capacitors is smaller to keep them in the air without any visible means of support.
than the smallest capacitance the combination.
Conceptual Questions (NBF Book)
Point to ponder: (page no. 74)
1. Rub a plastic ruler with your hair. Place it near running water from the tap you see that a
Why leaves of charged electroscope collapse if we touch the disk with a metal rod but thin stream of water is deflected. Explain why?
they do not collapse if we touch the disk with a rubber rod?
Ans: Rubbing a plastic ruler with your hair can create a static electric charge on the ruler due to the tribo
If we touch the charged electroscope with a metal rod which is a conductor, transfer of electrons electric effect. This means that the ruler has a negative charge and is able to attract positively charged
will occur from electroscope to the ground or from ground to the electroscope through the metal objects, such as the water coming from the tap.
rod and our body. So electroscope is discharged and leaves will collapse.
2. Two identical spheres have the same masses. Then we charge both spheres oppositely
If we touch the charged electroscope with a rubber rod which is an insulator, no transfer of charged. After charging will be there both bodies have the same masses or different masses?
electrons will occur from electroscope to the ground or from ground to the electroscope. So Explain.
electroscope remains charged and leaves will not collapse.
Ans: After charging both spheres oppositely charged, their masses will remain the same as the process of
Point to ponder: (page no. 74) charging does not change the mass of an object.

On a dry day if we walk in a carpeted room and then touch some conductor we will get a When we charge an object by rubbing it against another object, electrons are transferred from one
small electric shock. Can we tell why does it happen? object to the other, resulting in a buildup of electric charge. The mass of the object, however, remains
constant as the transfer of electrons does not result in any loss or gain of mass.
When we walk on the carpet, our body gets charge due to friction between our feet and the carpet.
Now if we touch some conductor, an electrostatic discharge will occur due to transfer of electrons 3. You take your car to the service station to get it polished. After a while, you observe that
between our body and the conductor. Hence we observe a spark and feel an electric shock. your car takes the dust. Why is dust attracted by the car?

Point to ponder: (page no. 77) Ans: When a car is polished, its surface becomes smoother and more uniform, which reduces the friction
between the car's surface and the surrounding air. This smoother surface can also become slightly
A strong electric field exists in the vicinity of this
charged due to the triboelectric effect, which occurs when two surfaces rub against each other, causing
“Faraday Cage”. Yet the person inside the cage is not
the transfer of electrons from one surface to another.
affected. Can you tell why?
As a result, the smoother, charged surface of the car can attract small particles, such as dust, pollen, or
Though there is a strong electric field outside the “Faraday
even tiny pollutants, from the surrounding air through a phenomenon called electrostatic attraction.
Cage”, but inside the “Faraday Cage” electric field is zero.
That is why the person inside the cage is not affected and 4. Take two oppositely charged rods and place them separately near the small piece of paper
he is safe from electrostatic hazard. why do they both attract the small piece of paper? Is there any third type of charge on paper
that attracts both positive and negative charges?
Point to ponder: (page no. 84)
Ans: When two oppositely charged rods are placed separately near a small piece of paper, they both attract
Capacitor blocks DC but allows AC to pass through a circuit. How does this happen?
the paper due to the electrostatic force. This force is the attractive force that exists between positive
and negative charges.
When a capacitor is connected to a DC source (i.e. battery), capacitor is being started to charge as
electrons accumulate on the first plate and leave from the second plate. When the capacitor
The paper itself is made up of atoms, which have positively charged protons in the nucleus and
becomes fully charged, the electric current will stop flowing.
negatively charged electrons orbiting around the nucleus. However, the electrostatic force between the
charges of the rods and the charges in the paper is much stronger than the forces between the charges
In an alternating current circuit, the direction of the current is constantly changing. Each time the
within the paper itself. As a result, the paper experiences a net force toward the charged rods and gets
direction of the current changes, the electrons are flowing in a different direction. As electrons flow
attracted toward them.
in one direction the capacitor is charging. As electrons flow in the other direction, the capacitor is
discharging. If a resistor is placed in an AC circuit with a capacitor, electrons will move back and
5. The force between two point charges is 10N. If their charge is doubled and the distance
between them is reduced to half what will be the magnitude of the force between them?

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Ans: The force between two point charges is given by Coulomb's law, which states that: Ans: If two capacitors of different plate areas are connected to the same battery, they will gain different
amounts of charge. This is because the capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the area of
F=k its plates and inversely proportional to the distance between them, as given by the formula:

Where F is the force, q1 and q2 are the magnitudes of the charges, r is the distance between them, and C=
k is the Coulomb constant.
Where C is the capacitance, ε is the permittivity of the material between the plates, A is the area of the
Now, if we double the charges and reduce the distance between them to half, we have: plates, and d is the distance between them.

F‟ = k 10. A device has a capacitance of 250nF. You can ask to decrease its capacitance to 50nF. How
can you get it by connecting another capacitor to it?
F‟ = k
Ans: To decrease the capacitance of a device from 250nF to 50nF, you can connect another capacitor in
parallel with it. The formula for the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors in parallel is:
‟
F = (4) (4) k
Ceq = C1 + C2
F‟= 16F
Where C1 and C2 are the capacitances of the two capacitors.
We can see that the new force, F', is 16 times the original force, F. Therefore, the magnitude of the
To find the value of the additional capacitor to be connected, we can rearrange the formula as:
force between the charges is increased by a factor of 16 when the charges are doubled and the distance
between them is reduced to half. C2 = Ceq - C1

6. A 100 C charged body of mass 20kg repels a 1 C charge body of 10g with a force of 2000N. Substituting the given values, we get:
Will a smaller charged body apply force same/ smaller/ greater force on a 20kg charged
body? C1 = 250nF

Ans: The force between two charged objects depends on the magnitude of the charges and the distance Ceq = 50nF
between them. If we double the magnitude of the charges, the force between them will become four
times stronger. If we reduce the distance between them to half, the force between them will become C2 = ?
four times stronger again. So if we double the charges and reduce the distance to half, the force
C2 = Ceq - C1
between them will become 16 times stronger than the original force.
C2 = 50nF - 250nF
In this case, the force between the 100 C charged body and the 1 C charged body is 2000 N. If we
double the charges to 200 C and 2 C and reduce the distance between them to half, the force between
C2 = -200nF
them will be 16 times stronger, which is:
Since the calculated value of C2 is negative, we cannot use a single capacitor to achieve the desired
2000 N × 16 = 32000 N
capacitance of 50nF. Instead, we need to use a combination of capacitors in parallel whose total
capacitance equals 50nF. One possible combination is to use a 200nF capacitor in parallel with the
So the smaller charged body with a 2 C charge will apply a greater force of 32000 N on the 20 kg
original 250nF capacitor. The equivalent capacitance of this combination is:
charged body.
Ceq = C1 + C2
7. Why is it dangerous for construction workers to hold long steel poles upright during
lightning weather conditions?
Ceq = 250nF + 200nF
Ans: It is dangerous for construction workers to hold long steel poles upright during lightning weather
Ceq = 450nF
conditions because metal is a good conductor of electricity. When lightning strikes, it can travel through
the metal pole and into the person holding it, which can lead to electric shock or electrocution. By using this combination of capacitors, we can achieve a total capacitance of 450nF, which is
equivalent to 50nF when connected in parallel with the original 250nF capacitor.
8. According to the equation of capacitance, capacitor capacitance is numerically equal to the
ratio between the charge stored on one of its plats and the potential difference between its
plates does its value depends upon the amount of charge and potential difference?

Ans: The capacitance of a capacitor is a measure of how much charge it can store for a given voltage. It
does not depend on the amount of charge stored on the plates or the potential difference between the
plates. The capacitance of a capacitor is determined by the physical characteristics of the capacitor,
such as the distance between the plates and the material between them. So, the capacitance of a
capacitor remains the same, regardless of the amount of charge stored on it or the voltage across it.

9. Do two capacitors of different plate areas gain the same or different amounts of charge if
connected to the same battery?

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Conceptual Questions (KPK Book) Q7. Why are lighting rods normally at a higher elevation than the building they protect?

Q1. Normally, objects with large number of electrons are electrically neutral, why? Ans. Lightening occurs when the electric field between clouds and grounds gets high to overcome the
resistance of the air between them. Putting the lightning rods gives an easy path to be conducted to the
Ans. An electrically neutral object contains the same amount of positive charge as negative charge, resulting earth. As the rod gives an easy path to the charge, so buildings become safe and not damaged.
in no net charge i.e. Number of electrons = Number of protons. Under such conditions the potential Lightening hits the tallest objects in its path e.g. trees, high rise buildings etc. Therefore, lightning rods
difference will be zero and electric field intensity “E” will be zero. Thus, the objects with large number of should be taller in order to be hit first by the lightning storm leaving the building safe. On the other
electrons will remain neutral. hand, if these were shorter than the building then lightening will hit the building first causing damage to
it. That‟s why, the lightning rods are normally at higher elevation than the building for protection
Q2. How does shuffling feet across a carpet cause hair to stand on our body?
purpose.
Ans. The rubbing of certain materials against one another can transfer negative charges or electrons. i.e.
OR
one loses electrons and other gains that electrons. When we shuffle our feet on the carpet, we are
rubbing electrons off the carpet and onto our body. These negatively charged particles i.e. electrons are The lightning rods are normally at higher elevation than the building for the reason that lightening first
accumulate on our body‟s hair. As similar charges repel each other, these hairs try to repel each other hit the rods and not the building. Lightening always takes the path of least resistance and air is pretty
as far away from each other as possible. This is why the hair actually strands up on our body when we resistant stuff. If the lightening rod is shorter the current will find another path, like the plumbing of a
rub carpet with our feet. house or even through solid wood (i.e. tree). This is bad.

Q3. Why neutral objects are always attracted by charged object? Not repelled. Q8. What would happen if two insulating plates were used instead of conducting plates to
construct a capacitor?
Ans. Since neutral objects are composed of atoms which have equal number of positive and negative
charges. When a charged body is brought near a neutral body, then due to electrostatic induction, Ans. A capacitor is made of two conducting (metal) plates and an insulating material in between them. The
opposite charge in the neutral body is brought towards the charged body and same charge to the other metal plates lie very close to each other, but insulating material prevents them from touching. When a
end. For example, if a positively charged rod is brought near a neutral body, it attracts negative charge potential difference or battery is connected to the plates of the capacitor, its positive terminal draws
in the neutral body towards itself while repel the positive charges to the other end. Because of this free electrons from the plate to which it is connected. Thus, this plate acquires a net positive charge on
reason neutral objects are always attracted by charged objects. it.

Q4. Why the pieces of paper initially attracted by charged comb fly away when they touch it? Due to electrostatic induction, equal and opposite charge is induced on the other plate of the capacitor.
Thus, a capacitor stores equal and opposite charges on its two plates facing each other. This
Ans. When a charged comb is brought in contact with dry paper due to electrostatic induction opposite
accumulation of charge is very less in case of insulating plates, as insulators have no free electrons.
charge is induced on the tiny pieces of dry paper. As a result, electrostatic fore of attraction exists
Therefore, only conducting plates are used in a capacitor not insulating ones.
between comb and pieces of paper, the charged comb attracts the pieces of paper. However, when
these pieces touch the charged comb, then they got the same charge as that of comb. Now electrostatic Q9. The sum of the charges on both plates of a capacitor is zero. What does a capacitors store?
force of repulsion is created between same charges due to which pieces of paper fly away. Thus, the
pieces of paper first attracted by a charged comb due to electrostatic induction and then repelled on Ans. The capacitor stores electrical energy in the form of its electric field between its plates. Because the
touching it. plates are equal but oppositely charged, a potential difference exists between them. That means there
is energy available to do work. And since there is a potential difference, there is an electric field which
Q5. Is it necessary for a charged body actually to touch the ball of the electroscope for the leaves points from the positive plate to the negative one.
to diverge? Defend your answer.
Q10. If you wish to store a large amount of energy in a capacitor bank, would you connect
Ans. No, it is not necessary for the charged body to touch the ball of an electroscope for the leaves to capacitors in series or parallel? Explain.
diverge. When we bring a negative charge body near the ball, electrons in the ball are repelled and
driven to the leaves, leaving the ball positively charged. Similarly, when we bring positive charge near Ans. If we wish to store a large amount of energy in a capacitor bank, then connect all the capacitors in
the ball, electrons will be attracted and move up to the ball to make it negative and leave the leaves parallel because charge storing ability increase in parallel rather than series. i.e. C = C1 + C2 + C3
positively charged. The leaves of an electroscope diverge due to repulsion between them as both carry When in parallel, capacitor values add up, and energy storage goes in proportion. For a given fixed
same charge. This is charge separation due to induction and it is not necessary for the charged body to voltage, parallel combination is the only way. Series connection reduces capacitor value and hence the
physically touch the ball. stored energy.

Q6. How electrostatic painting is better than conventional spray painting? Assignments (KPK Book)

Ans. In electrostatic painting, when the paint leaves the nozzle of the spray gun, it is given a positive Assignment 13.1: A small metal sphere with a charge of -2.10×10-6 C is brought near an identical sphere with a
charge. The negatively charged grounded metal (vehicle) attracts the positively charged droplets of positive charge of 1.50×10-6 C so that the distance between the centers of the two spheres is 3.30 cm.
paint spray to its surface just like a magnet. There are many benefits of using electrostatic painting, Calculate the magnitude of the force that each charge exerts on the other?
some of which are given by.
Assignment 13.2: If a charge of 4µC is placed in a uniform field of strength 2 NC-1 , what force will it
1. It makes a stronger bond to cover an object move evenly, even if the vehicle has many angles. experience?

2. This method saves paint by ensuring more paint lands on the charged vehicle surface. Assignment 13.3: How much work is done in moving a charge of 3C from a point at 118V to a point at 138V in
an electric field?
3. It creates a better looking finish because the paint is distributed more evenly and uniformly.
Assignment 13.4: The potential difference across the plates of the capacitor is 500V. The charge on each plate
is 0.02C. What is the capacitance of the capacitor?

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Assignment 13.5: Two capacitor of capacitance of 3µ𝑭 and 6 µ𝑭 are connected in series to a 100V battery.
Calculate the equivalent capacitance and the voltage across each capacitor. UNIT 14
Assignment 13.6: Two capacitors of capacitance 3µF and 6µF are connected in parallel to an 800V battery. Find REVIEW QUESTIONS (Punjab Book)
the equivalent capacitance and charge on each capacitor.
14.1. Define and explain the term electric current.
Numerical Problems (KPK Book)
Electric Current:
N.P 13.1: Determine the magnitude of the electric force on the electron of a hydrogen atom exerted by the The rate of flow of electric charge through any cross sectional area of a conductor is called electric
single proton that is the atom‟s nucleus. Assume the average distance between the electron and the current.
proton is r=5.3×10-11m and charge on electrons and proton is 1.6×10-19C.
If the charge is passing through any cross sectional area of a conductor in time , then the
current flowing through it is given by the relation:
N.P 13.2: A 5µC point charge is placed 20cm from a 10µC point charge. (a) Calculate the force experienced by
the 5µC charge. (b) What is the force on the 10µC charge? (c) What is field strength 20cm from the
The SI unit of the current is ampere (A). 𝐴 𝑄
10µC point charge?

4 14.2. What is the difference between electronic current and conventional current.
N.P 13.3: In a certain region of space, a uniform electric field has a magnitude of 4.60×10 N/C and points in the
positive x-direction. Find the magnitude and direction of the force this field exerts on a charge of (a) Electronic Current Conventional Current
+2.80µC (b) -9.30µC.
i. The current due to the flow of i. The current due to the flow of positive
N.P 13.4: The potential difference between two points is 110V. When an unknown charge is moved between negative charges (electrons) is charges is called conventional current.
these two points, the work done is 550J. What is the amount of charge? called electronic current.
ii. This current flows from negative ii. This current flows from positive terminal
N.P 13.5: The capacitance of a capacitor is 3200pF. If the potential difference between its plates is 220V. What is
terminal to the positive terminal of to the negative terminal of the battery
the charge on each of its plates?
the battery in the external circuit. in the external circuit.
N.P 13.6: Three capacitors of capacitance 1µF, 2µF and 3µF are connected in series to an 110V battery.
iii. It flows in opposite direction of iii. It flows in opposite direction of
Calculate the equivalent capacitance and voltage across each capacitor.
conventional current and it has the electronic current and it has the same
N.P 13.7: Two capacitors of capacitance 2pF and 3pF are connected in parallel to a 9V battery. Calculate the same effect as that of conventional effect as that of electronic current.
equivalent capacitance and the charge on each of capacitor. current.
iv. Electronic current causes the iv. Conventional current is caused by
conventional current to flow. electronic current.

14.3. What do you mean by the term e.m.f? Is it really a force? Explain.

Electromotive Force (e.m.f.):

Amount of energy supplied by the chemical of the battery in pushing one coulomb of positive
charge from negative terminal to the positive terminal through the battery is called electromotive
force.
OR
The energy converted from non-electrical form to electrical form when one coulomb of positive
charge passes through the battery.

Electromotive force is actually voltage between the terminals of its source (e.g. Battery) so it is
not a force.

14.4. How can we differentiate between e.m.f. and potential difference?

Electromotive force (emf) Potential difference

i. Amount of energy supplied by the i. Amount of energy dissipated, across a

chemical of the battery, in pushing conductor when unit positive charge
one coulomb of positive charge moves from one end to the other end
from negative terminal to the of the conductor, is called potential
positive terminal through the difference.
battery, is called electromotive

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force.
ii. It is the conversion of energy from ii. It is the conversion of energy from
14.7. What is difference between conductors and insulators?
non-electrical form to electrical electrical form to non-electrical form
form when one coulomb of positive when one coulomb of positive charge
Conductors Insulators
charge passes through the battery. moves across the ends of the
conductor.
i. Those substances through which i. Those substances through which electric
electric current passes easily. current cannot pass.
iii. emf is the difference of potentials iii. It is the difference of the potentials
across the terminals of the battery across the ends of the conductor when
ii. These have very low resistance to flow ii. These have too large resistance to flow
when no current is flowing through current is flowing through the circuit
current. current.
the circuit. (i.e cell or battery is in operation)
iii. These have large number of free iii. These have no free electrons in them.
iv. emf is the cause. iv. Potential difference is the effect.
electrons in them.
iv. These can be charged by induction iv. These can be charged by friction
14.5. Explain Ohm‟s Law. What are its limitations? method.
v. Charge created on the conductor is v. Charge created on the insulator remains
Ohm‟s Law: distributed throughout the conductor. static on its surface.

The amount of current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
vi. Metals are the examples of good vi. Non metals are the examples of insulators,
difference applied across its ends, provided the temperature and the physical state of the
conductor remain unchanged. conductors, e.g. copper, silver, gold, e.g. glass, wood, plastic, fur, silk etc.
iron aluminium etc.
If is potential difference across the two ends a conductor, then current will flow through it. 14.8. Explain the energy dissipation in a resistance. What is Joule‟s Law?
Then according to Ohm‟s law:
When a charge moves from a higher electric
potential to a lower potential, it delivers us energy.
Where R is the constant of proportionality, and is the resistance of the conductor. Its SI unit is We know that the current in a conductor is caused
ohm, denoted by a symbol . by the flow of charges from its higher potential to
lower potential when it is connected across the
If a graph is plotted between the current I and the potential difference V, a straight line is terminals of a battery. So flow of current in a
conductor is a continuous source of energy.

Consider a conductor is connected across the

terminals of a battery. Potential difference across
the ends of the conductor is volts. If one coulomb
of charge passes between the ends of the
conductor, then V joules of energy is dissipated as
heat across the conductor. If coulomb of charge
flows between the ends of the conductor then
energy dissipated by the charge will be joules. i.e.

When charge flows in time t the current is defined as:

obtained.

Limitations of Ohm‟s Law: Putting the value of in equation , we get

 Ohm‟s law is applicable only on metallic conductors.
 Temperature and the physical state of the conductor should remain unchanged. If the conductor faces the resistance the by Ohms law:
14.6. Define resistance and its unit.
Putting the value of in equation , we get
Resistance:

The property of a substance which offers opposition to the flow of current through it is called its The equation is called Joule‟s law.
resistance.
Joule‟s Law:
The SI unit of resistance is ohm. It is denoted by Greek letter Ω.
The amount of heat generated in a resistance due to flow of charge is equal to the product of
Ohm: square of current I, resistance R and time duration t.
This energy is utilized for different useful purposes. For example, bulb converts this energy into
When a potential difference of one volt is applied across the ends of a conductor and one ampere light and heat, heater and iron into heat, and fans into mechanical energy. Usually this energy
of current passes through it, then its resistance will be one ohm. appears as heat in the resistance. This is the reason that we get heat when current passes though
a heater.

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Total current drawn by the combination is then

A single resistor that draws the same current with same battery of voltage , can replace the
14.9. What is difference by D.C and A.C? parallel combination. This single resistor is called equivalent resistance of the parallel
combination. And
Direct Current (DC) Alternating Current (AC)
Putting the value of in equation .
i. Direct current (DC) flows in one i. Alternating current (AC) changes its
direction only. direction again and again after equal
intervals of time.
[ ]
ii. Cells or batteries are the sources of DC. ii. Generators are the sources of AC.

iii. The positive and negative terminals of iii. Terminals of AC sources do not have fixed
Thus, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance of parallel combination is equal to the sum of
the DC sources have fixed polarity. polarity.
reciprocals of the individual resistances. For „ ‟ number of resistances in parallel combination the
equivalent resistance of the combination is given by the relation:
iv. The level of the DC remains constant iv. The level of AC changes its value between
………
with time as shown in the diagram positive and negative peaks continuously
below. with the time, as shown in the following Note: The equivalent resistance of the parallel combination is smaller than the smallest resistance
diagram. of the combination.

Parallel circuits have two big advantages over series circuits.

AC 1. Each device in the circuit receives the full battery voltage.

2. Each device in the circuit may be turned off independently without stopping the current flowing to
the other devices in the circuit. This principle is used in household wiring.

14.11. Determine the equivalent resistance of series combination of resistors.

In series combination, the resistors are connected end to end and electric current has single path
through the circuit. This means that the same current „ ‟
passes through each resistor.

v. Frequency of DC is zero. v. AC has particular frequency that depends i.e.

upon its source.
The total voltage in series circuit is divided among individual
vi. Electronic devices such as calculator, vi. Electrical devices such as Fans, motors, resistors, so sum of the voltage across the resistance of each
digital watches, televisions, computer Bulbs, refrigerator etc. use AC to be individual resistors is equal to the total voltage supplied by
etc. use DC to be operated. operated. the source. Thus we can write as

Where is the voltage across the battery, and , , are the voltage drops across the resistors
14.10. Discuss the main features of the parallel combination of resistors. , and respectively. is the current passing through each resistor, then , and

Parallel Combination of Resistors:

We can replace the combination of the resistors with
In parallel combination of resistors, one end of each resistor is connected with positive terminal of a single resistor called the equivalent resistance
the battery while other end of each resistor is connected with negative terminal of the battery. such that same current passes through the circuit
Therefore, the voltage is same across each resistor which is equal to the voltage of the battery i.e, with the same battery of the voltage . From Ohm‟s
law:
Parallel combination provides different paths for the
flow of current, i.e. , and be the current flowing
through resistors , and in parallel respectively.
Putting the values of , , and in equation

Since the voltage across each resistor is V, so by

Ohm‟s law

i.e. current flowing through each resistor depends Dividing by on both sides, we get:
upon the its resistance.

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Thus, the equivalent resistance of a series combination is equal to the sum of individual CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS (PUNJAB BOOK)
resistances of the combination. For „ ‟ number of resistances in series combination, the equivalent
resistance of the combination is given by the relation: 14.1. Why in conductors charge is transferred by free electrons rather than by positive
charges?
………
In conductors (metals), the atoms are of larger sizes, the electrons of their outermost orbit have
14.12. Describe four safety measures that should be taken in connection with the household circuit. very weak electrostatic force of attraction with the nucleus, so these electrons become free and
move freely through the conductors. While atoms in the form of positive ions just vibrate about
1. Use double layers of insulation on wiring of household circuit. This prevents insulation damage and their mean position and don‟t move freely. That is why in conductors, the charge is transferred by
safe us from the hazards of short circuit and electric shock. free electrons rather than by positive charges.
2. Never operate any appliance with wet hands or when your body is wet. Also keep switches, plugs,
sockets and wires dry. 14.2. What is difference between a cell and a battery?
3. Always use fuse or circuit breakers in series with live wire to protect the equipments when excess
A cell is a single entity that consists of two electrodes dipped into an electrolyte. It converts
current flows. If there is a fault in the house circuit such as overload or short circuit that draws
chemical energy into electrical energy and becomes the source of electromotive force (emf).
current more than the rated value of the wires. Due to this fuse blows or circuit breaker trips thus
house circuits open and the electrical equipments and house wires are protected from fire or other A battery is the combination of two or more cells. A battery can store larger energy as compare to
damages. single cell. It also provides larger value of emf than a single cell provides.
4. Switches on the circuit board are also used in series with the live wire. So when an appliance is
switched off then there is not a live potential on the appliance. 14.3. Can current flow in a circuit without potential difference?
5. Use of earth wire with the metal body of electric appliance also saves us from electric shock from
According to Ohm‟s law current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
the metal body. If insulation of live wire damages and live wire touches the metal body, the heavy
difference across the ends of the conductor. When the potential difference across the ends of the
current flows from live to earth wire thus causes the fuse to melt or circuit breaker to be tripped conductor is zero than no current will flow through the conductor.
and finally house circuit is opened. Hence we are safe from danger of electric shock.
14.4. Two points on an object are at different electric potentials. Does charge necessarily flow
14.13. Design a circuit diagram for a study room that needs the following equipments in between them?
parallel:
(a) One 100 W lamp operated by one switch. If two points on an object, which is a conductor, are at different potentials then the charge
(b) One reading lamp fitted with a 40 W bulb which can be switched ON and OFF from two necessarily will flow from the point of higher potential to the point of lower potential. And if the
inputs. object is insulator then charge cannot flow between the points even these are at different
(c) What is the advantage of connecting the equipment in parallel instead of series? potentials.

Given below the circuit diagram for study room that contains a lamp of 100 W operated switch 14.5. In order to measure current in a circuit why ammeter is always connected in series?
and another lamp of 40 W that can be operated by two switches and .
Resistance of an ammeter is kept very small, so its introduction to circuit the in series does not
alter the current of the circuit. In this way actual current of the circuit can be measured.

14.6. In order to measure voltage in a circuit, voltmeter is always connected in parallel.

Discuss.

Resistance of the voltmeter is kept very high. It is connected parallel to the circuit component
across which voltage is to be measured. In this way almost no current passes through the
voltmeter and actual current passes through the circuit component and actual voltage can
measured across the component.
14.7. How many watt-hours are there in 1000 joules?

As we know

The lamps are connected in parallel combination to provide same voltage across each lamp. Each
lamp will give light with its full brilliance. And in parallel combination each lamp can be switched
ON or OFF independently.

Hence there are watt-hours in joules.

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14.8. From your experience in watching cars on the roads at night, are automobile headlamps Point to ponder: (page no. 102)
connected in series or in parallel?
A bird can sit harmlessly on a high tension wire. But it
Headlamps in automobiles are connected in parallel combination. In doing so: must not reach and grab neighboring wire. Do you know
 Each headlamp gets same voltage from the battery of the automobile. why?
 Each headlamp will give light with its full brilliance.
 If one of the head lamps is out of order then other lamps will continue to glow. A bird can sit harmlessly on a high tension wire because the
 We can turn ON or OFF an individual head lamp independently. electric potential is same on a single wire. When the bird sits on
the high tension wire, the body of the bird is also at the same
14.9. A certain flash-light use a 10 ohm bulb or 6 ohm bulb. Which should be used to get potential, so no current flows through the bird. When the bird
brighter light? Which bulb will discharge the battery first? grabs the neighboring wire, the current flows through its body due to the potential difference
between two wires. This may prove fatal to the bird.
A 6 ohm bulb because of its small resistance will draw more current than a 10 ohm bulb, so to get
brighter light a 6 ohm bulb is used in the flash light. Self Assessment: (page no. 107)

A light bulb is switched on 40 s. If the electrical energy consumed by the bulb during
As the 6 ohm bulb draws more current than the 10 ohm bulb so the 6 ohm bulb will discharge the
this time is 2400 J, find the power of the bulb.
battery first.
Time ,
14.10. It is impracticable to connect an electric bulb and an electric heater in series. Why?
Electrical Energy ,
When an electric bulb and an electric heater are connected in series, the resistance of the circuit
increases and thus current in the circuit decreases. Due to this the bulb cannot give light with full Power of the bulb
brilliance and the heater cannot give heat to its maximum value. To avoid of such situation the
bulb and heater are connected in parallel in the circuit.

14.11. Does a fuse in a circuit control the potential difference or the current? Conceptual Questions (NBF Book)

A fuse (a small wire) is used in a circuit to control the current. It allows the current to flow through 1. Can current flows through a circuit without a potential difference?
it within its rated value. When the current exceeds the rated value, the fuse wire will become hot
and then melt, thus open the circuit. Hence fuse saves the electric wires from overheating. Ans: No, current cannot flow through a circuit without a potential difference. Current is the flow of electric
charge, and in order for electric charge to flow, there must be a difference in electric potential between
Quick Quiz: (page no. 92) two points in the circuit. This potential difference, often referred to as voltage, is what drives the flow of
electrons through the circuit.
How long does it take a current of to deliver of charge?
2. If aluminum and copper wires of the same length have the same resistance which has a
Given that:
large diameter? Why.
Current
Ans: If aluminum and copper wires of the same length have the same resistance, then the wire with the
larger diameter is the copper wire. This is because the resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its
Charge
length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
Time
The resistance of a wire can be calculated using the formula:

R= ×A

Where R is resistance, ρ is the resistivity of the material, L is the length of the wire, and A is the cross-
sectional area of the wire.

Since the resistance of both wires is the same, we can rewrite the formula as:
Quick Quiz: (page no. 101)
×AAl = ×ACo
Which metal is used as the filament of an electric bulb? Explain with reason.
Simplifying this equation, we get:
A metal of high resistance such as tungsten is used as the filament of the electric bulb. When
current flows through the tungsten filament it faces the resistance due to which the filament =
becomes hot and starts glowing.
We know that the resistivity of copper is less than the resistivity of aluminum, so ρ Co is smaller than ρAl
Therefore, ACo must be larger than AAl to balance out the equation.

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In this case, the two bulbs have different power ratings: one is marked 100W and the other is marked
200W. The bulb with the higher power rating (200W) will have a thicker tungsten filament than the bulb
3. What are the resistance across the open switch and closed switch of the circuit? with the lower power rating (100W).

Ans: In a circuit with an open switch, there is effectively an infinite resistance across the switch. This is 8. Why are you advised not to touch electric switches with wet hands first dry your hands?
because an open switch does not allow current to flow through it, so there is no electrical path for
current to travel between the two terminals of the switch. Therefore, the resistance across an open Ans: You are advised not to touch electric switches with wet hands because water is a good conductor of
switch is infinite. electricity, and wet hands have lower resistance than dry hands. This means that when you touch an
electric switch with wet hands, there is a greater chance of electric current flowing through your body,
In contrast, in a circuit with a closed switch, the resistance across the switch is essentially zero. This is which can be dangerous or even deadly.
because a closed switch allows current to flow freely through it, so there is minimal resistance to the
flow of current between the two terminals of the switch. Therefore, the resistance across a closed 9. Why it is dangerous to touch a live wire while standing on earth barefooted?
switch is negligible.
Ans: It is dangerous to touch a live wire while standing on earth barefooted because electricity can flow
4. A bird is sitting on a high voltage transmission line but it is not electrocuted why? When it through our bodies and cause electric shock or electrocution.
tries to fly it touches another bird that is sitting on second transmission line of the pole now
it is heavily evacuated. Why? When we stand on the ground barefooted, our bodies become conductive because the ground is also
conductive. This means that if we touch a live wire, the electric current will flow through our body,
Ans: A bird can sit safely on a high voltage transmission line because it is not providing a complete electrical which can lead to serious injuries or death.
path for the current to flow through. The transmission line is designed to carry electrical energy from
one point to another, and it typically has a very high voltage, which creates an electric field around it. 10. Sometimes if one of the car's headlamps is burnt or not working but the second lamp still
gives light. What do you conclude about the connection of headlamps from this observation?
However, when the bird tries to fly and touches another bird that is sitting on a second transmission
line of the pole, it completes a circuit and becomes part of the path for the current to flow through. The Ans: If one of the car's headlamps is burnt or not working but the second lamp still gives light, we can
current can flow through the two birds and complete the circuit through the ground, which results in the conclude that the two headlamps are connected in parallel.
electrocution of the bird that was flying.
In a parallel circuit, each device is connected to the same voltage source and the current is split among
5. You are given five resistances of different magnitudes but you are asked to form a circuit the devices. This means that if one device fails or is removed, the other devices can still function
whose resistance is smaller than any given resistance how can you make a circuit with given independently.
resistance?
Conceptual Questions (KPK Book)
Ans: To form a circuit whose resistance is smaller than any given resistance from five resistances of different
Q1. As water is made of atoms having protons (charge +e) and electrons (charge-e), does the
magnitudes, we can use a combination of resistors in parallel. When resistors are connected in parallel,
water flowing through pipe carry an electric current? Explain.
the equivalent resistance of the combination is always smaller than the smallest individual resistor.
Ans: All matter is made up of atoms. Each atom as a whole is neutral i.e. number of electrons in an atom is
6. You are given n wires for each of resistance R what is the ratio of maximum to minimum
equal to the number of protons. Since electron and proton both carry equal and opposite charges, so
resistance obtained from these wires?
they neutralize each other. The same is the case with water molecules, it consists of two hydrogen
Ans: If you have n wires each with the same resistance R, you can connect them in different ways to create atoms and one oxygen atom. The water molecules as a whole is neutral, as it is composed of neutral
different resistances. atoms. Thus, pure water with no impurities is a good insulator. So, water flowing through a pipe does
not carry any current, as no net charge flows in it. And, current is the rate of flow of a net charge
The maximum resistance is obtained when you connect all the wires in a line, end-to-end (in series). In through a conductor.
this case, the total resistance of the circuit is n times the resistance of one wire, so the maximum
resistance is n ×R Q2. A car has two headlights, when the filament in one headlight burns out, the other headlight
stays on. Are the headlights connected in series or in parallel?
The minimum resistance is obtained when you connect all the wires together side-by-side (in parallel).
In this case, the total resistance of the circuit is equal to the resistance of one wire divided by the Ans: For serious combination, current flows along a single path. On the other hand, for parallel combination,
number of wires, so the minimum resistance is R/n. there are more than one path for the flow of electric current. Car headlights are connected in parallel.
That‟s why when the filament of one headlight burns outs, the other headlight stays on. If they were in
The ratio of the maximum to minimum resistance is the maximum resistance divided by the minimum series, one bulb burning out would break the circuit and both would go out when the filament of one
resistance, which is (n × R)/(R/n) = n2 failed.

So, the ratio of the maximum to minimum resistance is simply the number of wires squared (n2). Q3. Qurat-ul-Ain needs a 100-Ω resistor for a circuit, but she only has a box of 300-Ω resistors.
What can she do?
7. Two electric bulbs marked 100W, 220V, and 200W, 220V have tungsten filaments of the
same length which bulb will have a thicker filament? Ans: If she connects them in parallel with one another, then the total resistance decreases. This is possible,
if she takes three resistors of300 Ω and connect them in parallel. The equivalent resistance in this case
Ans: The thickness of the tungsten filament in an electric bulb depends on the power rating of the bulb, not will be exactly equal to 100 Ω. The equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in parallel is given
the voltage. The power rating of a bulb is the amount of electrical power it consumes and is usually by
given in watts.

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Q9. Why circuit breaker, fuses and switches are installed to „live wire‟?

Ans: Circuit breakers, fuses and switches are used to protect an electric circuit from damage caused by an
excess current flow due to a fault, over load or short circuit. As basic function is to stop the current flow
after fault is detected. If we want to have a better control over electricity we have to control it from its
source i.e. live wire. Live wire has a potential difference of 220 volt with respect to neutral wire of zero
potential. Electric current enters our homes through live wire and leaves through neutral. Therefore,
circuit breakers, fuses and switches should be installed on the live wires to control current at the very
beginning. Due to excess current flow the circuit breakers trip and fuses may blow and opens the
circuit. So, they will disconnect the appliance from high voltage live wire.

Assignments (KPK Book)

Assignment 14.1: While starting an engine of a truck, its battery sets 720C of charge in motion for 4.
Thus, the parallel combination of three resistors each of 300Ω is equivalent to 100 Ω.
00sec.How much current is flowing?
Q4. A number of light bulbs are connected to a single power outlet. Will they provide more
Assignment 14.2: A heating element on an electric range operating on 240V has a resistance of 30.0𝛀. What
illumination when connected in series or in parallel? Why?
current does it draw?
Ans: To get more illumination from bulb they must be connected in parallel because in parallel combination,
Assignment 14.3: Calculate the resistance of wire when the current through it is 2.0 A and the voltage across
1. The potential difference across each bulb remains the same means undivided. its end is 3.0 V.

2. The equivalent resistance decreases in parallel combination. Assignment 14.4: Four resistors all having similar resistance of 15𝛀 are connected in series across a 30V
battery. What is the current in the circuit?
3. By switching OFF any bulb, there is no effect on the brightness of the other bulbs.
Assignment 14.5: Three resistors of 60𝛀, 30𝛀 and 20𝛀 are connected in parallel across a 90 V battery.
Q5. Explain why light bulbs almost always burn out just as they are turned on and not after they Calculate the current flowing through the circuit.
have been on for some time.
Assignment 14.6: For how long a clothes dryer is operated, if it uses 32 kJ of energy to dry cloths at 220 V,
Ans: Incandescent light bulbs are most likely to burn out when they have just been turned ON. The metallic running 16A of current through it?
filament of an incandescent bulb works by resisting the flow of electric current. This resistance causes
the filament to get very hot, to the point that it gives OFF both heat and light. Most conductive Assignment 14.7: Calculate the resistance of 40W automobile headlight designed for 12 V.
materials carry current better when they are cold. Thus, when we first turn an incandescent bulb ON,
Assignment 14.8: A 100W bulb is left on, in an outdoor storage room to keep paint from freezing. The 100W
the initial flow of electricity called the in-rush current is quite high, as the filament heats up its
rating refers to the power dissipated in the bulb‟s filament, which is a resistor. If electricity costs 8.11
resistance increases. Due to this high current, more power is dissipated in the form of heat and light
Rs/ kWh, about how much does it cost to burn the light bulb for three months during winters?
and the bulb filament burns out. Once the bulb is shiny, the temperature is staying relatively constant
and the filament us un-likely to break. Numerical Problems (KPK Book)

Q6. Explain why is it possible for birds to perch safely on high tension wires without being N.P 14.1. A small electric heater has resistance of 15 ohms, when the current in it is 2 amperes. What
electrocuted? voltage is required to produce this current?
N.P 14.2. If a potential difference of 10V is maintained across a 1m length of the Nichrome wire having
Ans: The reason is that a bird to perch on a high voltage wire has the two claws at same potential. Due to
resistance of 3.1 𝛀, what is the current is the wire?
zero potential difference between the two claws, no current flow through the body of the bird therefore,
N.P 14.3. What resistor would have a 15mA current if connected across terminals of a 9.0V battery?
the bird is not electrocuted.
N.P 14.4. Consider a circuit with three resistors R1=250.0 , R2=150.0 𝛀 , R3=350.0 𝛀 , connected in parallel
Q7. An electrician working on “live” circuits wears insulated shoes and keeps one hand behind with a 24.0V battery. Find the total current supplied by the battery.
his or her back. Why? N.P 14.5. An electric hair dryer is rated at 1875 watts when operating on 120Volts. What is the current
flowing through it? If the hair dryer is used for 3 minutes, how much energy does it consume?
Ans: Wearing insulated shoes increase the overall resistance of the worker which reduces the dangers of N.P 14.6. A battery with an emf of 12 V is connected to a 545 𝛀 resistor. How much energy is dissipated in
electric shock. The electrician working on live wire keeps his other hand behind for safety purposes. If the resistor in 65 sec?
he keeps one hand on live wire and the other hand on neutral or on other conducting material (i.e. N.P 14.7. If the unit of electricity cost 8.11 Rs/kWh, what is cost of running two 160 W fans and four 100W
earth) he will get an electric shock. The Possibility of touching ground or other conductor, the light bulbs for 6 hours in school?
electrician keeps his one hand on his back. In this way, he can work safely without any danger of
electric shock.

Q8. Explain why is it dangerous to turn on a light bulb when you are in a bath tub?

Ans: The human body is a good conductor of electricity and current may pass through his/her body when
touches switch because the bathtub is at the earth which is at zero potential, where the switch is at
high potential. Therefore, when a person in a bathtub he/she should avoid to turn ON the switch of light
bulb because he/she, may get an electric shock.

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ELECTROMAGNETISM
The direction of the magnetic field around the straight conductor is determined by Right Hand Grip
UNIT 15 Rule.

REVIEW QUESTIONS (Punjab Book) Grasp the straight current carrying conductor in your right hand such that the thumb points in the
direction of conventional current. Then the curl of fingers would indicate the direction of magnetic
15.1. Demonstrate by an experiment that a magnetic field is produced around a straight current
field.
carrying conductor.

Experiment: 15.3. You are given an unmarked magnetized steel bar and a bar magnet, its north and south ends
are marked N and S respectively. State how you would determine polarity at each end of
Take a straight conductor wire and pass it vertically through a card board. Now connect the two the unmarked bar.
ends of the conductor with the terminals of the battery so that current flows through the circuit in
the clock wise direction. The lines of force of the magnetic field produced around the wire and Bring one end of the unmarked magnetized steel bar near the North Pole N of the bar magnet. If
would be in the form of concentric circles. Place the compass needle at different points in the the bar magnet is attracted towards the end of the steel bar, then this end will be South pole and
region of magnetic field. The compass needle will align along the direction of magnetic field. Also other end will be North Pole. And if there exists force of repulsion between the North Pole N of the
sprinkle the some iron filings on the cardboard around the wire, they will align themselves in the bar magnet and the end of the unmarked magnetized steel bar then this end will be North Pole
concentric circles in the clockwise direction. and other end will be South Pole.

15.4. When a straight current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.
State the rule by which the direction of this force can be found out.

Fleming‟s Left Hand Rule:

Stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left hand
mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger is kept
in the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger is
kept in the direction of conventional current, then the thumb
will point towards the direction of force.

15.5. State that a current carrying coil in a magnetic field

experiences a torque.

Consider a rectangular coil ABCD of wire with sides

AB and CD, lying perpendicular to the field, placed
between the two poles of a permanent magnet. Now
if the ends of the coil are connected to the positive N S
If we reverse the direction of the current by reversing the and negative terminals of a battery, a current would
terminals of the battery, the compass needle also reverses its start flowing through the coil. The current passing
direction. Now the magnetic field lines will align in the through the loop enters from one end of the loop and
anticlockwise direction. The magnetic field produced is leaves from the other end.
stronger near the current carrying conductor and weaker
farther away from it. Now applying Fleming‟s left hand rule to each side of the coil, we will find that the force acting on
Direction of Magnetic Field: side AB of the coil acts upward and on the side CD of the coil acts downward. It is because the
direction of the current through the sides AB and CD is perpendicular to the magnetic field of the
The direction of the magnetic field around the straight permanent magnet but opposite in direction. These forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
conductor is determined by Right Hand Grip Rule. direction, so from a couple. The resulting torque of the couple rotates the coil.
Factors affecting the turning effect of the current coil in a magnetic field:
 The magnitude of the torque acting on the loop is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
Grasp the straight current carrying conductor in your right
current passing through the coil.
hand such that the thumb points in the direction of
 The magnitude of the torque also increases with the increase in the number of turns of the coil.
conventional current. Then the curl of finger would indicate
the direction of magnetic field.
15.6. What is an electric motor? Explain the working of DC motor?

15.2. State and explain the rule by which the direction of the lines
Electric Motor:
of force of the magnetic field around a current carrying
conductor can be determined.
A device that converts electrical energy into rotational kinetic energy (mechanical energy) is called
electric motor.
Right Hand Grip Rule:
Construction of DC Motor:

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The rectangular coil ABCD of copper wire is mounted on an axle PQ that will allow it to rotate Now move the bar magnet into the solenoid or out of the solenoid. When the magnet is moved
about the axis PQ between the poles of the U-shaped permanent magnet. The ends of the wire are towards the solenoid, the needle of the galvanometer deflects say towards right, indicating the
connected to the copper split rings S1 and S2 or commutator. Two carbon brushes X and Y are current is being induced in the solenoid. In this case the number of magnetic lines of force through
made to press slightly against the split rings or commutator by two small springs. A battery, a each turn of the solenoid increases. When the magnet is pulled away from the solenoid, now the
rheostat and a switch in series are connected to the brushes X and Y.

needle of the galvanometer deflects in opposite direction to the previous case i.e. towards left,
indicating that the current is induced in the opposite direction as the number of magnetic lines of
force through each turn of the solenoid decreases.

From the above experiment, we conclude that en e.m.f. is induced in the coil when there is relative
motion between the coil and the magnet as relative motion between the coil and the magnet
changes magnetic field through the coil. The phenomenon in which an e.m.f is induced due to
relative motion between the coil and the magnet is called electromagnetic induction.
Working of DC Motor:
When the current flows through the coil ABCD, a downward force would act on the right hand side The process of generating an induced current in a circuit by changing the number of magnetic
AB, and an upward force on the left hand side CD. The coil would than rotate clockwise about the force of lines of force passing through it is called electromagnetic induction.
axis PQ until it reaches the vertical position. The gaps of the spilt rings come in front of the
brushes and the current is now cut off but the momentum of the coil continues to rotate it to pass 15.8. What are the factors which affect the magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a circuit by a
the vertical position. The split rings now change the brushes in contact. This reverses the direction changing magnetic field?
of the current in the coil and now a downward force acts on the arm CD of the coil and upward
force acts on the other arm AB. Hence the coil continues to move clockwise. Factors affecting the induced e.m.f:

The purpose of the commutator is then to reverse the direction of the current in the coil after its The magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a circuit due to change in magnetic field depends upon the
every half rotation, whenever the commutator changes contact from one brush to the other. This following factors:
ensures that the coil will always be turning in one direction. 1. Speed of the relative motion of the coil and the magnet.
2. Number of turns of the coil.
In a practical electric motor, the coil called armature is made of many loops mounted on a shaft or
axle. The magnetic field is produced either by permanent magnets or by an electromagnet, called 15.9. Describe the direction of induced e.m.f. in a circuit? How
a field coil. does this phenomenon relate to conservation of
energy?
To increase the turning effect on the armature, we can
1. Increase the number of turns of the coil. Direction of induced e.m.f. ----- Lenz‟s Law:
2. Increase the current in the coil.
3. Increase the strength of the magnetic field. If we bring a north pole of a bar magnet near a solenoid
4. Increase the area of the coil. connected with a galvanometer, and e.m.f. will be induced
in the solenoid by electromagnetic induction. The direction
15.7. Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate that a changing magnetic field can induce e.m.f. of induced current in the solenoid due the induced e.m.f.
in a circuit. will be such that it repels the north pole of the magnet.
This is possible when the left end of the solenoid
Take a solenoid that is connected with a galvanometer without the source of the current. The becomes a north pole. Hence, according to right hand
needle of the galvanometer shows no deflection indicating that no current is flowing through the grip rule, the direction of induced current in the solenoid
solenoid. Bring a bar magnet near to the solenoid. will be clockwise.

When the magnet is stationary near to or inside the solenoid, no current is induced in the coil, Similarly when we move the north pole of the magnet
hence no deflection of needle is observed in the galvanometer. In this case number of magnetic away from the solenoid, the direction of the induced
lines of the force through the solenoid remains same. current will be such that it attracts the north pole of the
magnet and in this case the left end of the solenoid
becomes a south pole and hence the direction of induced
current in the solenoid will be anticlockwise.

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Lenz‟s Law:

The direction of an induced current in a circuit is always such that it opposes the cause that
produces it.

Lenz‟s Law and Law of Conservation of Energy:

Electromagnetic induction is associated with law of conservation of energy. The electrical energy
induced in a conductor comes from the kinetic energy of the moving magnet. We do some work in
moving the magnet towards or away from the solenoid. This work consequently appears as
electrical energy in the solenoid. Thus, mechanical energy of our hand used to push the magnet
towards or away from the solenoid results into electrical energy. Hence, Lenz‟s law is a
manifestation of the law of conservation of energy.

15.10. Draw a labeled diagram to illustrate the structure and working of A.C. generator.

Construction of A.C. Generator:

A.C. generator consists of a rectangular coil of wire which is rotated in the magnetic field between
the poles of U-shaped permanent magnet. This magnet is called field magnet. The ends of the coil
During the second half rotation of the coil the e.m.f. generated follows the same pattern as that of
are connected to two slip rings mounted on the coil spindle. Current may be obtained from the coil
the first half, except that the direction of e.m.f. is reversed. This reversal occurs, since the
through two carbon brushes, which are made to press lightly against the slip rings.
direction of the motion of the sides A and B across the magnetic lines of force is reversed.

If this alternating e.m.f is applied to an external resistance R an alternating current (A.C.) will
through it.

15.11. What do you understand by the term mutual induction?

Mutual Induction:

The phenomenon of production of induced current in one coil due to change of current in a
neighbouring coil is called mutual induction.

15.12. What is a transformer? Explain the working of a transformer in connection with mutual
induction.

Transformer:

Working of A.C. Generator: Transformer is a device that is used to increase or decrease the value of AC voltages.

At first consider the coil is in vertical position with its side A uppermost. In this position the plane The transformer is the practical application of mutual induction. Usage of transformers is common
of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field and its sides are moving parallel to the magnetic because they change voltages with relatively little loss of energy. In fact, many of the devices in
field. No cutting of magnetic lines of force is taking place and therefore e.m.f. generated at this our homes, such as game systems, printers and stereos use transformers for their working.
instant is zero. During the first quartet of the rotation of the coil, the e.m.f. increases from zero to
maximum or peak value. Just after quarter rotation the plane of the coil becomes parallel to Construction of Transformer:
magnetic field and the sides of the coil are moving perpendicular to the magnetic field; maximum
cutting of magnetic lines of force takes place, so e.m.f. generated at this instant is maximum. A transformer has two coils, electrically insulated from each other, but wound around the same
iron core. One coil is called primary coil while other is called secondary coil. Number of turns of the
During next quarter rotation of the coil, the e.m.f decreases from maximum value to zero. Just primary and the secondary coils are represented by and respectively.
after half rotation of the coil, the plane of the coil becomes perpendicular to the magnetic field with
its side A downward and its sides are moving parallel to the field so again no cutting of a magnetic
lines of force is taking place so e.m.f. generated just after half rotation is again zero.

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Working of Transformer:

When the primary coil is connected across to a source of AC voltage, the changing current in the
primary coil creates a changing magnetic field in it. This changing magnetic field is enhanced by
iron core and is linked with the secondary coil. In the secondary coil the changing magnetic field
induces an alternating e.m.f. The e.m.f. induced in the secondary coil is in accordance to the
mutual induction.

The e.m.f. induced in the secondary coil, called secondary voltage is proportional to the voltage
applied across the primary coil, called primary voltage . The secondary voltage also depends
upon the ratio of the number of turns of the secondary coil to the number of turns of the primary
coil, as given by the following relation:

Step-up Transformer:

If induced voltage across the secondary coil is larger than the primary voltage then the
transformer is called step-up transformer. In this transformer number of turns of the secondary
coil is larger than the number of turns in the primary coil.

Step-down Transformer:

If induced voltage across the secondary coil is smaller than the primary voltage then the
transformer is called step-down transformer. In this transformer number of turns of the secondary
coil is smaller than the number of turns in the primary coil.

Ideal Transformer:

In an ideal transformer, the electric power delivered to the secondary circuit is equal to the power
supplied to the primary circuit. An ideal transformer dissipates no power itself, and for such a
transformer we write:

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15.13. The voltage chosen for the transmission of electrical power over large distances is many An emf will be induced in the coil. This induced emf in the coil will cause the induced current to
times greater than the voltage of the domestic supply. State two reasons why electrical flow through it.
power is transmitted at a high voltage.
15.3 Which device is used to for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy?
1. Voltage at power station is stepped up to thousands of voltages to minimize the power losses in
Electric Motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
the form of heat during transmission over large distances.
15.4 Suppose we have a loop of wire so that it can swing easily. If we now a put a magnet
2. As voltage is stepped up, then current through transmission lines is reduced, so very thick
into the coil, the coil will start swinging. Which way will it swing relative to the magnet
conductors for transmission line are replaced by relatively thin conductors. This reduces the weight
and why?
of the conductors and hence reduces the construction cost.
This is according to Lenz‟s Law, which states that “The direction of induced current in a circuit is
15.14. Why is the voltage used for domestic supply much lower than the voltage at which the always such that it opposes the cause that produces this induced current.”
power is transmitted?
When we push a magnet into a freely suspended coil, the induced current in the coil is in such a
For domestic supply the voltages are stepped down from thousands of voltages to a few hundred way that the end of the coil has the same pole as the facing pole of the magnet. So the coil is
voltages (220 V in Pakistan). It is because: pushed away and starts to swing.

 Thin insulation is required at low voltages to cover live and neutral conductors instead of very thick 15.5 A conductor wire generates a voltage while moving through a magnetic field. In what
and sophisticated insulation to prevent breakdown occurring between the live and neutral direction should the wire be moved, relative to the field to generate the maximum
conductors at very high voltages. voltage?
 In distribution network in homes, live and neutral conductors with insulation covered are kept very
The wire should be moved perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field to produce maximum
close to each other; so much lower voltages are used. Otherwise at very high voltages the
voltage across the conductor wire because in this way maximum number of magnetic lines of force
conductors are kept far enough from each other to prevent air breakdown.
is cut by the conductor wire and hence maximum voltages are generated.

15.6 What is difference between a generator and a motor?

Conceptual Questions (Punjab Book)
Motor Generator
15.1 Suppose someone handed you three similar iron bars and told you one was not magnet
1. Motor is a device that converts electrical Generator is a device that converts mechanical
but the other two were. How would you find the iron bar that was not a magnet?
energy into mechanical energy. energy into electrical energy.
Suppose there are three similar iron bars say A, B and C. Two of them are magnet but third one is
2. Source of electrical energy such as cell or Source of mechanical energy such as hydro
not a magnet. To check which one is not a magnet, follow the steps given below:
battery is required to run motors. energy, wind energy, chemical energy of coal or
oil etc. is required to run generators.
First, bring the iron bars say A & B close to each other if they are attracting then still both could be
magnets or one is not a magnet.
3. Motors are used in fans, water pumps, toys, Generators are use to power houses, offices, cities
electronics appliances such as DVD, CD etc.
Second, turn one of them around and check if they are still attracting. Even now they are players etc.
attracting it means one of them is not a magnet.

Third, put one of them aside (say B) and bring the iron bar C close to the iron bar A. Repeat the
procedure, if they are attracting even after one of them is turned around then the iron bar A is not
a magnet.

For confirmation follow the fourth step:

Fourth, now bring the iron bars B and C close together, if they are attracting then turn one of them
around-- they would repel. This would prove that both of them are magnets.

Hence it is confirmed that the Iron bar A is not a magnet.

15.2 Suppose you have a coil of wire and a bar magnet. Describe how you could use them to
generate an electric current.

If the bar magnet is moved towards or away from the stationary coil or

If the coil is moved towards or away from the stationary bar magnet or

If both the coil and bar magnet are moved towards each other or away from each other

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15.7 What reverses the direction of electric current in the armature coil of D.C. motor? 12. Bar magnets are dropped in long pipes made up of plastic and copper (of the same length)
simultaneously. The Bar magnet comes out later through the copper pipe than through the
Split ring commutator reverses the direction of electric current in the armature coil of D.C. motor plastic pipe. Why?
after every half rotation of the coil. As a result the direction of force on each side of the coil is
reversed and the coil of the D.C. motor rotates continuously between the poles of the magnet. Ans: The copper pipe slows down the magnet more than the plastic pipe because the copper pipe is a better
conductor of electricity, and therefore, creates a stronger eddy current, which produces a stronger
15.8 A wire laying perpendicularly to an external magnetic field carries of a current in the magnetic field that opposes the motion of the magnet.
direction shown in the diagram below. In what direction the wire will move due to
resulting magnetic forces. 13. What is the Direction of the magnetic force on this current-carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field? Also, label the diagram with the current, magnetic field, and force.
According to Fleming‟s Left Hand rule the force
acting on the wire will be vertically downward.
Hence the wire will move in downward direction Ans:
due to resulting magnetic force.
S N S N
15.9 Can a transformer operate on direct
current?
I
Transformer works on the principle of mutual
induction, which is the phenomenon of production of induced emf in one coil due to change of
current in neighboring coil. When DC voltage supply is applied to the primary coil of the In this case, the Direction of the magnetic force acting on the current-carrying conductor is in an
transformer, a uniform direct current flows through the primary coil. Which produces a uniform outward direction and is found by using Fleming‟s left-hand rule:
magnetic field in it and this uniform magnetic field links with the secondary coil through iron core.
As there is no change in the number of magnetic lines of force linked with secondary coil, so no The rule states that if the forefinger, middle finger, and thumb of your left hand are extended at right
emf will be induced in the secondary coil. Hence transformer does not operate on direct current. angles to each other, with the forefinger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field, the middle
finger pointing in the direction of the current, then the thumb points in the direction of the force
Activity: Suppose direction of current passing through two straight wires is same. Draw
experienced by the conductor.
the pattern of the magnetic field of current due to each wire. Would the wires attract or
repel each other?
14. What is the direction of the rotation of the coil (shown in the figure) when the switch is
If direction of the current I passing through two straight wires is same i.e outward as shown in the closed? Label the diagram with the direction of forces forming the couple and the rotation of
diagram, magnetic field B in both of the wires in the form of concentric circles and in anticlockwise the coil.
direction. The direction of the magnetic field in space between the wires is opposite so attractive
forces will be acted between the wires. Hence the two wires attract each other. Ans: The direction of the rotation of the coil can be determined by applying
Fleming's left-hand rule. If the current flows in one direction, and the
magnetic field is oriented in a specific direction, then the force acting
on the coil will cause it to rotate in a specific direction. Reversing the
F direction of the current or the magnetic field will cause the coil to
B F
B rotate in the opposite direction.

15. A bar magnet is moving the ring what is the direction of the
induced current in the ring when: (a) the magnet is moving
I I
towards the ring (b) the magnet is moving away
from the ring?
Conceptual Questions (NBF Book)
Ans: When a bar magnet is moved towards or away from a
11. Two parallel straight conductors carrying current in the same direction attract each other? conducting ring, an electromagnetic phenomenon
Explain why. What will you conclude if the direction of current in conductors is opposite? called electromagnetic induction occurs, which
produces an induced current in the ring.
Ans: Yes, two parallel straight conductors carrying current in the same direction will attract each other. This
is known as the magnetic force between current-carrying conductors or Ampere's force. (a) When the magnet is moving toward the ring. According
to Lenz's law, the direction of the induced current is
The reason for this attraction is that a magnetic field is generated around each conductor when an such that it creates a magnetic field that opposes the
electric current flows through it. change in the magnetic field passing through the ring. So, the induced current flows in such a direction
that it produces a magnetic field that opposes the motion of the magnet toward the ring. Therefore, the
In the case of two parallel conductors carrying current in the same direction, the magnetic field lines direction of the induced current in the ring is such that it flows in a direction that creates a magnetic
around each conductor will be in the same direction, and the interaction of these two currents will field opposing the approaching magnet.
produce a magnetic force that attracts the conductors toward each other.
(b) When the magnet is moving away from the ring. According to Lenz's law, the direction of the induced
If the direction of current in the conductors is opposite, the magnetic field lines around each conductor current is such that it creates a magnetic field that opposes the change in the magnetic field passing
will also be in opposite directions, and they will repel each other. through the ring. So, the induced current flows in such a direction that it produces a magnetic field that
opposes the motion of the magnet away from the ring. Therefore, the direction of the induced current

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in the ring is such that it flows in a direction that creates a magnetic field opposing the departing Conceptual Questions (KPK Book)
magnet.
Q1. Differentiate between electric and magnetic fields.
16. Why the output of the transformer is zero if DC voltage is applied on its primary coil?
Electric Field Magnetic Field
Ans: The output of a transformer is zero when DC voltage is applied to its primary coil because a transformer
operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction, which requires a changing magnetic field to Definition
induce a voltage in the secondary coil.
The region around a charge where its effects can The region around a magnet where its effect can
In a DC circuit, the voltage applied to the primary coil is constant, and therefore, the magnetic field be felt is called electric field. be felt is called magnetic field.
around the coil remains constant as well. Since there is no changing magnetic field, there is no voltage
Cause
induced in the secondary coil, and the output of the transformer is zero.
Electric filed can be caused by both stationary as Magnetic field can only be caused by moving
17. Why are coils of transformer wounded on the iron core?
well as moving charges. charges
Ans: The coils of a transformer are wound on an iron core because iron is a highly magnetic material, and it
Field Lines
helps to concentrate and direct the magnetic field generated by the current flowing through the coils.
Therefore, by using an iron core, the transformer can efficiently transfer electrical energy from one coil
Field Lines The lines formed by electric field are The line formed by magnetic field is continuous
to another with minimum losses and maximum energy transfer.
not continuous. and form closed loops.
18. Why a step-up transformer is used for long-distance transmission?
Magnitude and Direction
Ans: A step-up transformer is used for long-distance transmission of electrical power because it can increase
Electric field can change both the magnitude and Magnetic field can change the direction of a
the voltage of the power, which reduces the current that needs to flow through the transmission line.
direction of a charged particle. charged particle only.
This reduction in current reduces the energy losses due to resistance in the transmission line, which in
turn increases the efficiency of power transmission. Unit

19. When you are pushing a bar magnet towards a coil of a single turn you feel an opposing The SI unit of electric field strength is Newton per The SI unit of magnetic field strength is tesla (T).
force on your hand if this magnet is pushed towards a coil of many turns now you will feel Coulomb (NC-1 ).
the greater opposing force. Why?

Ans: When you push a bar magnet towards a coil, it creates a force that opposes the motion of the magnet.
This is due to the interaction between the magnetic field of the magnet and the magnetic field Q2. Can an electron at rest be set into motion with a magnetic field?
generated by the current in the coil.
Ans. No, an electron at rest cannot be set into motion with a magnetic field. As we know that, The
If the coil has many turns, the induced current is stronger because of the greater number of turns. This magnitude of magnetic force on charged particle is given by
stronger current generates a stronger magnetic field that opposes the motion of the magnet even
more, creating a greater opposing force on your hand. FB= BILsin -------(i)

So, the more turns the coil has, the stronger the opposing force will be when you push the magnet For the electron at rest, I=0, so eq. (i) becomes
toward it.
FB= B(0)Lsin
20. In what way do split rings (commutators) in DC motors differ from slip rings in AC motors in
FB= 0
working?
It shows that charged particle at rest experiences no force in a magnetic field. As no work is done by
Ans: In a DC motor, the split rings (commutator) help the motor to convert AC to DC and switch the
the magnetic field, then there will be no change in the velocity of charged particle due to magnetic
direction of the current flow in the motor's coils. This is necessary to keep the motor rotating in the
field. Thus an electron at rest cannot be set into motion with a magnetic field.
same direction.
Q3. Which is more likely to show deflection in compass needle, AC current or DC current?
In an AC motor, slip rings help to transmit electrical power from the stationary part of the motor to the
Explain.
rotating part. The current flows through the slip rings and brushes to the rotor's windings, which
enables the motor to rotate.
Ans. Direct Current (DC) is more likely to show deflection in compass then Alternating Current (AC). As we
know that when there is a current in the wire, magnetic field produces around it. When the direction of
current is reversed, the direction of magnetic field will also be reversed. In case of DC current,
magnetic field will have only one single direction and also does not change due to which the compass
needle will be deflected in the direction of magnetic field. While in case of AC, current changes its
direction continuously, and hence the magnetic field produces by AC also changes due to which the
compass needle will show almost no deflection.

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Q4. A constant magnetic field is applied to a current carrying conductor. What angle should the Assignments (KPK Book)
wire make with the field for the force due to be (a) maximum (b) minimum?
Assignment 15.1: A wire carrying a steady (DC) 30A current has a length of 0.12m between the pole faces of a
Ans. We know that a magnetic force on a current carrying conductor is given by magnet. The wire is at angle 𝜽=6 to the field. The magnetic field is approximately uniform at 0.90 T.
Determine the magnitude of the force on the wire.
FB= BILsin ----- (i)
Assignment 15.2: If the current through the primary coil changes from 0A to -10A in 0.02s, such that the
(a) For maximum Force: The magnetic force will be maximum, when the angle between magnetic field induced emf is 4.3V. What is the mutual inductance?
“B” and current (I) direction is 90°. i.e = 90°. So, eq (i) becomes FB= BIL sin 90° ∴ sin 90° = 1
Assignment 15.3: A set-up transformer has a primary coil consisting of 200 turns and a secondary coil
FB=BIL (I) consisting of 3000 turn. The primary coil is supplied with an effective AC voltage of 90.0v. What is the
voltage in the secondary circuit?
FB (max) =BIL

(b) For minimum Force: The magnetic force will be minimum, when the angle between magnetic field (B)
and current (I) is 0°. i.e. = 0°. So equation (i) becomes Numerical Problems (KPK Book)

FB= BIL sin 0° ∴ sin 0° = 0 N.P 15.1. A 0.5m long wire carries a current of 5A, at right angle to a uniform magnetic field of 0.04T.
Determine the force exerted on the wire?
FB=BIL (0)
N.P 15.2. A wire carrying a direct current of 10.0A is suspended 5.0m east between a house and garage
perpendicular to the earth‟s magnetic field of 5.0×10-5 T. What is the magnitude of the force that
FB (min) =0
acts on the conductor?
Q5. Why does a compass needle points North? N.P 15.3. A 10cm wire at 300 to uniform magnetic field of 0.06T is exerted by a force of 0.024N. What is the
current flowing through the wire?
Ans. We know that like magnetic poles repel while dislike poles attract each other. A compass needle is N.P 15.4. If the current through the primary coil changes from -5A to +5A in 0.05s, such that the induced
nothing but a tiny suspended magnet inside it. On the other hand, earth also behaves like powerful bar emf is 2.8V. What is the mutual inductance?
magnet having two poles i.e. magnetic north pole and magnetic South Pole, nearly coinciding with N.P 15.5. A transformer connected to a 120-V AC line is to supply 9600V for a neon sign. (a) What is the
geographic south and geographic north respectively. So the earth‟s magnetic field interacts with other ratio of secondary to primary turns of the transformer? (b) If the transformer consisted of 257
magnets lying in it. Thus, the north end of a compass magnet is drawn by the magnetic south pole of primary windings, how many secondary windings would there be?
earth for alignment because the earth‟s magnet north pole attracts the “north” ends of other magnets N.P 15.6. How many turns would you want in the secondary coil of a transformer having 400 turns in the
which is technically the “south pole” of earth‟s magnetic field. That is why a compass needle points primary if it were to reduce the voltage from 220V AC to 3.0V AC?
north. N.P 15.7. A transformer steps down a main supply of 220V AC to operate a 12V AC lamp. Calculate the turns
ratio of the windings.
Q6. How can a magnetic field be used to generate electric current?

Ans. In case of electromagnetic induction, a magnetic field is used to generate electric current where a
changing magnetic field produces an induced emf causing electric current in closed loop of wire. For
example, in generators; principle of electromagnetic induction is applied. Under which a closed loop of
wire is rotated inside a magnetic field which causes a changing field inside the loop that produces
induced current in the loop.

Q7. What would happen if we use a slip ring to drive a DC motor?

Ans. A slip ring is a continuous ring which provides a continuous transfer of power. Specifically slip rings are
used in AC motors and AC generators. They are not suitable to be used in DC motors. So, to keep the
torque in one direction, split rings or commutators are used. If split rings are used in DC motors instead
of split rings, then continuous rotation of the coil of the DC motor will not be possible. The coil will
oscillate, not rotate along a single direction because after every half a cycle, the direction of current will
reverse. Then armature coil of DC motor will start motion in reverse direction. So, there will be no
complete rotation (i.e. no work will be done). Therefore, slip rings are not suitable to be used in DC
motors.

Q8. The primary coil of a transformer is connected to a DC battery. Is there an emf induced in the
secondary coil? Why?

Ans. If the primary coil of a transformer is connected to a DC battery, no emf will be induced in the
secondary coil because there will be no mutual induction due to constant current. As we know that the
transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Under this principle, a changing
current (AC) in primary coil will produced an induced emf in the secondary coil. Hence, no emf is
induced in the secondary coil when DC battery is connected to the primary coil because it provides
uniform current.

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UNIT 16 BASIC ELECTRONICS

REVIEW QUESTIONS (Punjab Book)

16.1. Describe, using one simple diagram in each case, what happens when a narrow beam of
electrons is passed through (a) a uniform electric field (b) a uniform magnetic field.
What do these results indicate about the charge on the electron?

(a) When a narrow beam of electrons is passed through electric field at right angle, the beam of
electrons will deflect towards the positive potential of the electric field.

control grid

Electron beam

The Electron Gun

(b) When a narrow beam of electrons is passed through magnetic field, the beam of electrons will The electron gun consists of an electron emitting hot cathode followed by a series of cylindrical and
deflect at right angle to the plane of magnetic field opposite to the direction of positive charges. angular (ring like) anodes at high positive potentials with respect to the cathode. These not only
accelerate the electrons but also focus them into a fine beam. A variable, low, negative potential
can be applied to control grid in order to vary the number of electrons passing through it. The
more negative this potential, the more electrons will be repelled from the grid and hence fewer
electrons will reach the anode and the screen. The number of electrons reaching the screen
determines the brightness of the screen. Hence negative potential of the gird can be used as a
brightness control.

The Deflection System

The deflection system can deflect the electron beam either vertically or horizontally. This
comprises two pairs of plates; a horizontal pair called Y-plates and a vertical pair called X-plates.
After leaving the electron gun, the electron beam passes between a pair of horizontal plates. A
These results show that the electrons carry negative charge on them. potential difference applied between these plates deflects the beam in vertical plane. This pair of
plates provides the Y-axis or vertical movement of the spot on the screen. Similarly a pair of
16.2. Explain the working of different parts of oscilloscope. vertical plates provides the X-axis or horizontal movement of the spot on the screen.

Cathode ray oscilloscope is an instrument used for studying the current and voltage waveforms in The Fluorescent Screen
various electronic circuits. In this connection it is very useful for checking laboratory electronic
equipment, television and radio receivers. The fluorescent screen at the end of the cathode ray tube consists of a thin layer of phosphor,
which is a material that gives light as a result of bombardment by fast moving electrons. On the
The major part of an oscilloscope is the cathode ray tube, which is a vacuum tube containing three fluorescent screen, electron beam is focused to form a bright spot which will trace out a pattern on
the screen according to the voltage variations (signals) applied to the X- and Y- plates.
main components. These are:
 The electron gun
16.3. Name some uses of oscilloscope.
 The deflection system
 A fluorescent screen
The cathode ray oscilloscope CRO is used in many field of science.CRO is used
 to display different types of waveforms.
 to measure potential difference (voltages).
 for range finding in RADAR.
 in echo-sounding (SONAR) to find the depth of ocean.
 to display heartbeats.
16.4. Considering an oscilloscope explain:

(i) How the filament is heated?

The tungsten wire of the filament is heated by passing current through it. Typical values of voltage
and current used for this purpose are 6 V and 0.3 A respectively.

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(ii) Why the filament is heated?

16.6. What do you understand by digital and analogue quantities?
The filament is heated to eject electrons from its hot metal surface by the process of thermionic
emission. Typical values of voltage and current used for this purpose are 6 V and 0.3 A Analogue Quantities:
respectively.
(iii) Why the anode potential is kept positive with respect to the cathode potential? Those quantities whose values vary continuously or remain same are called analogue quantities.
For example the temperature of air varies in continuous fashion during 24 hours a day. If we plot a
The anode potential is kept positive with respect to the cathode potential to accelerate the graph between time and temperature recorded at different times, we get a graph as shown in the
electrons just emitted from the cathode surface. following figure.
(iv) Why a large potential is applied between anode and cathode?

A large potential is applied at anode with respect to cathode to accelerate and focus a fine beam of
electrons from the cathode surface to the screen of CRT. Temperature
(v) Why the tube is evacuated?

In the presence of air or any gas, the electrons may be scattered and absorbed before reaching Time
the screen of CRT. So vacuum is created in the cathode ray tube so that electrons could easily The graph shows that the temperature varies continuously with the time. Therefore we say that
reach to the screen without being scattered or absorbed. the temperature is an analogue quantity. Similarly, time, pressure, distance, sound etc. are
analogue quantities.
16.5. What is electron gun? Describe the process of thermionic emission.
Digital Quantities:
Electron Gun:
Those quantities whose values vary in non-continuous manner are called digital quantities. Digital
An electron gun is used to investigate the properties of electron beam. quantities are expressed in the form of digits or numbers.
It consists of tungsten filament (heater), cathode, 6 V supply across the heater, an anode and high
voltage supply. 16.7. Differentiate between analogue electronics and digital electronics. Write down the names of
five analogue and five digital devices that commonly used in everyday life.
The electrons are produced by thermionic emission from the tungsten filament heated by 6 V
supply. Analogue Electronics Digital Electronics

 The part of electronics which consists of  The part of electronics which deals with the
such circuits which process on the analogue digital quantities is called digital electronics.
quantities is called analogue electronics.
 Circuits included in analogue electronics are  Circuits included in digital electronics are
called analogue circuit. called digital circuits.
 Output of analogue circuits is called  Output of digital circuit is called digital
analogue signal. signal.
 There are continuous variations in voltages
of the signals obtained from analogue
circuits.
 Digital circuits give maximum or minimum
 In analogue signal, there are several values
voltage levels as output.
of voltages from minimum to maximum and
 In digital signal, maximum voltage level is
there is no binary digit representation for
Electron Gun represented as the digit „1‟ and minimum
analogue signal.
voltage level is represented as the digit „0‟.
 Analogue Devices
A high positive potential (several thousands) is applied to the cylindrical anode (+). The electrons Analogue watch, Microphone, Amplifier,
are accelerated to high speed and pass through the hole of the anode in the form of a fine beam of  Digital Devices
Analogue balance, Analogue ammeter and
electrons. The whole set up is fitted in the evacuated glass tube. Computer, Digital watch, Calculator, Modern
voltmeter.
Telephone System, Radar System and
Thermionic Emission: Mobile phones.

The process of emission of electrons from the hot metal surfaces is called thermionic emission.
16.8. State and explain for each case whether the information given by the following devices is in
analogue or digital form.
Metals contain a large number of free electrons. At room temperature, electrons cannot escape
from the metal surface due to attractive forces of atomic nucleus. If the metal is heated to a high
a. A moving coil voltmeter measuring the e.m.f of a cell.
temperature, some of the free electrons may gain sufficient energy to escape the metal surface.
Thermionic emission can also be produced by heating a fine tungsten filament. Typical values of
The e.m.f of cell remains same for long time so e.m.f measured by moving coil voltmeter (an
the voltage and the current used are 6 V and 0.3 A respectively.
analogue device) is in analogue form.

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b. A microphone generating an electric current. 0 0 1

Microphone converts sound energy into varying electrical signals. Since this variation in the 0 1 1
electrical energy is continuous according the variation in sound energy, so electrical energy from
the microphone is analogue quantity. 1 0 1

1 1 0
c. A central heating thermostat controlling the water pump.

A central heating thermostat mounted in the room monitors the temperature of the room. When NOR Gate
the temperature of the room falls below the desired value then thermostat switches ON the boiler
and pump of the central heating system. When the temperature of the room reaches to desired NOR gate is formed by coupling a NOT gate with output terminal of the OR gate. So NOR gate
value the thermostat switches OFF the boiler and the pump again. So the thermostat switched ON inverts the output of OR gate. AND, OR and NOT operations can be implemented by using NOR
or OFF the heating system is a digital system. gates only.

d. Automatic traffic lights controlling the flow of traffic. Truth Table

The digital circuits used in the automatic traffic light system make the lights ON or OFF
automatically in a periodic manner. Hence the automatic traffic light system is a digital system.
0 0 1
16.9. Write down some benefits of using digital electronics over analogue electronics.
0 1 0
Digital electronics has some benefits over analogue electronics as discussed below.
1 0 0
1. Easy to Design: The advent of integrated circuit technology has made it easier to design digital
circuits. Today, the designer is not required to know the basic operation of various components 1 1 0
such as capacitors, transistors etc which involves complex mathematical calculations. If the
designer knows the operations of these components he always has a better hand over other
designers. Fredkin Gate
2. Reliability: Once a digital circuit is designed. For a given set of inputs the circuit always produces
the same output at any instant of time unlike analogue circuits whose outputs vary with variation Fredkin gate is a fundamental concept in reversible and quantum computing. Every Boolean
in the environment. function can be built from 3 x 3 Fredkin gate. It has three inputs A, B and C and three out puts P,
3. Highly Flexible: In digital circuits, with the help of the software associated with the underlying Q and R. Where , and
digital circuit we can easily change the functionality of the digital circuit without changing the
actual circuit. These circuits are generally referred to as programmable digital circuits. Truth Table
4. Cheaper: The rapid advancements in IC (integrated circuit) technology such as the existing
VLSI(Very Large Scale Integration) technology has made it possible to produce highly complex Input Output
digital circuits at low costs.
5. Security: In Digital communication system, the signals can be encrypted (encoded) so that only
the destination receiver can decode it. So digital circuits can provide secure communication
0 0 0 0 0 0
system.
6. Storage: Digital electronics enables us to store a large amount of data (audio, video, picture or 0 0 1 0 0 1
text) into smaller sized storage devices like CDs, Hard disks, Pen drive, Secure Digital (SD) cards,
Micro SD cards etc. rather than on magnetic tapes of audio and video cassettes in analogue 0 1 0 0 1 0
electronics.
16.10. What are three universal Logic Gates? Give their symbols and truth tables. 0 1 1 0 1 1

Three universal logic gates are NAND, NOR and Fredkin gate. 1 0 0 1 0 0
Fredkin Gate
NAND Gate 1 0 1 1 1 0

1 1 0 1 0 1
NAND gate is formed by coupling a NOT gate with output terminal of the AND gate. So NAND gate
inverts the output of AND gate. AND, OR and NOT operations can be implemented by using NAND 1 1 1 1 1 1
gates only.

Truth Table

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CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS (Punjab Book)

16.1.Name two factors which can enhance thermionic emission. Truth table of AND and NAND gate is shown in the following diagram.

The rate of thermionic emission can be enhanced by increasing the: Input Output of Output of
i. Temperature of the surface emitting electrons AND gate NAND gate
ii. Area of the surface emitting electrons.
Nature of metal can also affect the rate of thermionic emission.

0 0 0 1
16.2.Give three reasons to support the evidence that cathode rays are negatively charged electrons.
0 1 0 1
Three reasons to support the evidence that cathodes rays are negatively charged electrons are:
i. these are attracted towards the positive charged plate in electric field. 1 0 0 1
ii. these are deflected in the magnetic field opposite to the direction of positive charge.
iii. their charge to mass ratio (e/m) is equal to the charge to mass ratio of electrons. 1 1 1 0

16.3.When electrons pass through two parallel plates having opposite charges, they are deflected
towards the positively charged plate. What important characteristics of the electron can 16.7.Show that the circuit given below acts as OR gate.
be inferred from this?

From the fact that the opposite charges attract each other, we can say that the electrons carry
negative charge as these are deflected towards the positively charged plate.

16.4.When a moving electron enters the magnetic field, it is deflected from its straight path. Name Truth Table of Given Circuit Truth Table of OR Gate
two factors which can enhance electron deflection.
Output Input Output
Input
Factors which can enhance the defection of electron in magnetic field are:
i. strength of the magnetic field
ii. speed of electron
0 0 1 0 0 0 0

16.5.How can you compare the logic operation X=A.B with usual operation of multiplication? 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

The logic operation X=A.B shows the following result by for binary values of A and B. 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 1

Truth tables of both given logical circuit and OR gate show that the given circuit acts as OR gate.

This is similar to arithmetic operation of multiplication as: 16.8.Show that the circuit given below acts as AND gate.

Hence the logic operation is similar to usual operation of multiplication.

Truth Table of Given Circuit Truth Table of AND Gate
16.6.NAND gate is the reciprocal of AND gate. Discuss.
Output
Input Output Input
NAND gate is formed by coupling a NOT gate with output terminal of the AND gate. So NAND gate
inverts the output of AND gate. If output of AND gate is 0 then output of NAND gate will be 1 and
if AND gate gives 1 as output then NAND gate will give 0 as output. Hence we can say that NAND
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
gate is the reciprocal of AND gate.
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0

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1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Ans: Digital signals are used in modern devices, such as mobile phones, calculators, laptops, etc. because
they are less susceptible to noise and distortion than analog signals. Digital signals are made up of a
sequence of discrete values or "bits," each of which can only be one of two states: 0 or 1. This means
that digital signals are less prone to interference from external sources, and can be transmitted over
Truth tables of both given logical circuit AND gate show that the given circuit acts as AND gate.
longer distances without losing their integrity.
Point to ponder! (Page no. 142)
6. Is the NAND gate reciprocal of AND gate?
When a magnet is brought near to the screen of television tube, picture of the screen
Ans: NAND gate is simply an AND operation followed by a NOT operation. It is obtained when the NOT gate
distorted. Do you know why?
is coupled with its output terminal.
The picture on the television screen is formed by the help of beam of electrons. As electrons are
negatively charged particles, their motion is distorted by a magnet. Thus the target of the
The Truth Table of AND Gate is:
electrons beam will be disturbed; as a result, the picture on a television screen becomes distorted.
A B X= A.B
Quick Quiz (Page no. 151)
0 0 0
Assume you have an OR gate with two inputs, A and B. Determine the output C, for the
following cases: 0 1 0

(a) A = 1, B = 0 1 0 0
(b) A = 0, B = 1
1 1 1
If either input is one, what is the output?

(a) For A = 1, B = 0 the output C = 1

(b) For A = 0, B = 1 the output C =1 The Truth Table of NAND Gate is:

If either input is one, the output is one. A B X= (A.B)‟

Conceptual Questions (NBF Book) 0 0 1

1. What are free electrons? 0 1 1

Ans: Free electrons are electrons that are not bound to an atom or molecule, and are therefore able to move 1 0 1
freely through a material. In most materials, some of the electrons in the outermost shells of atoms are
not tightly bound to the nucleus and can be easily excited or removed from their atoms by external 1 1 0
forces such as heat, light, or an electric field.

2. How can you say that cathode rays are negatively charged?
If the NOT gate is Attached to the output terminal of the NAND gate then it gives AND Gate or If the
Ans: When we apply a high voltage across two metal plates inside the cathode ray tube, creating an electric NOT gate is attached to the output terminal of the NAND gate then it gives NAND gate.
field. We observed that the cathode rays are deflected towards the positively charged plate, indicating
Therefore, the NAND gate is reciprocal of the AND gate.
that the rays themselves are negatively charged.
7. What is the difference to produce a LOW output for an OR gate and NAND gate?
3. Why the image is distorted when a magnet is brought close to an old television screen or
monitor with a cathode ray tube (CRT) inside?
Ans: In an OR gate, the output will be LOW (0) if and only if all of its inputs are LOW (0). In other words, the
output will be HIGH (1) if at least one of its inputs is HIGH (1). So, to produce a LOW output in an OR
Ans: When a magnet is brought close to an old television screen or monitor with a cathode ray tube inside, it
gate, all of its inputs must be LOW.
can cause the image on the screen to become distorted. This happens because the magnet interferes
with the magnetic fields that guide the electron beam that produces the image on the screen.
On the other hand, in a NAND gate, the output will be HIGH (1) if and only if all of its inputs are LOW
(0). In other words, the output will be LOW (0) if at least one of its inputs is HIGH (1). So, to produce a
4. How can you control the brightness of the waveform on the screen of CRO?
LOW output in a NAND gate, at least one of its inputs must be HIGH.
Ans: The brightness of the waveform on the screen of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) can be controlled
8. What is the difference to produce a HIGH (1) output for an AND Gate and NOR Gate?
by adjusting the intensity or brightness control knob. This knob varies the amount of current that flows
through the CRT's electron gun, which in turn controls the brightness of the electron beam and the
Ans: The AND gate produces a HIGH output (i.e., 1) only when both of its inputs are HIGH. In other words, it
resulting waveform on the screen.
requires all of its inputs to be 1 in order to produce a 1 output. The truth table for an AND gate is as
follows:
5. All modern devices e.g. mobile phones, calculators, laptops, etc. use digital signals for their
work. Why is a digital signal used?
A B X= A.B

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0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1
X=A+B‟
On the other hand, the NOR gate produces a LOW output (i.e., 0) only when both of its inputs are
HIGH. In other words, it requires none of its inputs to be 1 in order to produce a 1 output. The truth Conceptual Questions (KPK Book)
table for a NOR gate is as follows:
Q1: What are free electrons?
A B X= (A.B)‟
Ans: The electrons that are free to move through the metal are called free electrons. A free electron is an
0 0 1 electron that is not connected to an atom in a structure. Free electrons make substance conductive.
They are the outermost valence electrons which are loosely attached to the nucleus of an atom. When
0 1 1 small amount of external energy (in the form of heat) is supplied to the valence electrons, then they
get pulled away from the atom and become free. So, materials that contain free electrons conduct
1 0 1 electricity such as metals.

1 1 0 Q2: What is the function of an accelerating anode in an electron gun?

Therefore, the main difference between producing a HIGH output for an AND gate and a NOR gate is Ans: The main function of the accelerating anode in an electron gun is to accelerate the electrons towards
that an AND gate requires all of its inputs to be HIGH to produce a HIGH output, while a NOR gate the fluorescent screen. As we know that electrons are emitted from the filament by thermionic
requires none of its inputs to be HIGH to produce a HIGH output. emission. These electrons are then directed towards the screen at a high speed with the help of
accelerating anode in order not to lose any electrons in its way. So, the electrons hitting the screen
produce fluorescence for creating images on it.

9. What is the output of the following circuit? Q3: If the electron beam in a television tube striking just one point on the screen at a time, how
can we get a full picture? Explain
Ans:
Ans: The electron beam (negatively charged particles) is controlled by electromagnets inside the tube. This
beam moves back and forth across the screen line by line painting a picture on the screen. The electron
beam moves so quickly that we do not see it building up the picture. It does not actually paint but
produce a bright spot on the screen where it hit the screen. The screen is coated with phosphor (i.e.
ZnS) which produces light when electron hit it. By switching the electron beam ON and OFF, the video
circuit builds up the entire picture on the screen by lightening up some spots and leaving others dark.

Q4: Why image is distorted when a magnet is brought close to old television screens or monitors
with cathode ray tube (CRT) inside?

Ans: When a bar magnet is brought close to the screen of old television or monitors with CRT inside, it
distorts the picture as it distorts the path of electrons flowing from the electron gun towards the screen
A B A‟ B‟ X= A‟. B‟ of the TV. As electrons are negatively charged particles, their motion is greatly affected by the magnetic
force of magnet. In old TV sets, this damage may occur permanently if the magnet is brought very
0 0 1 1 1 close to the screen. Because magnetic field diverts the electrons from where they should go and so, the
wrong phosphor spots give a distorted image. Modern flat panel television i.e. plasma, LCD etc. do not
0 1 1 0 0 suffer from this effect.

1 0 0 1 0 Q5: Assuming that cathode rays are a beam of charged particles, how could you demonstrate
that these particles are negatively charged? Explain
1 1 0 0 0
Ans: We can easily demonstrate that cathode rays are negatively charged by passing these rays through an
electric and magnetic field. When cathode rays are passed through an electric field, they are attracted
towards the positive plate which shows that they have negative charge. Similarly, by applying the
10. Draw a logic circuit for the logic equation X=A+B‟? magnetic field, these rays are deflected and start moving in a circle. By applying right hand rule, we
can prove that they have a negative charge.
Ans:
Q6: If there are four inputs in any logic gate, how many combinations are possible?

Ans: The number of input state possibilities increases by adding more input terminals to a logic gate. With a
single input gate such as inverter, there can be only two possible input states, either the input is high

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(1) or it is low (0). A two-input gate has four possibilities for input states and so on. Hence, the number 3. Boolean expression for NOT gate:
of possible input states is given by the formula. i.e.
The Boolean equation for NOT gate can be written as: X= A It can be read as “X equals NOT A”.
No. of possible input states = 2n
4. Boolean expression for NAND gate:
Or N = 2n
The Boolean equation for NAND gate can be written as: X= AB It can be read as “X equals NOT (A and
Where n= number of inputs If n = 4, then B)”.

N = 24 N = 16 5. Boolean expression for NOR gate:

So, there will be sixteen input possibilities if there are four inputs in any logic gate. The Boolean equation for NOR gate can be written as: X= A+B It can be read as “X equals NOT (A or
B)”.
Q7: What conditions produce a high (1) output for an AND gate and NOR gate?

Ans: The output of AND gate will be high i.e.1 only when both of its inputs are high (1). In other words, if
A=1 and B=1, then according to Boolean equation

X= A.B

X= 1

It is also clear from the truth table of AND gate as shown below.

A B X= A.B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

The output of NOR gate will be high (1), if both of its inputs are low (0). In other words, if A=0 and
B=0, then according to Boolean equation

X= ̅̅̅̅̅ i.e. X= 1

It is also clear from the truth table of NOR gate as shown below.

A B X= (A.B)‟

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Q8: What are the algebraic Boolean expressions to represent the output of AND, OR, NOT, NAND
and NOR gates?

Ans: The algebraic Boolean expressions to represent the output of different logic gates are given below.

1. Boolean expression for AND gate:

The Boolean equation for AND gate can be written as: X= A.B Or X= AB This equation can be read as
“X equals A and B”.

2. Boolean expression for OR gate:

The Boolean equation for OR gate can be written as: X= A+B It can be read as “X equals A or B”.

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INFORMATION & COMMUNICATION

hardware for the smooth running of a CBIS. People write the procedures and it is ultimately people
UNIT 17 who determine the success or failure of CBIS.
17.4. Differentiate between the primary memory and the secondary memory.

TECHNOLOGY
Primary Memory Secondary Memory

1. Primary memories are based on electronics 1. Secondary memories are based on magnetic,
REVIEW QUESTIONS (Punjab Book) and consist of integrated circuits (ICs) electronics and optical technologies.

17.1. What is difference between data and information? 2. The primary memory consists of two types of 2. The secondary memory is accessible in the
memory technologies. form of Mass storage devices such as hard
Data are the facts and figures that are used by the programs to produce useful information, while Read Only Memory (ROM) which starts the disk, memory chips, Pen drive, floppy disk
the processed data is called information. computer. storage media, CD and DVD etc.
Random Access Memory (RAM) which is used
17.2. What do understand by Information and Communication Technology (ICT)? in computer as temporary memory.
3. Primary memory is volatile in nature; the 3. Secondary memory is non volatile. In case of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is defined as the scientific methods and means information that is stored in the primary secondary memory, the information can be
to store, process and transmit vast amounts of information in seconds with the help of electronic memory cannot be retained when the power retrieved even if the power is turned off
equipments. is turned off. because the data will not be destructed until
and unless the user erases it.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is basically an electronic based system of
information transmission, reception, processing and retrieval. ICT is a blend of two fields; 4. Primary memory is directly accessed by the 4. The secondary memory is not accessible
information technology and telecommunication. The two terms as defined as follows: CPU to store and retrieve information, and is directly by the CPU. Secondary memory is
accessed using address and data buses by the accessed using input/ output channels.
1. The scientific method used to store information, to arrange it for proper use and to communicate it CPU.
to others is called information technology. 5. Primary memories contain program and data 5. When the computer needs to access the files
2. The method that is used to communicate information to far off places instantly is called that is currently being used by micro that are stored in the secondary memory,
telecommunication. processor. then such files are first loaded into the
primary memory and then accessed by the
17.3. What are the components of information technology? Clearly indicate the function of computer.
each component.
There are five parts that must together in order to produce a Computer-based Information System 6. Primary memories are fast enough to interact 6. Secondary memories are slower than primary
as shown in the following figure. These are called components of information technology. with the microprocessor. memories.

7. Primary memory devices are more costly 7. Secondary memory devices are cheaper than
compared to secondary memory devices. the secondary memory devices.

17.5. Name different information storage devices and describe their uses.

Given below is the list of some information storage devices.

Audio and Video Cassettes, Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, Compact Disk (CD) and Flash Drive

1. Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This includes the central processing unit Audio and Video Cassettes:
(CPU) and all of its support equipments. Among the support equipments are input and output
devices, storage devices and communication devices. These devices are based on electromagnetism. Audio cassettes
consist of tape of magnetic material on which sound is recorded in
2. Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals that support them.
a particular pattern of magnetic field. For this purpose,
Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware
microphone changes sound waves in electrical pulses, which are
parts of the CBIS to produce useful information from data. Programs are generally stored on some
amplified by an amplifier. Magnetic tape is moved across the
input/output medium, often a disk or a tape.
recording head of audio cassette recorder which is in fact an
3. Data: Data are facts and figures that are used by programs to produce useful information. It may electromagnet. Thus magnetic tape is magnetized in a particular
be in the form of text, graphic or figure that can be recorded and that have a specific meaning.
pattern according to rise and fall of current. In this way sound is
Like programs, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until the Audio Cassette
stored in a specific magnetic pattern on this tape.
computer needs them.
4. Procedures: These are set of instructions and rules to design and use information system. These
are written in manuals and documents for use. These rules or methods may change from time to
time. The Information System must be flexible to incorporate these changes.
5. People: Every CBIS needs people if it is to be useful, who influence the success or failure of
information systems. People design and operate the software, they feed input data, build the

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Hard Disk:

Most users rely on hard disks as their

primary storage devices. A hard disk is a
rigid, magnetically sensitive disk that
spins rapidly and continuously inside the
computer chassis or in a separate box
connected to the computer housing. This
type of disk is never removed by the
user.

To produce the sound again, the tape is moved past by the play back head. Changes in the Inside every hard disk drive are small
magnetic field on the tape induce alternating current signals in the coil wound on the head. These round disk-like objects made of either an
signals are amplified and sent to the loudspeakers reproduce the recorded sound. aluminium/alloy or a glass/ceramic
composite, these are called platters,
Hard Disk
each platter is coated with a special
magnetic coating enabling them to store
data magnetically. A typical hard disk
consists of several platters, each accessed via read/write head on a moveable arm.

Hard disks come with many different storage capacities; hard disk capacity is measured in bytes,
with common capacities being stated in MB (Megabytes) and GB (Gigabytes) and higher capacity is
sated as TB (Terabytes). Common hard disk capacities these days range from 40 GB up to and
exceeding 2 TB.

In video tape/cassettes pictures are recorded along with sound. Compact Disc (CDs):

Working of compact disc (CD) is based on laser technology. It is molded plastic disc on which
digital data is stored in the form of microscopic reflecting and non reflecting spots which are called
“lands” and “pits” respectively. Pits are the spiral tracks encoded on the top surface of CD and
lands are the areas between the pits. A fine laser beam scans the surface of the rotating disc to
read the data. Pits and lands reflect different amount of the laser light falling on the surface of the
CD. This pattern of different amount of light reflected by the pits and lands is converted into binary
data. The presence of pit indicates „0‟ and the presence of land indicate „1‟.
Video Cassettes

Floppy Disk:

A floppy disk is a small magnetically sensitive, flexible plastic wafer

in a plastic case. It is coated with magnetic oxide similar to the
Compact Disc (CD)
material used to coat the cassettes and video tapes. Most personal
computers include at least one disk drive that allows the computer
to write it and read from the floppy disk.
A CD can store over 680 megabytes of computer data. A DVD, the same size as traditional CD but
Floppies are inexpensive and convenient but they lack the storage with smaller size of pit and land patterns, is able to store up to 17 gigabytes.
capacity and drive speed for many large jobs. Data stored on floppy
disks is also subject to loss as a result of stray magnetic fields. Flash Drive:
Floppy disks are reliable only for short-term storage and cannot be
used longer and no attempts should be made to save the data for Floppy Disk Flash drive is an electronic based device and consists of
longer period. As the magnetic fields weaken the data will also be data storage integrated circuits (ICs). It is a small storage
lost. device that can be used to transport files from computer to
another. They are slightly larger than a stick of gum, yet
many of these devices can carry all your home work for an
entire year! We can keep one on a key chain, carry it
around our neck, or attach it to our book bag.

A flash drive is easy to use. Once we have created a paper

or other work, we can simply plug our flash drive into a
Flash Drive
USB port. We must make a back up our created paper or

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project on our flash drive and save it separate from our computer. A flash drive will also come in
handy if you are able to print out homework at school. You can write paper at home, save it to
your flash drive, and then plug the drive into a USB port on a school computer.

17.6. Explain briefly the transmission of radiowaves through space.

Electrical signals representing information from a microphone, a TV camera or a computer can be

sent from one place to another place using either cables or radiowaves. Information in the form of
audio frequency (AF) signals may be transmitted directly by cable. However, in order to send
information over a long distance, audio frequency is superimposed on a high frequency signals
(carrier frequency) before converting into electromagnetic waves. This process is called
modulation.

"Modulation is the process of superimposing a low frequency signal on a high frequency carrier
The advantage of optical fibre is that it can be used for sending very high data rates over long
signal."
distances. This feature of optical fibre distinguishes it from wires. When electrical signals are
transmitted through wires, the signal lost increases with the increase in data rates. This decreases
At radio station the sound waves are converted into electrical signals by a microphone and then
the range of the signal.
amplified. The modulator superimposes the amplified audio signals on a carrier wave (high
frequency signal) that has been generated by an oscillator circuit in a transmitter. The modulated
Each optical fibre in a multi-mode cable is about 10 times thicker than fibre optics used in a single-
carrier is also amplified, and then applied to an antenna. Signals falling on antenna oscillate the
mode cable. This means light beams can travel through the core by following different paths,
charges which then emit these electrical signals in the form of electromagnetic waves into the
hence the name multiple-mode. Multi-mode cables can send information only over relatively short
space and broadcasted.
distances and are used to link computer networks together.
At the receiving end, the receiver selects and amplifies the modulated signal. The demodulator
then separates the information (audio) signals from the carrier signals. The audio signals are
17.8. What is computer? What is the role of computer in everyday life?
amplified by audio amplifier and then are listened by receptor (loud speaker).

Computer is a programmable electronic device designed to accept data from input device, perform
prescribed mathematical and logical operations at high speed, and display the results of these
operations on the output device. Mainframes, desktop and laptop computers, tablets, and smart
phones are some of the different types of computers

Simply computer is an electronic computing machine used for adding, subtracting or multiplying.
Computers work through an interaction of hardware and software.
Hardware refers to the part of a computer that can be seen and touched. These include Central
17.7. How light signals are sent through optical fibre?
Processing Unit (CPU), monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. The most important piece of
hardware is CPU that is a tiny rectangular chip called microprocessor. It is the brain of the
An optical fibre with a coating of lower refractive index is a thin and very fine strand of high-
computer. This is the part that translates instructions and performs calculations.
quality glass that absorbs very little light. An optical fibre cable is a bundle of glass fibres with
thickness of a human hair.

Waves of visible light have a much higher frequency than that of radiowaves. This means, rate of
sending information with the beams of visible light is larger than that with radiowaves or
microwaves. An optical fibre has been used as transmission channel for this purpose.

Light enters the core at one end of the optical fibre goes straight and hits the inner wall (cladding)
of fibre optics. If the angle of incidence with the core-cladding interface is less than the critical
angle, some of the light will escape the fibre optics and is lost. However, if the angle of incidence
is greater than the critical angle, light is totally reflected into the fibre optics. Then the totally
reflected beam of light travels in a straight line until it hits the core-cladding interface again, and
so on. Software refers to the instructions or programs that tell the hardware what to do. A word
processing program that is used to write letters on your computer is a type of software. The
operating system (OS) is software that manages your computer and the devices connected to it.
Windows and Linux are well known examples of operating system.

Role of computer in everyday life

Computer plays an important role in everyday life. Such as:

 In offices, computers are used for preparing letters, documents and reports.
 In hotels, computers are used for booking of rooms, preparing bill and providing enquiry services.

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 In railways, computers are used for rail reservations, printing of tickets and preparation of
reservation charts. Data Managing
 Doctors use computers for diagnosis of illness and treatment of diseases.
 Architects use computers for building designing and city planning. To collect all information regarding a subject for any purpose and to store them in the computer in
 In meteorological department, computers are used for weather forecasting. more than one inter linked files which may help when needed, is called Data Managing.
 Banks are using computers to manage customer‟s account details and deposit customer‟s money in
their account. The educational institutions, libraries, hospitals and industries store the
 The computers are used in business houses for maintaining the accounts, stocks, invoice and concern information by data management. Additions and deletions are made
payroll etc. in the data according to the requirement, which help in the improvement of
In a nut shell, computers are used in every department of our life the managements of the institutions.

17.9. What is the difference between hardware and software? Name different software. In big departmental stores and super markets, optical instruments are used to Bar code scanning
Given below are the some differences between hardware and software. read, with the help of a Laser Beam, the barcodes of a product which indicate
Hardware Software the number at which this product is recorded in the register. In this way, the
detail about its price is obtained. The central computer monitors the bills and
1. Physical parts of the computer are called 1. A set of instructions given to the computer is the related record of the sold goods. It also helps placing the order of goods
hardware. called software. being sold in a large quantity and to decide about the less selling goods.
2. You can touch, see and feel hardware. 2. You cannot touch and feel software.
3. Hardware is constructed using physical 3. Software is developed by writing instructions 17.11. What is internet? Internet is useful source of knowledge and information. Discuss.
materials or components. in programming language.
4. Computer is hardware, which operates 4. The operations of computer are controlled Internet is the interconnection of several millions of computers that forms a global network with
under the control of software. through software. the objective of communication. In other words internet is the network of networks, which spreads
5. If hardware is damaged, it is replaced with 5. If software is damaged or corrupted, its all across the globe.
new one. backup copy can be reinstalled.
6. Software is affected by computer viruses. Initially the size internet was very small. Soon people became aware of its utility and advantages
6. Hardware is not affected by computer 7. Software can be transferred from one place and within short span of time, numerous computers and networks became the part of the internet.
viruses. The size of the internet has increased multi folds within a few years. Today internet comprises of
to another electronically through network.
several millions computers. There is hardly any country of the world and important city of the
country, where internet is not available.
7. Hardware cannot be transferred from one
place to another electronically through
network. 8. User can make many new duplicate copies of Internet is useful source of knowledge and information
the software.
8. User cannot make new duplicate copies of
Access of internet to people is increasing day by day. Internet is a useful source of information and
the hardware.
knowledge.
Given below some software names
 With broadband, users across the world can connect or access their concerned information in
Operating System includes MS Windows, Linux, and Macintosh etc
seconds. If need arises then users can also download these information.
Word Processing includes MS Word, Corel Word Perfect, and Word Star etc.
 Internet users can use E-mail service to transmit and receive messages almost instantaneously.
Database includes MS Access, Oracle, MS SQL Server, and Sybase etc
 Internet users can talk to their friends and relatives across the continents. A webcam enables the
Internet Browser includes Internet Explorer, Mozilla Fire fox, Opera, The world, Google Chrome
users to see and hear the person they are speaking to.
etc.
 Internet users can access large number of databases.
Spread Sheet includes Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, and VisiCalc etc.
 Internet provides the facility of hyper linking from one server to another by clicking on a
Computer Aided Design includes Auto CAD, Solid Works, and Micro Station
highlighted word which enables the user to directly switch to another data source, on the other
side of the world.
17.10. What do you understand by the term word processing and data managing?

17.12. Discuss the role of information technology in school education.

Word Processing
OR
Point to ponder! (Page no. 171): What is the impact of ICT in education?
Word processing is such a use of computer through which we can write letters, articles and books
or prepare reports. Word processing is a computer program and by using this program we can
Here are some of the roles played by information technology in education.
develop any document, see it on the screen after typing. We can edit the document, add some
new text or delete the previous text or make amendments in it. We can move text from one page
Information technology in education has improved communication. Tutors can deliver lecture to
to another, even from one document to another. Documents can be stored in the computer
the learners over long distances and scholars can achieve their academic papers through
memory and its print can also be taken.
eLearning.
By means of word processing we can write text in the document in different styles and different
Advancement of information technology in education has improved research. There are many
colours. We can also use graphics in the document to make it for better presentation. Word
online libraries that assist teachers and students with comprehensive reading materials. Teachers
processing also gives the facility to check and correct spelling and grammar mistakes. Some
and lecturers are also able to post their work online for their students to read.
common examples of word processing software are MS Word, Corel Word Perfect, and Word Star
etc.
With thorough research, students also get updated information. Every change made in the syllabus

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is always revised through the internet. Students can also check what units they are to cover in a  Hard disks are cheaper than floppies in term of their storage data.
semester through the internet. 17.3. What is difference between RAM and ROM?

Information technology in education has improved and has also brought about an easy access to DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAM AND ROM
different learning resources. They help to improve teaching skills and learning abilities of students.
RAM ROM
These learning resources include audio and visual education. Students are taught with projectors
in classrooms or lectured through class speakers. Students and teachers can also easily download Definition RAM is a form of data storage that can be ROM is a form of data storage that cannot be
eBooks from the internet which can be read from anywhere through your phone or tablet. accessed randomly at any time, in any order easily altered or reprogrammed.
and from any physical location, allowing quick It is the memory that comes with your
Through eLearning, students can now study whenever they want. There are no fixed timetables so access and manipulation. computer that is pre-written to hold the
people from different time zones can now do the same courses in the same academic institute. It is the memory available for the operating instructions for booting-up the computer.
Students can also take their examinations whenever they want with time provided to them. system, programs and processes to use when
the computer is running.
For children with disabilities, information technology in education has brought gadgets to help Stands For Random Access Memory Read-only Memory
them with learning. For instance, the hearing impaired use electronic devices called hearing aids. Use RAM allows the computer to read data quickly ROM stores the program required to initially
They can also use visual learning where sign language is used on electronic media to enhance to run applications. It allows reading and boot the computer. It only allows reading.
communication. This has been a role of information technology in education. writing.
Combined learning is also improved. Information technology in education has made it possible for Volatility RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are lost when ROM is non-volatile i.e. its contents are
learners to have study groups. Students can now create combined ideas, solve problems and learn the device is powered off. retained even when the device is powered
more through group studies and academic forums online. off.
Types The two main types of RAM are The types of ROM include
The incorporation of information technology in education has brought so many positive changes.
Static Random Access memory (SRAM) and Programmable Read-only Memory (PROM),
More academic systems should embrace technology because it makes teaching more effective and
Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM). Erasable Programmable Read-only memory
aids in practical learning. Students should also embrace it because in the future, most of the jobs
(EPROM) and
will be technologically based. With time, everyone will see the significance of information
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-only
technology in education.
memory (EEPROM).
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS (Punjab Book) Conceptual Questions (NBF Book)

1. What is the difference between data and information?

17.1. Why optical fibre is more useful tool for the communication process?
Ans: Data and information are often used interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings.
Data refers to raw, unorganized facts and figures, such as numbers, text, or images.
Waves of visible light have a much higher frequency than that of radio waves. This means that
Data has no meaning on its own and needs to be processed or analyzed to derive
rate of sending information with the light beams is much larger than with radiowaves or
meaning from it. For example, a list of temperatures in different cities is data, but it
microwaves. An optical fibre has been used as transmission channel for this purpose. Given below
doesn't tell us anything meaningful without further analysis.
are the some advantages of using optical fibres for communication purpose.
Information, on the other hand, is the result of processing or analyzing data to derive
meaning from it. It refers to organized, meaningful, and useful data that is relevant to a
 Optical fibers transmit information with great speed over large distances via visible light, with
specific context or purpose. The information provides insights, answers questions, and
minimum loss of energy.
helps in decision-making. For example, a weather forecast that tells us the expected
 They have high bandwidth over large distances. temperature and precipitation in a specific city is information derived from data.
 These optical fibers can easily be installed in houses or in offices as they occupy less space INFORMATION
DATA
because of their small diameter.
 Fiber optic cables are immune to Electromagnetic interference and produce no interference while  Data is raw, unprocessed, and lacks  Information, on the other hand, is
operating. meaning or context. the result of processing or analyzing
 There is no fire hazard while using optical fibers because light is transmitted through them. data to derive meaning from it.
 Data is collected for a specific  Information is the result of analyzing
 They are cheaper than ordinary copper wires.
purpose or to serve a particular and interpreting data to provide
need. insights, answers, or knowledge.
17.2. Which is more reliable floppy disk or hard disk?
 Information, on the other hand, is
structured, organized, and
Hard disk is much more reliable than a floppy disk for the following reasons:
 Data is often unstructured, and its presented in a specific format to
format can be varied, such as make it easy to understand and use.
 Hard disk has hard metallic covering and is protected against damage, while floppy disk has plastic numbers, text, or images.  Information is used for decision-
coverings which can break easily.  Data is used to creating information making, problem-solving, or
 Hard disk stores much more data than floppy. and provide insights or knowledge. understanding a particular
 Transferring files from hard disk is much faster than floppy. phenomenon.
 Hard disk stores large amount of data permanently, while data stored on floppy disk is subject to  Data has limited value on its own,  Information, on the other hand, is
loss as a result of stray of magnetic field. Data stored on the floppy disk is also lost after few days but when it is analyzed and inherently valuable as it helps in
as magnetic field on the floppy disk weakens with the time. processed, it can provide valuable decision-making and problem-

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insights and knowledge. solving.

5. Why optical fiber is better than electrical wires for communication
purposes?
2. Briefly explain the process of information via radio waves through air. Ans: Optical fiber is a superior communication medium compared to electrical wires for
Ans: Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation that can be used to transmit several reasons:
information through the air. The process of transmitting information via radio waves Bandwidth: Optical fiber has a much higher bandwidth compared to electrical wires.
involves several steps: Signal Loss: Electrical wires can experience a signal loss due to electromagnetic
Encoding: The information that needs to be transmitted is first encoded into a format interference and resistance, whereas optical fiber is immune to electromagnetic
that can be sent via radio waves. interference and has very low signal loss over long distances.
Modulation: The encoded information is then modulated onto a carrier wave, which is a Security: Optical fiber is very secure as it is very difficult to tap into the signal without
high-frequency radio wave that is used to transmit the information. being detected.
Transmission: The modulated carrier wave is then transmitted through the air using an Size and Weight: Optical fiber is much lighter and thinner compared to electrical wires,
antenna. making it easier to handle and install.
Reception: The radio waves are received by another antenna, which converts them back Durability: Optical fiber is more durable and can withstand harsh environments,
into an electrical signal. temperature changes, and physical stresses much better than electrical wires.
Decoding: The extracted information is then decoded back into its original format, such Cost: While the initial cost of installation for optical fiber may be higher than electrical
as an audio signal or digital data stream. wires, the long-term cost is lower due to reduced maintenance and replacement costs.
3. What is the difference between primary and secondary memory? Why 6. Why is the storage capacity of a hard disk greater than a floppy disc of a
do we need both on the computer? DVD usually?
Ans: Ans: Hard disks have a larger physical size, can store data more densely, transfer data faster,
Primary Memory Secondary Memory and have advanced technology compared to floppy disks and DVDs. Therefore, hard
disks can store more data than floppy disks and DVDs.
 Primary memory is a volatile  Secondary memory is a non-volatile 7. What is the main difference between a telephone and a cellular phone?
memory memory. Ans: The main difference between a telephone and a cellular phone is in the way they
 Primary memory is faster.  Secondary memory is slower. transmit signals and the range of their connectivity.
 Primary memory is directly  Secondary memory is not directly A telephone, also known as a landline, is a device that uses a physical wire or cable to
accessible by the CPU accessible by the CPU. connect to a telecommunications network.
 Secondary memory has a much A cellular phone, on the other hand, is a wireless device that uses radio waves to
 Primary memory has a limited higher capacity. communicate with cell towers, which are connected to a telecommunications network. A
capacity  Secondary memory is cheaper cellular phone can be used anywhere within the range of cell towers.
 Primary memory is more expensive Other differences between the two types of phones include their mobility, features, and
cost. Cellular phones are typically more expensive than telephones, but they offer many
4. What is the difference between the RAM and ROM of a computer? more features and capabilities, such as internet access, messaging, and multimedia.
Ans: Telephones, on the other hand, are generally less expensive and have fewer features but
RAM ROM are more reliable and have better sound quality.
8. How is data stored on a hard disk? Describe briefly.
 RAM is a volatile memory that stores  ROM, is a non-volatile memory that Ans: Data is stored on a hard disk using magnetic media. The hard disk consists of a stack of
data and program instructions that stores data and program instructions metal disks coated with a magnetic material. Each disk has a number of tracks, and each
are currently in use by the that are necessary for the computer track is divided into sectors. The read/write head of the hard disk accesses the data by
computer's processor. to start up and perform basic positioning itself over the appropriate track and sector. When data is written to the disk,
 Read and Write Capabilities: RAM is functions. the read/write head uses a magnetic field to change the polarity of the magnetic
read-write memory, which means  ROM is read-only memory, which particles on the disk, which represents the binary data.
that data can be written to it and means that data can only be read
read from it at any time. from it and cannot be written to.
 RAM is volatile memory, which  ROM, is non-volatile memory and its Conceptual Questions (KPK Book)
means that its contents are lost contents remain even when the
when the computer is turned off or computer is turned off. 1. Identify the most reliable means of storing information?
rebooted.  ROM, is usually much smaller and is
 RAM is typically larger than ROM, typically measured in kilobytes or Ans: A storage device is a physical piece of hardware that is used to store data. In most cases, any type of
with modern computers having megabytes. file can be added to a storage device. The following storage devices are in common use such as hard
anywhere from 4GB to 16GB or  ROM is used for long-term storage of disk, CD and DVD and flash drives. Hard Disk: A hard disk is a secondary storage device that
more of RAM. important data and program permanently stores and retrieves data on a computer. It can store large amount of data as compared to
 RAM is used for short-term storage instructions that are required for the other devices. CD and DVD: A compact disc (CD) and Digital video disc (DVD) are circular disc on which
of data and program instructions computer to operate. data is stored on one or both sides. These are reliable sources of storing information and mostly used
that are currently in use by the for storing movies, music, data and much more. USB flash drive: A USB flash drive is a small, portable
computer storage device that is used for transferring data from one computer to another. It is removable,
rewritable and has no moving parts.

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ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

2. How information is different from data?

Ans: There is a great difference between data and information such as;
UNIT 18
REVIEW QUESTIONS (Punjab Book)
• A raw facts and figures that need to be processed is called data. But when data is processed, organized
structured or presented in a given content so as to make it useful is called information. 18.1. What is the difference between atomic number and atomic mass number? Give a
symbolic representation of a nuclide.
• Data is in an unorganized form while the information is processed and organized form of data.
 Atomic number is the total number of protons present in the nucleus while Atomic mass
• Data is based on observations and records but when proper analysis is conducted to convert data into number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
information by researcher to eliminate irrelevant data. EXAMPLE: For example, in a class test score is a  Atomic number is denoted by and Atomic mass number is denoted by , and .
one piece of data but the average score of the class is information that can be derived from the given Where is number of neutrons.
test.  Atomic number of all atoms (isotopes) of an element is always same but Atomic mass number
of all atoms (isotopes) of an element may be different due to different number of neutrons in the
nuclei of atoms of an element.
3. Why frequency band for uplink and downlink is different in transmission of microwaves
through space? Symbolic Representation of a Nuclide
A nuclide is symbolically represented by . Where is any element and is the atomic mass
Ans: The uplink frequency is greater than downlink frequency in transmission of microwaves through space. number and is the atomic number. For example one nuclide of uranium having atomic number
The uplink transmitter is on earth and need plenty of transmit power to overcome the slightly higher 92 and atomic mass number 235 is represented by .
path loss inherent in higher frequency signal. On the other hand, the downlink transmitter is located on
satellite and less power is needed to transmit data from satellite to earth station. Thus, the frequencies 18.2. What do you mean by the term radioactivity? Why some elements are radioactive but
are different due to different values of power consumption. some are not?

4. What does cell in „cell phone‟ refer to? Radioactivity

Ans: A wireless phones that can receive their signals from tower is called a cell phone. A cell is a The spontaneous emission of radiation by unstable nuclei is called radioactivity or natural
geographical area around a tower in which a signal can be received. The area covered by a cellular radioactivity. The elements which emit such radiations are called radioactive elements.
phone transmitter can be from one mile to twenty miles in diameter. Several coordinated cell sites are In general, most of the nuclei with atomic number 1 to 82 are stable nuclei and do not emit
radiations, so these are not radioactive.
called a cell system. When you sign up to a cellular telephone service provider, you generally are given
While the elements whose atomic number is greater than 82 are naturally unstable. They emit
access to their cell system which is essentially local. When travelling out of range to their cell system, different types of radiations all the time and hence continuously change from one type of elements
the cell phone is not working properly. to another. Such elements are radioactive.

5. Can internet be used for shopping? Give an example. 18.3. How can we make radioactive elements artificially? Describe with a suitable example?

Ans: Yes, internet is widely used for shopping in the world. In online shopping a consumer can buy goods or The stable and non-radioactive elements can also be changed into radioactive elements by
services directly from a seller using a web browser. It has become very easy for the people to shop bombarding them with protons, neutrons or alpha particles. This process is called artificial
from home using internet. Different manufacturers present their products on internet. Consumer can radioactivity. Such artificially produced radioactive elements are radioactive isotopes or
buy a product by visiting the website, place an order and even make a payment using credit card. radioisotopes.
Example: The few examples of online shopping sites are: • Amazon • OLX • Dara, etc.
Here are some examples of the production of radioisotopes:
6. How a flash drive is different from other storage devices? 1. gamma rays

Ans: A USB flash drive is a small, portable storage device that is used for transferring data from one Neutron + Stable Sodium nuclide a sodium radioisotope + gamma rays
computer to another. A flash drive is different from other storage devices because it is smaller in size.
USB flash drive is removable, rewritable and has no moving part. It is used for storage, data back up, 2.
and transfer of computer files. Also flash drives are cheap with high quality and large capacity. A USB
flash drive can be used for a long time as long as you use it properly to avoid unexpected damage. alpha particle + Stable Aluminium nuclide a phosphorus radioisotope +

18.4. What are the three basic radioactive decay processes and how do they differ from each
other?

Three basic radioactive decay processes are given below:

Alpha ( ) decay

In alpha decay, the proton number or atomic number of the parent nuclide reduces by 2 and its
mass number or nucleon number decreases by 4.

General Equation:

Parent nuclide Daughter nuclide -particle

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Example:

Radium Radon α-particle

Beta ( ) decay

In beta decay, the proton number or atomic number of the parent nuclide increases by 1 and its
mass number or nucleon number remains unchanged
General Equation:

Parent nuclide Daughter nuclide β-particle Let half-life of a radioactive element =

No. of atoms of the sample of the radioactive element before decay
Example:
No. of atoms of the sample of the radioactive element after 1st half-life,
Carbon Nitrogen β-particle No. of atoms of the sample of the radioactive element after 2nd half-life,

Gamma ( ) decay No. of atoms of the sample of the radioactive element after 3rd half-life,
Let be the number of atoms left in the radioactive element after half-lives and can be
In gamma decay, the proton number or atomic number of the parent nuclide and its mass determined by the following relation:
number or nucleon number remains unchanged. Gamma rays are usually emitted along with ; Where
either alpha or beta particle.

General Equation:
18.8. Is radioactivity a spontaneous process? Elaborate your answer with a simple
Parent nuclide Daughter nuclide -rays experiment.
Yes, radioactivity is a spontaneous process. The elements that have atomic number greater than
Example: 82 are unstable and disintegrate into other nuclei spontaneously and emit three types of radiations
called α-rays, β-rays and γ-rays.
Radium Radon -rays Experiment:
Consider the following diagram in which radioactive element
18.5. Write the alpha decay process for . Identify the parent and daughter nuclei in this is placed in a hole dug in a lead block. A photographic plate
decay. is placed above the lead block at some distance. The whole
apparatus is enclosed in a vacuum lead chamber. A
magnetic field is applied across chamber in such a way that
Protactinium Actinium α-particle its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the paper i.e.
inside the paper. The radiations, which emerged from the
Here parent nuclide protactinium-234 ( ) is converted into daughter nuclide Actnium-89 radioactive material, are made to strike a photographic
( ) after alpha decay process. plate. These radiations produce three different spots on the
photographic plate. Thus the radiations emitting from the
radioactive element split into three components.
18.6. Explain whether the atomic number can increase during nuclear decay. Support your
Conclusion:
answer with an example.
 The rays, which are deflected towards left, consist of
In beta decay, the atomic number of the parent nuclide increases by 1 and its mass number or positively charged particles and these are called alpha rays.
nucleon number remains unchanged  The rays, which are deflected towards right, consist of
negatively charged particles and these rays are known as
General Equation: the beta rays.
 The rays, which do not deflect, do not contain any charged particles are known as gamma rays.
Parent nuclide Daughter nuclide β-particle  This activity also shows that the radioactivity is a spontaneous process.

Example: 18.9. What is meant by background radiations? Enlist some sources of background radiations.
Everywhere in rocks, soil, water and air of our planet are traces of radioactive elements. The
Carbon Nitrogen β-particle radiations present in the atmosphere due to these traces of radioactive elements are called
background radiations.
Background radiations are as much part of our environment as sunshine and rain. Fortunately our
18.7. What do you understand by half-life of a radioactive element?
bodies can tolerate these radiations. Only places where radiation is very high can be injurious to
health.
Half-Life
Sources:
Rocks, soil, water and air in our environment are the sources of background radiations.
The time during which half of the unstable radioactive nuclei disintegrate is called half-life of the
sample of radioactive element. 18.10. Describe two uses of radioisotopes in medicine, industry or research.
OR Radioisotopes are frequently used in medicine, industry and agriculture for variety of useful
The time during which number of atoms of radioactive element are reduced to one half is called purposes. Following are applications of radioisotopes in different fields.
half-life of that radioactive element. 1. Tracers:
Radioactive tracers are chemical compounds containing some quantity of radioisotope. They can be used
Every radioactive element has its own characteristic half-life. For example radium-226 has a half- to explore the metabolism of chemical reactions inside the human body, animal or plant.
life of 1620 years, which means that half of a radium-226 sample will be converted to other Radioisotopes are used as tracers in medicine, industry and agriculture. For example:
elements by the end of 1620 years. In the next 1620 years, half of the remaining radium will In Medicine:
decay, leaving only one-fourth the original amount of radium and so.

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 Radio iodine-131 readily accumulates in the thyroid gland and can be used for monitoring of (c)
thyroid functioning.
(d)
 For the diagnosis of brain tumor phosphorus-32 is used. The malignant part of our body absorbs
more quantity of isotopes and this helps in tracing the affected part of our body.
(b) and (c) show possible radioactive decay processes.
In Industry:
 Tracers can be used to locate the wear and tear of the moving parts of the machinery.
(b)
 They can be used for the location leaks in underground pipes. By introducing a suitable radioactive
tracer into the pipe, the leak can be conveniently traced from higher activity in the region of crack
in the pipe. The reaction shows α-decay as a result, mass number and atomic number of parent nuclide
In Agriculture:
are respectively decreased by 4 and 2. Thus parent nuclide is transformed into daughter
 Radio phosphorus-32 is used as tracer to find out how well the plants are absorbing the phosphate
fertilizer which is crucial to their growth. nuclide .
2. Medical Treatment:
Radioisotopes are used in nuclear medicines for curing various diseases. For example, radioactive (c)
cobalt-60 is used for curing cancerous tumors and cells. The radiations kill the cells of the
malignant tumor in the patient.
18.11. What are two common radiation hazards? Briefly describe the precautions that are taken The reaction shows β-decay as a result, atomic number of parent nuclide is increased by 1
against them. and its mass number remains unchanged. Thus parent nuclide is transformed into daughter
Some of the harmful effects on human beings due to large doses or prolonged small doses of
radiations are: nuclide .
1. Radiations burns, mainly due to beta and gamma radiations which may cause redness and sores
on the skin. Where (a) and (d) radioactive processes are not possible.
2. Sterility (i.e. inability to produce children)
3. Genetic mutations in both human and plants. Some children are born with serious deformities.
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
4. Leukemia (cancer of blood cells).
5. Blindness or formation of cataract in the eye.
18.1. Is it possible for an element to have different types of atoms? Explain.
Because we cannot detect radiations directly, we should strictly follow safety precautions, even Yes, It is possible for an element to have different types of atoms. These atoms are called
when the radioactive sources are very weak. isotopes.
For example Hydrogen has three isotopes. These are called Protium , Deuterium and
1. The sources should only be handled with tongs and forceps.
2. The user should use rubber gloves and hands should be washed carefully after the experiment.
3. All radioactive sources should be stored in thick lead containers.
4. Never point a radioactive source towards a person.
5. Frequent visits to the radiation sensitive areas should be avoided.
18.12. Complete this nuclear reaction: . Does this reaction involve
fission or fusion? Justify your answer.
The nuclear reaction will be:

A heavy nucleus U-235 splits into two smaller nuclei Xenon-140 and Strontium-94, therefore the
given reaction is fission process. Tritium .
18.13. Nuclear fusion reaction is more reliable and sustainable source of energy than nuclear Protium has contains one proton in the nucleus and one electron that revolves around the
fission chain reaction. Justify this statement with plausible arguments. nucleus.
Fusion offers several advantages over fission and is more reliable and sustainable source of energy Deuterium has one proton and one neutron in the nucleus and one electron that revolves
that is justified by the following statements. around the nucleus.
 One advantage is that the reserves of fusionable isotopes are much larger than those of fissionable Tritium has one proton and two neutrons in the nucleus and one electron that revolves
isotopes; in fact, they are essentially unlimited. around the nucleus.
 Another advantage is that the products of fusion reactions are less radioactive than the products of
18.2. What nuclear reaction would release more energy, the fission reaction or the fusion
fission reactions. Among the products of the fusion reactions only tritium and the neutrons are
reaction? Explain.
radioactive.
Fusion reaction releases would release more energy than fission reaction can do. This is explained
 The last advantage of fusion reaction is that energy released by it is greater than the energy
below:
released in fission reaction. As in fusion reaction energy released per nucleon (3.52 MeV) is
In fission reaction Uranium-235 splits into Barium-141 and Kripon-92 with the release of 211 MeV
greater than the energy released per nucleon in Fission reaction (0.89 MeV).
of energy.
18.14. A nitrogen nuclide decays to become an oxygen nuclide by emitting an electron.
Show this process with an equation.

Following is the reaction. Therefore energy at the rate of MeV per nucleon is given out by the fission reaction.
In fusion reaction deuterium and tritium fused together to form helium nucleus (α-
Nitrogen Oxygen -rays particle) with the release of 17.6 MeV of energy.
18.15. Determine which of these radioactive decay processes are possible:
Therefore energy at the rate of MeV per nucleon is given out by the fusion reaction.
(a)
Hence in fusion reaction energy released per nucleon (3.52 MeV) is greater than the energy
(b)
released per nucleon in fission reaction (0.89 MeV).

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18.3. Which has more penetrating power, an alpha particle or gamma ray photon? : It shows : It shows
Gamma ray photons have the greatest penetrating power as these can penetrate a considerable
thickness of concrete. It is due to their speed and neutral nature. Atomic Mass Number = A= 14 Atomic Mass Number = A= 16

Atomic Number = No. of Protons Atomic Number = No. of Protons

18.4. What is the difference between natural and artificial radioactivity?
The elements having atomic number greater than 82 spontaneously keep on emitting radiations. =Z=7 =Z=7
This phenomenon is called natural radioactivity. Such elements are unstable and thus called
radioactive elements. No. of Neutrons = N = A – Z No. of Neutrons = N = A – Z
Stable elements can also be made radioactive by bombarding them with protons, neutron or alpha
particles. Such artificially produced elements also emit radiation. This process is called artificial = 14 – 7 = 7 = 16 – 7 = 9
radioactivity.
Differences between them:
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY
Natural Radioactivity Artificial Radioactivity contains 7 neutrons while contains 9 neutrons.

1. It involves spontaneous disintegration of 1. Stable nuclei are bombarded with high Conceptual Questions (NBF Book)
unstable nuclei with emission of α, β or γ energy particles to produce radioactive
radiations giving rise to new nuclides. nuclides. 1. What is common in isotopes of an element and what is different in them?

2. It cannot be controlled 2. It can be controlled by controlling the Ans:

speed of bombarding particles.
Similarities:
3. This is shown in heavy elements having 3. It can be induced even in lighter elements.
atomic number greater than 82. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons in the nucleus, which determines the
element's atomic number. This means that isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties
18.5. How long would you likely have to wait to watch any sample of radioactive atoms
and will react with other elements in the same way.
completely decay?
Life time of unstable radioactive nuclei is unlimited and is difficult to measure. So we have to wait
Differences:
for unlimited time to watch any sample of radioactive atoms completely decay.
18.6. Which type of natural radioactivity leaves the number of protons and the number of However, isotopes of an element can have different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. This means
neutrons in the nucleus unchanged? that isotopes of an element can have different atomic masses. The different number of neutrons in the
Gamma decay leaves the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus nucleus can affect the stability and properties of the isotope.
unchanged.
Example: 2. It happens that nuclear radiation emits from an atom of an element moves one step ahead in
a periodic table? Explain.
Cobalt Cobalt -rays
Ans: It is not possible for nuclear radiation emitted from an atom of an element to move one step
18.7. How much of a 1 g sample of pure radioactive substance would be left undecayed after four
ahead in the periodic table because the periodic table is organized based on the number of protons
half-lives?
(atomic number) in an atom, not on its nuclear properties.
Give that:
Amount of sample of radioactive element before decay Nuclear radiation, such as alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays, are emitted from the
Number of half lives nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay. This decay can change the atomic mass of the atom, but
Amount of sample of radioactive element after decay not its atomic number, which is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus.

3. Why do nuclei of atoms with atomic number greater than 82 emit radiations?

Ans: Atoms with atomic numbers greater than 82 (the element lead) tend to have unstable nuclei
18.8. Tritium is radioactive isotope of hydrogen. It decays by emitting an electron. What is because they have an excess of protons and neutrons, which can lead to a higher ratio of neutron-to-
the daughter nucleus? proton ratio than is stable. This excess of protons and neutrons creates an unstable nucleus, which can
Tritium decays by emitting an electron and transformed into isotope of helium as daughter decay by emitting radiation in order to become more stable.
nucleus.
4. Beta particle is emitted from the neutron of the nucleus. Write nuclear equation for this
reaction.

Tritium Helium β-particle Ans: The nuclear equation for the β-decay of a neutron can be represented as follows:

18.9. What information about the structure of the nitrogen atom can be obtained from its n → p + e⁻ + νᵦ
nuclide ? In what way atom in is different from the atom in ?
In this equation, "n" represents a neutron, "p" represents a proton, "e⁻" represents an electron (the
beta particle), and "νᵦ" represents an antineutrino.

An example of a β-decay nuclear equation is the decay of carbon-14, which has 6 protons and 8
neutrons, into nitrogen-14:

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→ + e⁻ + νᵦ to decay. The decay process is random, and the half-life is a statistical measure, so it is impossible to
predict exactly when any one particular atom will decay.

5. Why the range of the β-particle is greater than α-particle in the air with the same
energy? Conceptual Questions (KPK Book)

Ans: The range of a beta (β) particle is generally greater than that of an alpha (α) particle in air with Q1. The atomic number of one particular isotope is equal to its mass number. Which isotope is it?
the same energy because beta particles have a much smaller mass and charge than alpha particles. As
a result, they are not as strongly affected by air molecules and can travel further before losing their Ans. As we know that isotopes have same numbers of protons (Z) but different numbers of neutrons or mass
energy. number (A). In periodic table, hydrogen is the first element having three isotopes i.e., Protium ( ),
Deutrium ( ) and Tritium ( ). The only known isotope which has the same atomic number and mass
6. Why the ionization power of α-particles is greater than β-particles in a solid with the number is Protium( ). Protium is stable form of hydrogen that has only one proton in the nucleus, one
same energy? electron revolving around the nucleus and no neutron. Therefore, its atomic number as well as mass
number is equal to 1.
Ans: The ionization power of alpha (α) particles is generally greater than that of beta (β) particles in a
solid with the same energy because alpha particles have a much larger mass and charge than beta Q2. Which is more likely to expose, a film kept in a cardboard box, α- particles or β-particles?
particles. This means that alpha particles interact more strongly with the atoms of the solid, causing Explain.
more ionization and damage along their path.
Ans. β-particles is more likely to expose a film kept in a cardboard box than α-particles. Because penetration
7. What fraction of the radioactive element will be left after 4 half-lives have elapsed? power of β-particles is greater than that of α-particles. β-particles can travel several feet in air when
emitted from a radioactive source where as α-particles a can penetrate only a few centimeters in air.
Ans: The fraction of a radioactive element that will be left after 4 half-lives have elapsed can be So, α-particles cannot penetrate cardboard but β-particles may go deep in certain substances due to its
calculated using the following formula: less mass and less charge. Therefore, β-particles can easily penetrate through a cardboard.
n
Fraction remaining = ( Q3. It is possible for a form of heavy hydrogen to decay by emitting an alpha particle? Explain.

For 4 half-lives, the number of half-lives is 4, so the formula becomes: Ans. No, it is not possible for any form of hydrogen to decay by emitting alpha particles. As we know that
Deuterium ( ) is also known as heavy hydrogen which has one of the two stable isotopes of hydrogen.
4
Fraction remaining = ( = Therefore, the fraction of the radioactive element that will be left after 4 The nucleus of deuterium contains 1 proton and 1 neutron. In α-decay, a nucleus emits anα-particle
( ) that is doubly ionized helium nucleus. The α-particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons i.e. a
half-lives have elapsed is .
combination of 4 nucleons. As the heavy hydrogen ( ) has only 1 proton and 1 neutron in its nucleus.
So, it is not possible for a heavy hydrogen to emit an α-particle because the emission of an α-particle
8. In the nuclear reaction: + → + W , what particle does W donates?
occurs most often in massive nuclei that is having large number of neutrons and protons.
Ans: In the nuclear reaction:
Q4. Different isotopes of a given element have different masses but they have the same chemical
+ → +W properties. Explain why chemical properties are unaffected by a change of isotope.

The product W donates two protons (2H+) to balance the total charge on both sides of the equation. Ans. Each atomic number identifies a specific element but not the isotope. Thus, different isotopes of a given
element have the same number of electrons and share a similar electronic configuration. Chemical
+
Hence, W donates two protons (2H ). properties are determined by the valence electrons of an atom and not by the neutrons in the nucleus.
Thus, because of this electronic structure, all isotopes of a given element have the same chemical
9. Why is energy released when lighter nuclei fuse with heavier nuclei? properties. However, due to different mass number they have different physical properties such as
boiling point, melting point etc.
Ans: The energy released during nuclear fusion of lighter nuclei with heavier nuclei is due to a process
called nuclear binding energy. This energy is released as a result of the strong force, which is the force Q5. What fraction of a radioactive sample has decayed after two half-lives have elapsed?
that binds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.
Ans. After two half-lives, ¾ of a radioactive sample has been decayed.
10. When a nucleus absorbs a slow neutron it subsequently emits two α- particle what is
the resulting element? Let original number of atoms = No

Ans: The general equation for this reaction is: Then number of under decayed atoms after n-half-lives is given by,

*
+ →( →X+Y+
( )
A typical reaction of this type is:
Hence we have two half lives, i.e.
*
+ →( → + +3
n=2 So, Equation (i) becomes
11. How long will a radioactive element take to decay completely?
( )
Ans: The length of time it takes for a radioactive element to decay completely depends on the half-life
of the element. The half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample

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DESIRE ACADEMY PHYSICS NOTES (CLASS-X) DESIRE ACADEMY PHYSICS NOTES (CLASS-X)

Assignment 18.2. An atom of sodium-24 can transmute into an atom of some other element by
emitting a beta particle. Represent this reaction in symbols, and identity the daughter element.
Assignment 18.3. Lead-210 has a half-life of 22.3 years. How much of the 80mg of lead will be left
after 66.9 years?
Assignment 18.4. Suppose the fossil of bone you are examining has ¼ of the carbon- 14 deposits
Now, the number of decayed atoms = original atoms – under decayed atoms as composed to the bone of the living animal per gram. The half-life of 14C is 5730 years, what is
the approximate age of the fossil?

Numerical Problems (KPK Book)

Putting value of “N” in eq.(ii), we get
N.P 15.8. How many neutrons are contained in a gold nucleus ?
N.P 15.9. decays via alpha decay. Identify the daughter nuclide.
N.P 15.10. Write the nuclear equations for the beta decry of and .
N.P 15.11. Iodic-131 is an important radioisotope for medical diagnostic and treatment procedures. The
131
half-life of I is 8.02 days. Out of 100g of the sample how much will be left after 24 days?
N.P 15.12. Phosphorus-32 used in plant sciences for tracking a plant‟s uptake of fertilizer from the roots to
the leaves. The half-life of 32P is 15 days. Out of 800 𝝁g of the activity given as fertilizer how
much will be left after one month?
12
N.P 15.13. C to 14C ratio in an animal is found to be one fourth of the ratio in the bone of living
Hence number of atoms decayed after two half lives is equal to ( ).
animal. The half-life14C is 5730 years, how old is the fossil?

Q6. Can Carbon-14 dating give the age of fossil dinosaur skeletons? Explain.

Ans. Carbon-14 dating is technique used to find the age of fossils and organic matter. As we know, the half-
life of Carbon-14 is only 5730 years. But this method is only useful for organic matter which is less than
50,000 years old. On the other hand, the age of dinosaurs bones are millions of years‟ old which is
greater than the half life of Carbon-14. Therefore, is not possible to determine the age of dinosaur‟s
fossils using C-14 dating. In order to determine the ages of dinosaur‟s fossils, scientist need an isotope
with a very long half-life.

Q7. Some food is treated with gamma radiation to kill bacteria. Why is there not a concern that
people who eat such food might be consuming food containing gamma radiation?

Ans. The food is exposed to ionizing radiations, either from γ-rays, x-rays or high energy electrons. This
technique is used to extend the shelf life of food produces and make them safe. Treating foods with γ-
rays does not make it radioactive. Therefore, irradiated foods are safe because the radiation does not
strike the food directly. Irradiation makes food safer by killing harmful bacteria. The radiations that are
used do not have sufficient energy to make changes in the food and making them radioactive.

Q8. Radioactive - emitters are relatively harmless outside the body, but can be dangerous if
ingested or inhaled. Explain.

Ans: Among the ionizing radiations, -particles are the least dangerous in terms of external effects. They
are the heaviest and having a high ionizing power than and -rays. Due to this, - particles do not
penetrate very deeply into the body. Infact, clothing can stop alpha particles. However, if these
particles are ingested or inhaled usually in the form of radon gas, it may cause more several effects and
damage to our body due to its high ionizing power. For example, it may cause lung cancer.

Q9. If nuclear radiation is harmful, how it can be used for treatment of diseases?

Ans. The nuclear radiations are used for the treatment of various diseases. But when these radiations are
exposed to human body, they may cause severe burns and other diseases. To avoid such harmful
effects, these radiations should be used carefully by expert doctors. Like very small amount of
radiations are used for imaging scans. The radiation disappears (decays) in a very short time due to
which it is not harmful for humans. So, the radiations should be focused on the germs of affected area
(i.e. cancer cells) in order to kill them and other healthy parts of the body should keep safe from falling
of radioactive radiations.

Assignments (KPK Book)

Assignment 18.1. Find the daughter nucleus when radium-224 undergoes alpha decay.

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