Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29988-3

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Assessment of groundwater vulnerability for seawater intrusion using

DRASTIC model in coastal area at Patuakhali District, Bangladesh
Irfanul Hasan1 · Selim Reza1 · Abu Bakar Siddique2 · Ahedul Akbor2 · Mehedi Hasan2 · Aynun Nahar2 ·
Iftekharul Islam1

Received: 1 April 2023 / Accepted: 16 September 2023 / Published online: 27 September 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
Seawater intrusion is a growing concern for coastal regions in Bangladesh. Overexploitation of groundwater, low rainfall, a
high rate of evaporation, rising sea level, cyclones, storm surges, and shrimp cultivation are the causes of seawater intrusion
that polluted the groundwater near the coastal area. High values of EC, TDS, ­Na+, and ­Cl− ions in groundwater indicate the
seawater intrusion. Piper’s Trilinear and Durov diagrams of groundwater indicated that most gathered groundwater show
predominantly Na–Cl-type of water. Based on the USSL diagram, it is observed that the salinity of the study area is medium
to high and the alkalinity is medium to very high. Also, in view of the Wilcox outline, most of the samples in the area of
interest are permissible to doubtful, and doubtful to unsuitable. Chloride is moderately correlated with ­Na+ (R2 = 0.590)
and poorly correlated with ­(HCO3− + ­CO32−) (R2 = 0.128), which indicates seawater intrusion. According to a comparison
of the levels of Fe and Mn in the groundwater of the study area with those recommended by the World Health Organization
(WHO) and Department of the Environment (DOE), twenty-two out of thirty-one samples exceed the acceptable limit for
Fe and thirty out of thirty-one samples fall within the acceptable limit for Mn. The calculated water quality index reveals
that most samples are of low drinking water quality. The research area’s poor water type is found in the north-central and
southern parts. The WQI geographic variation map reveals that the study’s water has a WQI of more than 100, making it
unsuitable for consumption. The final seawater intrusion vulnerability map clearly identifies the moderate to highly vulner-
able zone of the study area using DRASTIC index parameters. DRASTIC index parameters revealed that some portions of
the northwestern part of the sample area show a moderately vulnerable zone. And the rest of the sampling area indicates
the highly vulnerable zone.

Keywords Groundwater · Vulnerability · Sea-water intrusion · DRASTIC framework · Patuakhali District

Introduction pressure, allowing saltwater to flow more freely into fresh-

water aquifers (Abdalla 2016).
Seawater intrusion is a widespread concern in coastal aqui- Bangladesh is considered one of the most climate-vulner-
fers; groundwater from the coastal alluvial plain is the pri- able countries in the world. Increasing salinity is a crucial
mary water source in coastal areas (Jannat et al. 2022). It consignment as the citizens of the southern region are expe-
occurs when excessive freshwater pumping lowers water riencing a shortage of clean drinking water, irrigation, agri-
cultural, and other purposes due to increased salt in the water
and land. In the southern part, it has around 710-km coastal
Responsible Editor: V.V.S.S. Sarma line with highly susceptible areas to sea-level rise (Islam
et al. 2016). Throughout the most recent 35 years, salinity
* Selim Reza
selimreza69@ru.ac.bd has expanded by around 26% in the coastal region of Bangla-
desh (Alam et al. 2017). In recent years, salinity has afflicted
1
Department of Geology and Mining, University of Rajshahi, over 53% of Bangladesh’s coastal areas (Islam et al. 2014).
Rajshahi 6205, Bangladesh Groundwater in this floodplain has been investigated from
2
Institute of National Analytical Research and Service multiple perspectives. Overexploitation of groundwater, low
(INARS), Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial rainfall, high rate of exhalation, rising sea levels, cyclones,
Research (BCSIR), Dhaka 1205, Bangladesh

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109022 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

storm surges, and shrimp culture are the main causes of sea- result from frequent fluctuations in salinity levels. The coastal
water intrusion contaminating groundwater. Groundwater in regions with the mangrove swamp are immersed twice daily;
this floodplain has been investigated from multiple perspec- subsequently, flowing immersion manages the saltiness levels
tives (Islam et al. 2021; Sarkar and Islam 2021). of coastal areas. The duration and depth of flowing immersion
Groundwater is hard to contaminate, yet once polluted, rely upon many variables, like the separation from the funda-
it is difficult to clean up the contamination (Jiang et al. mental streams and ocean, including nearby alleviation and
2019). Groundwater systems respond slowly to contami- residue load in the immersing water (Rahman 1995). Accord-
nation events, and the travel time to reach a groundwater ing to estimations, Bangladesh has 2.8 million acres of land
zone is often long. Cleaning and restoring contaminated that is salinized and contains water that is of low quality. Off-
groundwater is often technically problematic and costly, and shore islands and deltaic floodplains are included in the over-
finding alternative water supply sources is only sometimes all area. The Tetulia Waterway, which runs through the study
feasible (Nadiri et al. 2013). The groundwater and surface area, is the principal river. The research conducted on assess-
water in the coastal area is highly concentrated by salinity. ing groundwater vulnerability for seawater intrusion using the
Deep-water aquifer more than 200 m to 300 m is free from DRASTIC framework in the coastal area of Patuakhali Dis-
salinity. A shallow water aquifer is not suitable for drinking trict, Bangladesh, represents a novel concept. This framework
and domestic uses. Several authors have demonstrated this incorporates a set of hydrological and hydrogeological data
salinity problem in the world and Bangladesh. The region layers in a scoring system, which combines data layers through
includes 19 coastal districts that have been analyzed and the prescribed values of rates and weights. Notably, the rate
monitored for the probable impact of climate change, i.e., values quantify the local variability, and the weight values
sea level rise and seawater intrusion. Soil and water salinity refer to the relative importance of data layers (Nadiri et al.
is a common hazard in many parts of the coastal zone. Water 2022). This study is unique in its application of the DRAS-
salinity can be categorized as surface water, river water, and TIC framework to assess vulnerability specifically related to
gher water (water within shrimp cultivation), and modest seawater intrusion in the southern part of Bangladesh. Before
tube wells and deep tube wells are examples of groundwater this research, a few existing literature had explored the vulner-
(SRDI 2010). In the southwest region, surface water salinity ability of seawater intrusion using the DRASTIC framework
has been increased by reducing the dry season upland flows in this context worldwide. However, it is worth noting that a
entering the Gorai distributaries. Fresh, brackish, and saline separate study was conducted using the DRASTIC framework
water distribution continues to develop over geologic time, to assess groundwater vulnerability due to open-pit coal min-
influenced by various natural processes and human involve- ing. This particular study focused on the Phulbari Coal Mine in
ment. Coastal locations are mostly home to brackish and Bangladesh and did not address the issue of seawater intrusion.
salty groundwater (Kumar et al. 2007). The main objectives of the research study are (i) explanation
Many coastal aquifers worldwide, particularly shallow of saline water intrusion in groundwater to help people under-
ones, are currently experiencing severe saltwater intrusion stand the seawater intrusion mechanism; (ii) create awareness
due to natural and man-made causes (Essink 2001). Natural among the people about the alarming effects of saline water
resource extraction (water, sand, oil, and gas) and land rec- intrusion and encourage them to drink and domestic use water
lamation are examples of human interference (which causes from the saline-free zone; (iii) in the study area, saline water
subsidence) that threaten coastal lowlands. As a result, sur- intrusion occurs at different depths. So, this study ensures the
face water salinities rise, and soil salinity increases, causing respective authority/government installs tube wells for extrac-
land degradation. As a result of the salt damage, agricultural tion of saline-free water which is used for irrigation, agricul-
yields are low, and native crops are replaced by salt-tolerant ture, and other uses; (iv) the scope of the country’s require-
varieties. If salt-tolerant crops cannot tolerate high salinities, ments, the Department of Geology and Mining of Rajshahi
people are compelled to shift from the barren terrain to more University produces valuable technical hands in this science
productive agricultural locations, causing social upheaval. branch. The preliminary information presented in this paper
That is why water quality needs to be assessed to keep the may be helpful in further study in the area in the future.
human body and environment healthy (Islam et al. 2022).
Furthermore, faster global mean sea level rise poses a
hazard to coastal aquifers within the zone of impact of mean Materials and methods
sea level. According to the fourth IPCC assessment (IPCC
2007), a rise in global mean sea level of 59 cm by 2100 Study area
might risk temporary coastal aquifers even more than they
are now due to increased salinization. This region, located at the northern tip of the Bay of Bengal,
The tropical rainforest Sundarbans, the nearest forest that makes up around one-fifth of all of Bangladesh. The coastal
can be associated with and subjected to saline water, may and offshore land districts of Khulna, Barisal, Patuakhali,

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040 109023

Noakhali, and Chittagong are mostly engaged in the salty microbial growth and avoid metal precipitation (Fe, Al). The
soils. The salinity of the Sundarbans and its adjoining lab received the water samples, which were refrigerated for
coastal regions increments from the east toward the west and examination.
north to south. Given the salinity level, the region is sepa-
rated into three saline zones: less salty, decently saline, and Groundwater sampling and analysis
solid saline (Siddiqi 2001). Dashmina, Galachipa, and Rang-
abali Upazilas study areas are located in the southwest part In the field, portable pH (HI 98108) and electrical conduc-
of Patuakhali district and the southern part of Bangladesh tivity (EC) (CD-4301) meters have been used to monitor
along the Bay of Bengal (Supplementary Fig. 1). The study temperature, pH, and EC. Atomic absorption spectros-
area is covered by twenty-three unions, and the total area copy (AAS) and ion chromatography (IC) were used at the
is 1620.24 ­km2 (Population and Housing Census of 2011). Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
It is bounded by Bauphal Upazila on the north, Patuakhali (BCSIR), Institute of National Analytical Research and Ser-
Sadar Upazila on the south, and Kalapara Upazila on the vice (INARS) in Dhaka, Bangladesh, to analyze the concen-
southwest. It lies between latitude 21°49′30″ to 22°20′00″ trations of major cations, trace elements, and anions.
north and longitude 90°20′00″ to 90°40′00″ east. Conceptual
models of hydrogeological conditions based on fundamental Methods of water samples analyses
lithology and depth rather than stratigraphic units were used
to evaluate the technical and hydraulic aspects of aquifers Field‑measured parameters
and deep tube well designs to depths of 150 m.
This is because the Late Pleistocene-Holocene sedimen- Using various practical tools and visual perceptions, hands-
tation history in Bangladesh has received very little atten- on work was used to determine the water tests physical
tion. According to Ahmed et al. 1998, Bangladesh can be parameters (pH, EC, temperature, and total dissolved solids
divided into six major groundwater zones. Zone-1, Tista (TDS)). A microprocessor-based Bench meter (model: *pH
fan; zone-2, flood plain; zone-3, Pleistocene tracts; zone- (HI 98108)* Hanna instrument, Portugal) was used for the
4, Sylhet depression; zone-5, the coastal plain; and zone-6, field measurements of pH. The meter was first calibrated by
complex geology. The Upazilas of Patuakhali District falls buffer solution “4” followed by “7.” After the instrument’s
within zone 5 (coastal plain). Patuakhali District is located standardization, each sample’s pH was recorded. EC meter
in the Bengal Basin and is characterized by sedimentary (Lutron CD-4301), which was used to measure the electri-
formations such as the Dupi Tila Formation, the Barail For- cal conductance of the water samples, measurements of EC
mation, and the Tipam Sandstone Formation. The aquifers were carried out by immersing “conductivity electrode”
in the district are mainly composed of sand and gravel, and in water samples. Then, the EC of the water samples was
their hydrogeological characteristics have been studied using recorded from the digital display of the EC meter. A rapid
various methods such as geoelectrical measurements and determination of TDS has been made simply by multiply-
water quality assessment. Sediments of the shallow depth ing the measured EC values (μS/cm) by the constant 0.64
(65–90) m are generally an unconfined aquifer composed of (Todd 1980).
a complicated combination of fine sand, silts, and clay. The
deep aquifer consists of a thick clay sequence of (65–160) m, Laboratory analyses
which acts as a confining layer and protects the deep aquifer
from leakage of saline water from overlying shallow aqui- The major cations measured by laboratory analysis are ­Na+,
fers. This aquifer unit is hydraulically connected to the river. ­Ca2+, ­Mg2+, and ­K+. The major anions measured by labo-
ratory analysis are H­ CO3−, ­SO42−, ­Cl−, and N
­ O3−. Trace
Sampling of groundwater elements of the study area (Fe and Mn) were measured by
laboratory analysis.
Collection of water samples
Analytical quality control
Thirty-one groundwater samples were collected from Dash-
mina, Galachipa, and Rangabali Upazila in the Patuakhali From sample collection through laboratory analysis, the
district of Bangladesh (Fig. 1). Groundwater samples were researchers kept track of everything; the quality of the
collected from deep tube wells depths ranging from 210 to analysis was carefully monitored. H ­ NO 3 and deionized
400 m after 5–10 min of pumping. The samples were col- water (electrical conductivity 0.2 μScm−1, obstruction
lected in 250-mL plastic bottles undergoing an acid wash 18.2 MΩ cm at 25 °C) were utilized to set up the exam-
before being rinsed with the appropriate shallow tube wells ples. The pipette, volumetric flagon, and any remaining
(STW) water. Each bottle received 0.5% H ­ NO3 to stop dishes utilized in the analysis were adjusted and cleaned

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109024 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

Fig. 1  Sample location map of the study area

before use by absorbing 10% (v/v) ­H NO 3 short-term execution, were evaluated in ion exchange chromatogra-
and afterwards flushing with deionized water (Hasan phy (IC) analysis. The instrument’s dependability was
et al. 2020). For assembling working norms and align- confirmed by comparing it to independent standards
ment, we utilized NIST apparent stock standard arrange- from other sources and the CRMs. Previously published
ments (1000 ± 4 ­m gL −1). The adjustment coefficient of equations in the research of anions were used to assess
the created alignment bend was maintained as reason- spike recovery (Ahsan et al. 2019). The spike recovery
ably as possible (linearity: 0.99). After five examples, increased the validity of the analytical approach. A repeat
the grouping of perceived standard arrangements or not analysis against NIST traceable CRM was carried out to
entirely settled and a strategy clear after ten examples, guarantee the correctness and precision of the analytical
the precision of the scientific cycle, as well as instrument data.

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040 109025

Assessment of drinking water using WQI

∑n
WQI =
i=1
wi ∗ qi (3)

The water quality index (WQI) has been widely used by To categorize the water type of the research region,
environmental academics to evaluate water quality (Sener computed WQI was compared to a range of WQI (Sahu
et al. 2017). The relative impact of each ion on drinking and Sikdar 2008) (Supplementary Table 2). Then, using
water quality and human health in the research region was GIS and IDW interpolation, spatial variation maps of WQI
used to allocate weight to each ion for calculating the WQI were created.
(Meng et al. 2016). We need to assign a weight (wi) to
each groundwater meter, compute a relative weight (Wi),
and apply a quality rating scale to determine WQI (qi). Irrigation water assessment
pH, TDS, EC, ­Ca2+, ­Mg2+, ­Na+, ­K+, ­HCO3−, ­Cl−, ­SO42−,
­NO3−, and Wi were all provided, with Wi being computed The findings of irrigation water quality metrics may dif-
using Eq. (1) (Boateng et al. 2016; Jhariya et al. 2017; fer, affecting decision-making. To compensate for this
RamyaPriya and Elango 2018). Supplementary Table 1 shortcoming, the irrigation water quality indices were
shows the allocated wi values for each groundwater param- calculated using Eqs. (4), (5), and (6) to determine SAR,
eter. Weighted values were assigned based on the relative Na%, and RSC. These irrigation water quality character-
importance of groundwater factors in determining drinking istics were given a weight (Wi) based on their importance
water quality (Srinivasamoorthy et al. 2008). Parameters for irrigation. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC), sodium
that have a significant impact on water quality were given absorption ratio (SAR), and sodium percentage (Na%)
the maximum weighting of 5. Because of their relevance were estimated to determine if groundwater in the research
in determining water quality, total dissolved solids and region was suitable for irrigation (Li et al. 2013). These
­NO3− were given the most weight (Ramakrishnaiah et al. calculations employed groundwater concentrations meas-
2009). Because chloride has little influence in determin- ured in meq/LT.
ing water quality, it is assigned a minimal weight of 5
(Mahmud et al. 2020). Based on their importance in deter- Ratio of sodium adsorption Equation (4) was used to com-
mining water quality, pH, total dissolved solids, calcium, pute SAR (Li et al. 2018):
magnesium, total hardness, and sulfate were each assigned
a weight from 1 to 5. This calculation took into account 11 SAR = √
Na+
physicochemical parameters in mg/L (n = 11). Supplemen- Ca2+ +Mg2+ (4)
tary Table 1 shows the calculated Wi values for various 2

groundwater characteristics: Sodium percentage Using Eq. (5), the Na% was calculated
wi (Wu and Sun 2016):
Wi = ∑n
Wi (1) ( + )
i=1 Na + K + ∗ 100
Na% = (5)
For each groundwater parameter, qi was calculated Ca2+ + Mg2+ + Na+ + K +
using the determined concentration (ci) and drinking water
standard (si) values based on WHO guidelines (2011). Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) Equation (6) was used to
Equation (2) (Boateng et al. 2016; Jhariya et al. 2017; compute RSC (Li et al. 2019):
RamyaPriya and Elango 2018): RSC = HCO−3 + CO2− (6)
) ( 2+
− Ca + Mg2+
( )
3
ci
qi = ∗ 100 (2) Apart from these, Wilcox’s diagram (Wilcox 1955) is
si
used to classify groundwater for irrigation, in which the EC
is plotted against the percentage of Na in the water (Roy
ci concentration et al. 2019). The sodium danger was evaluated using the
soluble sodium percentage (SSP) or Na percent (Islam et al.
2017). According to Islam et al. (2022), soluble sodium per-
si standard centage (SSP) is as follows:

Finally, utilizing computed qi and Wi, as indicated in Na+

SSP + ( 2+ ) × 100 (7)
Eq. (3), WQI was calculated (Jhariya et al. 2017; Rabeiy Ca + Mg2+ + K +
2018; RamyaPriya and Elango 2018):

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109026 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

Assessment of groundwater vulnerability using Al-Rawabdeh et al. (2013) summarized the DRASTIC
a DRASTIC framework values together into low-, moderate-, and high-pollution
potential classes. These classes signify the relative pollu-
There are two main types of vulnerability assessment: tion potential within the study area. The aquifer vulner-
intrinsic vulnerability and specific vulnerability. The ability map was prepared by overlapping the layers through
first term refers to the intrinsic property of groundwater GIS. Two different vulnerability zones were determined
systems to human or natural impacts. The leading model in the study area according to DRASTIC scores: medium
of intrinsic vulnerability is the DRASTIC index (Nadiri (100–140) and high (> 140). Since 1970, many research-
et al. 2016). A previous study used the DRASTIC frame- ers have developed several aquifer vulnerability mapping
work to analyze groundwater vulnerability in the Senir- techniques. However, for mapping aquifer vulnerability in
kent-Uluborlu Plain, part of the Egirdir Lake basin. The porous aquifers, DRASTIC has been the most often used
results were deemed helpful and accurate summaries of the tool (Aller et al. 1987). The DRASTIC approach was chosen
field’s current state (Sener et al. 2009). Since the end of in this study to determine aquifer vulnerability in the basin.
the 1980s, a US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) The DRASTIC framework was chosen for this study’s
system named DRASTIC has been increasingly used to assessment of aquifer risk in the basin. As detailed in due
evaluate pollution migration from the land surface to course, the framework is a proactive management tool for
groundwater. This system considers aspects of the geo- aquifer VI values using seven hydrogeological parameters.
logic environment of the study area, such as the depth of The approach in its traditional form is referred to here as
the groundwater, head of the infiltration water recharge, the Basic DRASTIC Framework (BDF), which prescribes
and characteristics of the strata within the aquifer, such as rate and weight values without learning from local data
hydraulic conductivity and characteristics of the soil and (Nadiri et al. 2018). The variables that were used to cre-
water zone structure, and the land slope assessment. ate the DRASTIC approach were hydraulic conductivity
The DRASTIC framework has frequently been (C), topography (T), the effect of the vadose zone (I), net
employed in porous aquifers to map aquifer susceptibil- recharge (R), aquifer media (A), soil media (S), and depth
ity (Aller et al. 1987). These frameworks put consensu- to groundwater (D). Each parameter is divided into ranges
ally together several data layers, and that of DRASTIC based on functional curves and given unique ratings on a
is used widely for aquifers vulnerable to manmade pol- scale of 1 to 10 (lowest to maximum contamination poten-
lution (Nadiri et al. 2019). In recent years, water quality tial). This rating is scaled by groundwater contamination
organizations at all levels of government have been regu- and DRASTIC weighting factors ranging between 1 (least
larly evaluating groundwater pollution (Dixon 2005). The significant) and 5 (most significant). The DRASTIC Vulner-
amount of groundwater pollution can be reduced by iden- ability Index (DVI) was calculated using a linear additive
tifying and monitoring sensitive regions. Determining how combination of the aforementioned characteristics, ratings,
to delineate areas susceptible to contamination is difficult and weights (Aller et al. 1987):
due to the many variables influencing groundwater con-
DVI = DrDw + RrRw + ArAw + SrSw + TrTw + IrIw + CrCw
tamination in certain areas (Dixon 2005). One of the most (8)
crucial considerations in decision-making today is ground-
where,
water vulnerability, which is considered by multi-criteria
decision-making methodologies used in river basins and
Dr rating for the depth of the water table
wastewater management systems (Kholghi 2001). Ground-
water vulnerability has been estimated using a variety of
procedures. These methods primarily consist of analytical
Dw weight assigned to the depth of the water table
tools that make an effort to connect land use activities
and groundwater pollution. These evaluation techniques
Rr rating for aquifer recharge
may be classified into three categories: overlay and index
approaches, process-based simulation models, and sta-
Rw weight for aquifer recharge
tistical methodologies (Harbaugh et al. 2000). Because
the system does not account for the effect of geographical
Ar rating assigned to aquifer media
variables, identical weights and rating values are applied
everywhere. In addition, there is no standard procedure for
Aw weight assigned to aquifer media
testing and validating an aquifer approach. Some scientists
have attempted to link the vulnerability index to chemical
Sr rating for the soil media
and pollutant factors (Kalinski et al. 1994; Rupert 1999;
MClay et al. 2001).

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040 109027

Sw weight for the soil media Water quality mapping technique

Tr rating for topography (slope) ArcGIS 10.6 was used to create the map showing the study
area’s groundwater quality. Using the spatial analyst tool,
Tw weight assigned to topography inverse distance weighting (IDW), theme maps for the
parameters were created. IDW is an interpolation technique
Ir rating assigned to the impact of vadose zone that calculates cell values by averaging sample data points
close to each processing cell. The more effect or weight a
Iw weight assigned to the impact of the vadose zone point has on the averaging process, the closer it is to the
approximated cell’s center. The inverse distance weighted
Cr rating for rates of hydraulic conductivity (IDW) interpolation method was employed to construct spa-
tial variation maps to determine the main cations and anions
Cw weight is given to hydraulic conductivity in the groundwater of the region of interest. IDW uses a
deterministic model technique, which calculates unknown
Only the attributes of the research region were used to values based on local locations rather than far-off ones. With
calculate the rating ranges. Each DRASTIC characteristic real-world parameters, this interpolation method also works
is divided into multiple classes or important media types well. The IDW interpolation method is frequently used to
that might influence contamination potential (Ehteshami explore the regional distribution of physiochemical proper-
et al. 1991). To determine the parameter rating ranges, ties (Kanagaraj and Elango 2016). By overlaying the data
one must thoroughly understand the geology and hydro- gathered by the real field survey with the findings of labora-
geology of the research area. tory analysis, the IDW map’s results were validated. The
IDW interpolated map’s pixel values closely match those
of field-validated data. To assess the groundwater types in
Data analysis the study region, a Piper pilot (Piper 1944) and Durov were
used.
Using IBM SPSS statistics software, the analytical data
were statistically examined (version 20, IBM Corpora-
tion, Armonk, NY, USA). The average behavior and dis- Results
persion of the parameters were calculated using descrip-
tive statistics (Hasan et al. 2020; Ahsan et al. 2019). To High values of EC, pH, TDS, N ­ a+, and C
­ l− ions in ground-
get extensive information on the analytical data sets and water indicate seawater intrusion in groundwater, which
gain insight into the metal distribution by finding simi- hydrochemical analyses examine. The highest values of
larities and differences in samples, a multivariate sta- EC, pH, and TDS are 1640 µS/cm, 9.40, and 1049.6 mg/L,
tistical analysis, such as principal component analysis respectively, and the lowest values of EC, pH, and TDS
(PCA), was performed (Hasan et al. 2020; Ahsan et al. are 620 µS/cm, 7.60, and 396.8 mg/L, respectively. Using
2019; Khan et al. 2019). PCA was performed on the data- AquaChem software, Piper’s Trilinear diagram and Durov
set using a varimax normalized rotation. To examine the diagram revealed that most collected groundwater sam-
correlations between the measured metals in the sam- ples show mainly Na–Cl type of water, where N ­ a+ is the
ples and identify the most likely sources of sample con- dominant cation and ­Cl− is the dominant anion in the study
tamination, a Pearson bivariate correlation matrix (CM) area. Based on the USSL diagram, the study area’s salin-
was utilized (Hasan et al. 2020; Ahsan et al. 2019; Islam ity is medium to high, and alkalinity is medium to very
et al. 2019). Additionally, statistical correlations between high. Based on the Wilcox diagram, most of the samples
anion, cation, and physical characteristics of groundwa- of the study area are permissible to doubtful and doubt-
ter samples were performed using SPSS (version 16.00), ful to unsuitable. EC is positively correlated with ­Na+
and ArcGIS was used to perform geographical analysis (R2 = 0.222) and ­Cl− (R2 = 0.116). Chloride is positively
(version 10.6). To identify the water types, Aqua-Chem moderately correlated with N ­ a+ (R2 = 0.590) and poorly
(version 3.7) software was used to plot major ion com- correlated with (­HCO 3− + ­CO 32−) (R 2 = 0.128), which
positions on a Piper Trilinear (Piper 1953) and a Durov indicates seawater intrusion. If chloride is highly corre-
diagram (Durov 1948). The interrelationship of ground- lated with ­(HCO3− + ­CO32−), that means the fresh water.
water physiochemical variables was analyzed using a Sodium concentration ranges from 122.6 to 425.3 mg/L,
correlation matrix (Wu et al. 2014). which indicates that the southern portion of the study area
is a highly vulnerable zone. The permissible limit for N ­ a+

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109028 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

concentration in drinking water is 200 mg/L based on the calculated using a linear additive combination of the afore-
World Health Organization (WHO) recommended drinking mentioned characteristics, ratings, and weights (Aller et al.
water standard. Another vital element is ­Cl− which also indi- 1987). The final vulnerability map identifies the study area’s
cates the salinity of groundwater. The chloride concentra- moderate to high vulnerable zone using DRASTIC index
tion of groundwater in the study area ranges from 5.336 to parameters. DRASTIC index parameters revealed that some
321.809 mg/L. The permissible limit for C ­ l− concentration portion of the northwestern part of the sample area shows
in drinking water is 250 mg/L based on the WHO drinking a moderately vulnerable zone. Most of the sampling area
water standard. The chloride concentration value indicates indicates the highly vulnerable zone.
that the southern portion of the study area is a highly vulner-
able zone. The calculated values of SAR, Na%, and RSC in
groundwater range from 10.36 to 52.60, 80.05 to 98.72, and Discussions
1.62 to 11.03, respectively. The trace elements of the study
area, iron and manganese, range from 0.175 to 2.084 mg/L Groundwater parameters by spatial variation
(average 0.443 mg/L) and 0.027 to 1.365 mg/L (average
0.088 mg/L), respectively. A comparison of the ground- Physical parameters of groundwater samples
water quality in the study area with WHO and Department
of Environment (DOE) standards shows that all samples
exceed the permissible limit for iron except nine samples, pH The pH of the groundwater in the research region is
and all the samples within the allowable limit for manga- shown in Fig. 2a as an interpolated spatial variation map.
nese except one sample. The WQI geographic variation The groundwater in the research region is strongly alkaline,
map reveals that the study’s water has a WQI range from as shown by the pH spatial variation map. In all areas of the
50 to 200. The research area’s poor water type is found in research region, the highest pH is found. The pH values in
the north-central and southern parts. DRASTIC is usually the water sample from the research location surpassed the
employed in porous aquifers to map aquifer susceptibility WHO (2011) recommended drinking water standard. The
(Aller et al. 1987). Because the major contamination causes presence of deep groundwater and sluggish groundwater
include saltwater intrusion, clearance of vegetation, topsoil recharging is indicated by a high pH value in groundwater
loss, and other factors, the DRASTIC approach was used for (Mahamat et al. 2017).
determining aquifer vulnerability in Dashmina, Galachipa,
and Rangabali Upazilas in the Patuakhali district region. EC The regional variance in EC values reveals that some
The seven hydrogeological characteristics (depth to water, part of the study is polluted by seawater intrusion and the
net recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, influ- rest of the area is free from saline water which is shown in
ence of vadose zone, and hydraulic conductivity) have been Fig. 2b. The interpolated spatial variation map of EC values
considered when using the DRASTIC approach to assess reveals that EC concentration in groundwater is particularly
aquifer vulnerability. The DRASTIC framework has been high in the southwestern region. This is the area found near
prepared and identified a seawater intrusion vulnerability the Tetulia River. The high values of EC in the study area
map, indicating the saline-free zone and saline water–pol- could be due to surface–groundwater interaction based on
luted aquifers. The DRASTIC vulnerability index ranged hydraulic conductance and groundwater level. The low value
from 127 to 200 and was calculated using Eq. (8). Ground- of EC was observed in the northern part of the study area
water occurrence in the study area indicates the aquifer type. (Fig. 2b).
The range of each parameter in this investigation resulted in
five or six classifications. The number of range classes does TDS The TDS spatial variation map (Fig. 2c) depicts the
not affect the outcome if the minimum and maximum rating high TDS levels in groundwater resulting from mineral solu-
values remain constant. Ratings and weights for each of the bility and evaporation from halite. Most TDS values in the
seven factors created a DRASTIC technique: deepness to study area fall in the saline water group except for some
groundwater (D), net recharge (R), aquifer media (A), soil areas found in the north central part of the study area.
media (S), topography (T), effect of the vadose zone (I),
and hydraulic conductivity are the variables (C). Based on Major cations concentration in groundwater
functional curves, each parameter is separated into ranges
and given distinct ratings on a scale of 1 to 10 (lowest to The spatial variation map of C­ a2+ and ­Mg2+ (Supplemen-
maximum contamination potential). This rating is scaled tary Figs. 2a and 2b) depicts concentrations in the ground-
by groundwater contamination and DRASTIC weighting water of the research region. According to an interpolated
factors ranging between 1 (least significant) and 5 (most spatial variation map of ­Ca2+ concentrations, the majority
significant). The DRASTIC Vulnerability Index (DVI) was of the analyzed region contained C­ a2+ less than 100 mg/L.

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040 109029

Fig. 2  Spatial variation map of (a) pH, (b) EC, and (c) TDS

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109030 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

Groundwater with high C ­ a2+ and M ­ g2+ concentrations southwestern half of the research region, the ­NO3− content
comes from aquifers enriched with calcite dissolution in groundwater is high. ­NO3− in groundwater might come
in water. WHO recommends ­Ca2+ and ­Mg2+ concentra- from a farm, a landfill, or other sources. The content of
tions of 75 and 50 mg/L, respectively (2011). The major- ­NO3− in the research area’s groundwater is less than WHO’s
ity of the research regions go against WHO regulations. (2011) acceptable level (50 mg/L).
The spatial variance map of ­Na+ and K ­ + (Supplementary
Figs. 2c and d) deduces concentrations in groundwater in Suitability for drinkable applications for drinking
the research region. N ­ a+ and K ­ + have WHO guidelines of water quality using different quality indices
200 and 12 mg/L, respectively, according to WHO (2011).
The sodium content of more than 200 mg/L might cause an Drinking water quality based on WQI
unpleasant taste (WHO 2011). In the studied region, the con-
centration of ­Na+ is greater than that of K
­ +. The study region The calculated water quality index reveals that most samples
+
in the north has low ­Na concentrations, whereas the study have low drinking water quality. Only 40% of water samples
region in the south has high ­Na+ concentrations. The study show good water quality, whereas 60% indicate poor water
region has low C ­ a2+ and ­Mg2+ concentrations. Because of quality. The research area’s poor water type is found in the
the weathering of acidic volcanic rocks and the interaction north-central and southern parts. Excessive levels of EC,
between rocks and water, N ­ a+ is present in groundwater TDS, ­Na+, and C ­ l− were shown to be the most powerful
(Ayenew et al. 2008). The geographical distribution map influencing factors of WQI. Most samples are classified as
(Supplementary Fig. 2c) shows that the southern and north- poor water types (Supplementary Table 3). The WQI geo-
central portions of the study region have the highest ­Na+ graphic variation map (Fig. 3) reveals that the study’s water
concentrations. has a WQI of more than 100 mg/L, making it unsuitable for
groundwater consumption.
Major anion concentration in groundwater
Suitability for irrigation uses based on SAR, Na%,
−
The bulk of the study region had ­HCO3 concentrations and RSC
below the WHO standard, as evidenced by the spatial vari-
ation map of the research area in Supplementary Fig. 3a. The groundwater samples are divided into groups based on
­HCO3− is measured in milligrams per liter (mg/L) according whether or not they were used for irrigation (Table 1). When
to the WHO guidelines from 2011. The ­HCO3− content in dissolved ions are in excess, a soil property loses its vitality
groundwater is generally low throughout the investigation. and impairs the soil’s fertility. The development of plants or
Furthermore, a high concentration of H ­ CO3− in groundwater crops is hampered by soil infertility. A lot of salt in the water
was caused by a chemical reaction between groundwater and alters the osmotic pressure in the root zone. Plant or crop
silicate minerals (Appello and Postma 1993). Except in a few development is halted due to insufficient water absorption
sites, the ­HCO3− content in the study area’s groundwater is (Hanson et al. 1999). Due to a shift in the soil’s metabolic
below WHO’s (2011) permitted level. A spatial fluctuation processes, excessive salt concentrations in the soil hinder
map for ­SO42− concentration is shown in Supplementary plant or crop development.
Fig. 3b. The concentration of S ­ O42− in the research area’s Figure 4a represents the research area’s spatial distribu-
groundwater is found to be less than the WHO’s 250 mg/L tion of SAR values. SAR is a technique for determining the
recommendation limit. ­SO42− is found in groundwater as a degree of alkali/sodium hazard in crops, and the risk level
result of volcanic eruptions as well as anthropogenic activi- (Subramani et al. 2005; Kumar et al. 2007) states that high
ties such as fertilizer usage and urban trash. In the research ­Ca2+ and ­Mg2+ concentrations in irrigation water reduce
region, ­Cl− is the most common anion. The concentration soil permeability. There were no samples with SAR meas-
of ­Cl− in the research region is shown in Supplementary urements less than 10 meq/L. SAR values range from 10
Fig. 3c. ­Cl−concentrations are above WHO standards in the to 18 meq/L for 15 groundwater samples, suggesting that
bulk of the studied region. Rainwater, ocean, agricultural the water is suitable for irrigation; SAR values greater than
operations, and waste disposal all contribute to the influx 18 meq/L indicate that the water is not suitable for irrigation.
of ­Cl− into the earth system. Except for a few spots, the The percentage of sodium in groundwater is also used to
groundwater’s ­Cl− level surpasses the WHO’s authorized determine if it is suitable for irrigation or not (Purushoth-
limit of 250 mg/L. Supplementary Fig. 3d depicts a regional man et al. 2012). During the winter, an excess of N ­ a+ in the
fluctuation map of ­NO3− concentrations in the research area. water decreases soil permeability and restricts air and water
The research region’s ­NO3− content in groundwater is below movement. It gets hard and dry during summer (Saleh et al.
the WHO standard, according to an interpolated spatial vari- 1999). The geographical distribution of Na% of the research
ation map of N ­ O3− in the study area. In several parts of the region is depicted in Fig. 4b. It has been determined that

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040 109031

Fig. 3  Spatial variation map of Water Quality Index (WQI)

irrigation is inappropriate for the southern portion of the water to the total calcium and magnesium. Regarding alka-
basin’s egress. line earth, the amount of sodium, excess bicarbonates, and
The appropriateness of groundwater is determined by carbonate decides how acceptable water is. Water with an
comparing the excess carbonate and bicarbonate in the RSC of more than 2.50 meq/L inhibits air and water passage

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109032 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

Table 1  Groundwater samples Parameters (meq/L) Sample range Range Classification Number of
from the research region were samples
classified for irrigation purposes
Min Max Average

Alkalinity hazard (SAR) 10.36 52.60 22.53 < 10 Excellent 0

(Richards 1954) 10–18 Good 15
18–26 Doubtful 5
> 26 Unsuitable 11
Na% (Wilcox 1955) 88.05 98.72 95.55 < 20 Excellent 0
20–40 Good 0
40–60 Permissible 0
60–80 Doubtful 0
> 80 Unsuitable 31
RSC (Raghunath 1987) 1.62 11.03 6.51 < 1.25 Good 0
1.25–2.5 Doubtful 1
> 2.5 Unsuitable 30

through the soil pore space, causing soil deterioration and applications, the rating value is more significant than the
making it unsuitable for irrigation. All samples were classi- diversity of classes. The DRASTIC technology enables the
fied as unsuitable water types based on RSC values shown user to determine a numerical DVI value that shows which
in Fig. 4c. areas are more probable than others to have groundwater
The Wilcox diagram shows the percentage of Na in contamination. A higher DRASTIC score indicates a greater
groundwater compared to the EC to indicate if it is suit- risk of groundwater contamination (Lee 2003). Rating and
able for irrigation. The USSL diagram Fig. 5a demonstrates weighting values for conventional DRASTIC are used in
that all of the research area’s samples are unsuitable for Table 2. Seven thematic maps have been prepared using
irrigation. The Wilcox diagram Fig. 5b indicates that most these values of seven parameters. The seven hydrogeo-
groundwater samples fall into the inappropriate category and logical characteristics (depth to water, net recharge, aquifer
are unsuitable for irrigation. media, soil media, topography, influence of vadose zone,
and hydraulic Conductivity) were considered when using
DRASTIC framework for determining aquifer the DRASTIC approach to determine aquifer vulnerability.
vulnerability The management of agriculture and village works, state
hydraulic works, state meteorology works, field research,
DRASTIC is usually employed in porous aquifers to map and literature were all used to assemble the input data. Seven
aquifer susceptibility (Aller et al. 1987). Because the major thematic maps were created utilizing these input data based
contamination causes might include saltwater intrusion, on GIS to carry out the aquifer vulnerability analysis using
clearance of vegetation, topsoil loss, and other factors, the DRASTIC, as stated below.
DRASTIC approach was used for determining the aquifer
vulnerability of Dashmina, Galachipa, and Rangabali Upa- Depth to water table (D)
zilas in the Patuakhali district region. The range of each
parameter in this investigation resulted in five or six clas- This is important because it affects how deep pollutants must
sifications. If the minimum and maximum rating values are travel through materials before reaching the water table.
consistent, the outcome is unaffected by the number of range Additionally, it establishes how long pollution must undergo
classes. For instance, the depth to water table parameter is various chemical and biological processes, such as sorp-
divided into three classes, with scores of 9, 5, and 1, respec- tion, oxidation, natural attenuation, dispersion, and others
tively, assigned to depths of 0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 m. The (Ckakraborty et al. 2007). As a result, the deeper the depth
same feature was divided into six classes, each with a rating of the water table, the lower the likelihood of pollutants
of 9, 8, 7, 5, 3, and 1 for depths of 0–5, 5–10, 10–15, 20, reaching the water table and the higher the likelihood of pol-
25, and 30 m, respectively. The results were nearly identical lutants being attenuated. The groundwater level in the study
when the DVI value and the vulnerability categories (high, region of the Patuakhali district ranges from 210 to 400 m,
medium, and low) were established using the quantile clas- according to data obtained. The research area’s groundwater
sification technique. This demonstrates that in DRASTIC depth chart is divided into three groups (210–275, 275–335,

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040 109033

Fig. 4  Spatial variation map of (a) SAR, (b) Na%, and (c) RSC

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109034 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

Fig. 5  (a) Assessment of irrigation water quality using the USSL diagram, and (b) the quality of irrigation water using Wilcox diagram

Table 2  Rating and weighting Parameters Range Drastic

values using the DRASTIC
system Rating Weight Total weight

Groundwater depth (m), D 210–275 10 5 50

275–335 9 45
335–400 8 40
Net recharge (mm/year), R 50–300 3 4 12
300–330 6 18
330–485 8 32
485–575 9 36
Aquifer media, A Fine sand 6 3 18
Fine and medium sand 7
Medium sand 8 21
24
Soil media, S Clay loam 5 2 10
Silty loam 8 16
Loam 9 18
Topography (slope), T 0–2 10 1 10
2–6 9 9
6–12 5 5
12–20 3 3
> 20 1 1
Impact of vadose zone, I Fine sand and silt 5 5 25
Fine sand 6 30
Medium sand 8 40
Hydraulic conductivity (m/day), C 3.0–4.04 1 3 3
4.04–5.45 2 6
5.45–9.92 5 15

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040 109035

and 335–400 m). The weight of groundwater depth is cal- slope classes to work with. Table 2, Supplementary Figs. 6c
culated to be 5. Ratings for the different groundwater depth and 6d illustrate the ratings that each class received, which
classes range from 1 to 10. Table 2, Supplementary Figs. 4a ranged from 10 (> 20°) to 1.
and b display the weight and rating data.
Impact of vadose zone (I)

Net recharge (R) The percolation of rainfall and surface water move-
ment depends on the vadose zone (unsaturated zone).
Net recharge is the total amount of water applied to the The geological map of the research region was used to
ground surface due to precipitation and aquifer infiltration. derive data on the vadose zone. The vadose zone in the
The net recharge increases as aquifer vulnerability decreases. basin is divided into three classes: fine sand and silt,
The Bangladesh Meteorological Department provided fine sand, and medium sand. The DRASTIC technique
annual rainfall statistics (BMD). These data were used to evaluated these units, with the medium sand regions
create a rainfall map for the basin; rainfall in the study region receiving the greatest weight value. Table 2, Supple-
ranges from 1400 to 2512 mm. The ratings and weighting mentary Figs. 7a and b display this parameter’s rating
for net recharge are presented in Table 2, Supplementary and weight values.
Figs. 5a and b.

Hydraulic conductivity (C)

Aquifer media (A)
The capacity of an aquifer formation to carry water is
Most aquifer remediation investigations include groundwater
known as hydraulic conductivity. Groundwater flow rates
flow, pollutant fate, and transport models (Rahman 2008).
govern contamination. Data on hydraulic conductivity
The hydrogeological features of the lithologic units were
were obtained from well-pumping tests in the research
considered while creating the basin’s aquifer map. In the
area. In the study area, hydraulic conductivity measure-
studied region, three hydrogeologic units were identified.
ments range from 3.0 to 9.92 m/day. Table 2, Supplemen-
Fine sand deposits, a sandy braided river, and sand were all
tary Figs. 7c and d illustrate this parameter’s rating and
graded 6 to 8. Table 2, Supplementary Figs. 5c and d show
weighting values. In addition, overlay studies of the seven
that the rating of aquifer media for sandy aquifers ranges
hydrogeological parameter maps stated before were used
from 6 to 8 according to DRASTIC standards.
to create the DRASTIC vulnerability map for the research
region. The study region of Dashmina, Galachipa, and
Soil media (S) Rangabali Upazila in the Patuakhali district has a sig-
nificant contamination potential, based on the findings of
The type of soil cover is crucial in determining aquifer vul- the groundwater vulnerability assessment in Fig. 6. The
nerability because it significantly impacts aquifer recharge DRASTIC framework’s vulnerability index calculation,
and limits the passage of contaminants in the vadose zone. which ranges from 127 to 200, indicates that the research
The soil map came from a LANDSAT image used in the area’s groundwater is extremely sensitive.
GIS. According to soil type, the research area was divided
into three groups: clay loam, silty loam, and loam. Clays Comparison of the data with other works
have the lowest rating score because they can reduce relative
soil permeability and impede pollutant transport. Table 2, The comparison of data of the study area with the other simi-
Supplementary Figs. 6a and b list this parameter’s rating lar kind of work and published data (Table 3) reveals that all
and weight values. the data from the studied area shows consistent results with
other works. The physico-chemical parameters of groundwa-
ter of the study area are compared to those of Hasan et al.
Topography (T) 2021, Heydarirad et al. 2019, and Kawo et al. 2018 (Table 3).

The topography is described by its slope. The amount of Limitations and significance
pollutant discharge and the amount of settling a pollutant
may experience before penetrating the soil are both impacted Limitation of the study
by slope degree, which is significant. Topographical maps
were created using the research region’s digital elevation Regional focus The study focuses specifically on the coastal
model (DEM). The DRASTIC technique was given five region of Patuakhali District, Bangladesh, which limits the

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109036 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

Fig. 6  Groundwater vulnerabil-

ity index map

Table 3  Data comparison with Physicochemical Study area Hasan et al. Heydarirad et al. Kawo et al. (2018)
other works parameters (2021) (2019)

Na+ (mg/L) 122.60–425.30 221 107 81.20

Cl− (mg/L) 5.33–321.80 653 225 17.60
HCO3− (mg/L) 135.49–691.99 357 378 416.10
Ca2+ (mg/L) 5.85–58.55 91 189 53.60
Fe2+ (mg/L) 0.18–2.08 N/A N/A N/A
Mn+ (mg/L) 0.03–1.37 N/A N/A N/A
SO42− (mg/L) 0.20–5.79 4.50 171 24
NO3− (mg/L) 0.44–103.87 N/A N/A 8.90
pH 7.60–9.40 8.54 7.50 7.20
EC (µS/cm) 620–1640 1856 1796 706.10
TDS (mg/L) 396.80–1049.60 950 1168 447.90
SAR 10.36–52.60 N/A 1.70 3.38
Na% 88.05–98.72 N/A 26.30 49.45
RSC 1.62–11.03 N/A N/A 2.93

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040 109037

generalizability of the findings to other areas with different The saline aquifer should not be interrupted anymore.
geological and hydrological characteristics. More water agitation in the saline aquifer can cause more
diffusion of the saline water within the whole aquifer if more
Data collection The study relies on data from a specific water is extracted from the saline aquifer. In the northern
period and may not capture long-term trends or variations part of the research area, the most suitable aquifer must be
in seawater intrusion and its impact on irrigation and agri- identified in more detail. The water from this region can
culture. On the other hand, the location where I had to col- be supplied to other areas of the study area by developing
lect data was extremely remote and lacked easy accessibil- a water supply system. Again, fresh water can be extracted
ity. There is no road leading to that place. I had to rely on from the deeper aquifer (more than 800 feet in depth). This
traversing the river to gather the necessary data. way, the study area’s people can get saline-free water. Since
the heterogenic properties of aquifers of the study area have
Methodology The study’s methodology, such as the sam- common characteristics all over the area, it is very important
pling techniques and data analysis methods, may have limi- to run more intimate and detailed groundwater investigations
tations that could affect the accuracy and reliability of the to identify the extent of the saline-free aquifer zone. So that
results it can be helpful to mitigate the freshwater crisis and to find
out the best potential aquifer for sustainable water usage.
External factors The study may not account for external fac- MAR technique should be implemented to solve this saline
tors that could influence seawater intrusion and its impact on water crisis. Collecting rainwater and surface water–purify-
irrigation and agriculture, such as climate change or human ing systems is another way to solve the freshwater crisis of
activities. the study area.

Significance of the study

Conclusions
Understanding seawater intrusion The study contributes to The pH values of the collected groundwater samples of
understanding seawater intrusion into groundwater, a critical Dashmina, Galachipa, and Rangabali Upazila range from 7.6
issue in coastal areas worldwide. It provides insights into the to 9.4, which indicate alkaline water. Electrical conductiv-
factors and processes involved in seawater intrusion. ity (EC) values of the collected groundwater samples range
from 620 to 1640 µS/cm. According to the WHO (2011)
Implications for irrigation and drinking The study implies standard, the obtained data indicate that the groundwater
the explanation of saline water intrusion in groundwater, of the study area in the southern portion is unsuitable for
which helps people to understand the seawater intrusion domestic and irrigation purposes. TDS value ranges from
mechanism, increases awareness among the people about 396.8 to 1049.6 mg/L. According to the classification of
the alarming effects of saline water intrusion, and encour- HEM, the water type is fresh to slightly saline. By WHO
ages them to drink and domestic use water from the saline- standards, the water type is saline in the southern portion
free zone. of the study area and unsuitable for domestic and irriga-
tion purposes. Genetically, the concentrations of C­ l− in the
Policy and management implications The study’s findings groundwater of Dashmina, Galachipa, and Rangabali Upa-
can inform policy decisions and strategies related to ground- zila range from 5.336 to 321.809 mg/L, which indicates the
water use, irrigation practices, and coastal zone manage- groundwater is normal to medium chloride water (based on
ment. It emphasizes the need for sustainable water manage- chloride). Piper’s Trilinear and Durov diagrams revealed that
ment practices to mitigate the negative effects of seawater the dominant cation is N ­ a+ and the dominant anion is C
­ l− in
intrusion. groundwater samples. That means NaCl water type is mainly
found in the study area. According to the USSL diagram, the
Future research directions The study opens avenues for fur- research area’s salinity is medium to high, and its alkalinity
ther research on seawater intrusion and its impact on coastal is medium to very high.
ecosystems and human activities. It provides a foundation for Additionally, based on the Wilcox diagram, most of the
future studies to explore mitigation and adaptation measures. study region samples are classified as permitted to question-
Overall, the study contributes valuable insights into the able and doubtful to unsuitable. Based on RSC, SAR, and
issue of seawater intrusion into groundwater and its impact Na%, the Dashmina, Galachipa, and Rangabali Upazila’s
on the coastal region of Patuakhali District, Bangladesh. groundwater is good to unsuitable for domestic and irriga-
It highlights the need for further research and informed tion purposes. The trace elements of the study area Fe and
decision-making to address the challenges posed by this Mn range from 0.175 to 2.084 mg/L (average 0.443 mg/L)
phenomenon. and from 0.027 to 1.365 mg/L (average 0.088 mg/L),

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109038 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:109021–109040

respectively. When the groundwater quality in the research Ahmed KM, Hoque M, Hasan K, Ravenscroft P, Chowdhury LR (1998)
region is compared to World Health Organization (WHO) Occurrence and origin of water well methane gas in Bangladesh.
J Geol Soc India 51:697–708
and Department of Environment (DOE) standards, all sam- Ahsan MA, Satter F, Siddique MAB, Akbor MA, Ahmed S, Shajahan M,
ples except nine exceed the permissible limit for Fe, and Khan R (2019) Chemical and physicochemical characterization of
all samples except one are within the permissible limit for effluents from the tanning and textile industries in Bangladesh with
Mn. EC is positively correlated with N ­ a+ (R2 = 0.222) and multivariate statistical approach. Environ Monit Assess 191:575
− 2 Alam MZ, Carpenter-Boggs L, Mitra S, Haque M, Halsey J,
­Cl (R = 0.116). Chloride is positively moderately cor- Rokonuzzaman M, Saha B, Moniruzzaman M (2017) Effect of
related with ­Na+ (R2 = 0.590) and poorly correlated with salinity intrusion on food crops, livestock, and fish species at
­(HCO3− + ­CO32−) (R2 = 0.128), indicating saline water is Kalapara Coastal Belt in Bangladesh. J Food Qual
mixed with fresh water. Aller L, Bennet T, Lehr JH, Petty RJ, Hackett G (1987) DRASTIC:
a standardized system for evaluating groundwater pollution
Aquifer having a depth of less than 800 feet is highly potential using hydrogeological settings. EPA/600/2–87/035.
saline, and more than 800 feet is free from salinity, and fresh US Environmental Protection Agency, Ada, OK, USA
water can be found from that depth in the study area. The Al-Rawabdeh AM, Al-Ansari N, Al-Taani AA, Knutsson S (2013) A
study area identifies moderate to high vulnerable zones con- GIS-based DRASTIC framework for assessing aquifer vulner-
ability in Amman-Zerqa groundwater basin, Jordan. Engineer-
sidering the DRASTIC index parameters. It revealed that ing 5:490–504
some portion of the northwestern part of the sample area Appello CAJ, Postma D (1993) Geochemistry, groundwater and pol-
shows a moderately vulnerable zone. Most of the study areas lution. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 536
indicate a highly vulnerable zone. Ayenew T, Kebede S, Alemyahu T (2008) Environmental isotopes
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Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen- water interaction in the Awash River basin. Hydrol Process: An
tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 11356-0​ 23-2​ 9988-3. Int J 22(10):1548–1563
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National Analytical Research and Service (INARS), Bangladesh Coun- Ejisu-Juaben Municipality, Ghana. Environ Earth Sci 75(6):1–14
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for providing laboratory facilities and other logistic support during ability to arsenic pollution using DRASTIC and GIS of North
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chemistry laboratory at INARS for the laboratory assistance. trict, West Bengal, India. J Spat Hydrol 7(1)
Dixon B (2005) Applicability of neuro-fuzzy techniques in predict-
Author contribution Irfanul Hasan: conceptualization, methodology, ing ground-water vulnerability: a GIS-based sensitivity analysis.
validation, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing— J Hydrol 309:17–38
original draft preparation, writing—reviewing and editing, visualiza- Durov SA (1948) Natural waters and graphic representation of their
tion. Selim Reza: conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal composition. In DoklAkadNauk SSSR 59(3):87–90
analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—reviewing and editing, Ehteshami M, Peralta RC, Eisele H, Deer H, Tindall T (1991)
visualization, supervision. Abu Bakar Siddique: methodology, formal Assessing pesticide contamination to ground water: a rapid
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flow-2000, the U.S. Geological survey modular ground-water
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Consent to participate Not applicable. desh and associated health risk assessment. SN Appl Sci 2(2):1–18
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seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers of southern Bangladesh:
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of water quality appraisals. Environ Nano Technol Monit
interest. Manage16:100498. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​enmm.​2021.​100498
Heydarirad L, Mosaferi M, Pourakbar M, Esmailzadeh N, Maleki
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