1.1.
Language is the root of culture, and individuals learn and develop within their role in the family,
according to Vygotsky. This concept is important because teachers can use it as a guide to a child's
development. It allows a teacher to know what a student can achieve using their role in their family.
The majority of children use grammatically correct sentences. A child would notice if an adult said a
grammatically wrong sentence. Krashen believes that learners with high motivation, self-confidence,
a good self-image, are better able to learn a second language. Krashen's 'comprehensive input'
hypothesis is perhaps his most well-known, positing that language acquisition occurs when
individuals absorb and comprehend dialects that are "just beyond" their current proficiency. The level
of competence with second language acquisition depends not so much on the time spent learning a
language as the time at which one begins. Linguists continue to believe that a first language is
knowledge of the second language structure. Learning a new language requires some effort, but
learning a first language doesn't. However, it is essential to learn a second language without any help.
It's important to remember that children learn their first language before they go to school. Some
instructional strategies of language acquisition emphasize utilizing visuals and having students point
to pictures or act out vocabulary. In addition to, speaking slowly and using shorter words, but using
correct English phrasing strength students learning of second language acquisition. The process of
translanguaging promotes a more profound understanding of the subject by discussing the subject in
one language and writing in another. When learning a second language, students will always refer to
what they already know from their first.
2.1.
Differentiated instruction is the idea of creating tailored education plans for students based on
differing needs. This may involve the ways by which students access content, the activities they do,
the assessment techniques a teacher uses or even the physical setup of a classroom. As all people
have varying abilities and talents, it's beneficial for a teacher to adapt their teaching styles to unique
students. This is also a key step in supporting students with disabilities in the classroom and ensuring
they feel welcome and comfortable in academic environments.
Here are some ways an educator may differentiate instruction:
Provide books or other materials at different reading levels.
Create custom spelling lists for students with different spelling skills.
Host small groups to provide tailored advice to students.
Offer one-on-one after-school help to students encountering challenges.
Discuss student progress and at-home educational strategies with parents.
Measure progress in different ways, through projects, portfolios and participation.
2.2.
In 1927, Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous experiment with dogs. Pavlov made the animals salivate
when they heard a bell ring. He did this by linking when they ate with when the bell rang. Later, he
stopped feeding them this way, but the dogs still salivated when they heard the bell. The acquired
behavior was the outcome of a series of events that were encountered, rather than a deliberate
thought process. Pavlov discovered what is now termed ‘classical conditioning’.
Putting your seatbelt on before you drive off can be trained with this kind of conditioning.
Reinforcement can make the connection between stimulus-response stronger. This idea is the basis
for the theory that B.F. Skinner developed in 1957. Reinforcement can be used in both a positive and
negative way. Anything that strengthens the desired response is called a positive reinforcer. In
training, where the aim is learning, for example, this might be stimulated by verbal praise, a good
mark, or a feeling of achievement. Motivation to learn will decrease if verbal praise is withdrawn.
Data collection is a systematic approach to gather information from various sources to answer
relevant questions and evaluate outcomes. Here are five common data collection techniques:
Surveys/Questionnaires: This involves asking a series of questions to a group of individuals. The
questions can be open-ended or close-ended. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone,
or online.
Interviews: This is a more personal and in-depth method of data collection. Interviews can be
structured (with a set list of questions), semi-structured (some set questions with room for further
discussion), or unstructured (no set questions, more like a conversation).
Observations: This involves watching and recording behaviors or events as they occur naturally. This
can be done in a controlled environment or in a natural setting.
Focus Groups: A small group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and
attitudes towards a product, service, concept, or idea. Questions are asked in an interactive group
setting where participants are free to talk with other group members.
Document/Record Review: This involves the analysis of existing documents, records, or databases to
gather data.
The choice of data collection method depends on the research question, the resources available, and
the type of data needed.
Sources of data collection can be primary or secondary. Primary data is collected directly from the
source (e.g., surveys, interviews), while secondary data is collected from existing sources (e.g.,
document review).
In statistics, data collection is a crucial step. The process typically involves defining the problem and
the data needed, designing the data collection process, collecting the data, preparing the data for
analysis, and analyzing the data.
In ELS (English Language Studies), data collection might involve techniques such as surveys to
understand language usage, interviews to gain deeper insights into language learning experiences, or
document review to analyze written language proficiency. The specific methods would depend on the
research question being investigated.
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4.1.
Devaki (2022) researched the effect of learner motivation and second language learningoutcomes.
The researcher postulated that favorable learning outcomes in second languageacquisition could not
be registered if the learner is not adequately motivated to learn thelanguage. The reason is that the
learner's motivation determines the activities the learner decidesto be involved with while learning
the language.Learners with mild motivation toward language acquisition tend to restrict
themselvesfrom acquiring knowledge from learning institutions. However, Devaki warns that
thismethodology provides limited exposure to the learner since learning institutions do not
provideadequate social contexts from which the learner can benefit. In learning institutions, learners
aretherefore only exposed to the formal contexts of the language. These formal contexts only
exposethe learner to the minimal lexicon of the language involved.The researcher informs that
learners who are exceptionally motivated to learn a languageacquire high literacy skills since they are
ready to expose themselves to various social contextsinvolving the target language. Thus, the
research greatly benefits teaching and learning a secondlanguage. The study creates awareness of
the need to arouse learners' interests in the language.When this is achieved, learners transform from
passive learners and become more activelyengaged in learning the language. In doing so, the learners
may find themselves engaging indifferent social contexts, which avail them of an opportunity to learn
the target language.Research Study Three
UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTING SECOND LANGUAGEACQUISITION THROUGH THE
ACCULTURATION THEORY7Jia et al. (2016) posit that mainstream acculturation is of great essence in
learning Englishas a second language. Upon conducting research, the scholars reveal that although
learners maybe integrated with their peer groups, the activities conducted within such groups are not
adequateto provide a wholesome understanding of the language being acquired. The researchers
proposethe need for learners to be wholly assimilated into English-speaking societies. In this sense,
thelearners are availed of an opportunity to learn the language in an environment where thelanguage
naturally flows.The main benefit of doing so is the ability of the learners to pick up oral
lessons,especially in the pronunciation of keywords of the language. Also, these learners would have
anopportunity of putting what they have learned into practice without the formal
restrictionsobserved in schools. Therefore, this study provides important insights that can aid
teachers inensuring that learners can wholesomely acquire the learned language. The study suggests
theimportance of exposing learners to school-free environments where they can interact
morenaturally. These learners can also pick the language lexicon that would typically be out of
reachof their peers. The study also shows the need to encourage second language learners to indulge
insocietal interactions within the target language community. The study reiterates the need forthese
learners to expose themselves to the multi-faceted so
Since learners need to be integrated socially to improve language acquisition in L2learners, cultural-
exchange programs should be introduced in the classroom environment. Theseprograms alleviate
language shock, which has been established as a critical reason why learnersfear interacting with
their peers. The cultural-exchange programs also provide a platform for L2learners to form
friendships with their English-Speaking peers, thereby lessening the socialdistance gap.Teachers can
also introduce community service lessons. These lessons are essential sincethey avail L2 learners with
a chance to interact with the target language's community. Whileserving these communities, these L2
learners can learn a lot through these social interAcquiring a second language is an arduous task that
cannot be accomplished withoutmotivation (Piniel & Albert, 2019). L2 learners need to be motivated
to pursue their secondlanguage learning. Therefore, the proposed speaking events would enable the
L2 learners tointeract with individuals who have already suAl-Hoorie, A., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2019).
Integrative motivation: 60 years and counting.Contemporary language motivation theory
To show how important knowledge about language is in teaching, Fillmore and Snow outline the
understandings about language that are required by some of the many roles teachers play:
as communicators, they need to understand that discourse patterns are culturally determined, and
that any discourse pattern is as valid as any other; and they need to understand the kinds of errors
and the kind of progress that ELLs can be expected to make;
as educators, they need to understand language development so they can choose materials and
activities that promote it, and know whether and how to intervene if a child is having difficulty;
as evaluators, they need to understand that all assessments of students' abilities are ultimately
language assessments; and they need to understand the sources of variation in language use;
as educated human beings, they need to understand how language works, and the implications of
this for language acquisition, dialect use, and teaching methods;
as agents of socialization, they need to understand how to help children from different linguistic and
cultural backgrounds make the transition from home to school.
5.1.
Graduates who are less familiar with digital culture are increasingly at a disadvantage in the national
and global economy. Digital literacy—the skills of searching for, discerning, and producing
information, as well as the critical use of new media for full participation in society—has thus become
an important consideration for curriculum frameworks.(8)In many countries, digital literacy is being
built through the incorporation of information and communication technology (ICT) into schools.
Some common educational applications of ICT include:One laptop per child: Less expensive laptops
have been designed for use in school on a 1:1 basis with features like lower power consumption, a
low cost operating system, and special re-programming and mesh network functions.(42) Despite
efforts to reduce costs, however, providing one laptop per child may be too costly for some
developing countries.(41)Tablets: Tablets are small personal computers with a touch screen, allowing
input without a keyboard or mouse. Inexpensive learning software (“apps”) can be downloaded onto
tablets, making them a versatile tool for learning.(7)(25) The most effective apps develop higher
order thinking skills and provide creative and individualized options for students to express their
understandings.(18)Interactive White Boards or Smart Boards: Interactive white boards allow
projected computer images to be displayed, manipulated, dragged, clicked, or copied.(3)
Simultaneously, handwritten notes can be taken on the board and saved for later use. Interactive
white boards are associated with whole-class instruction rather than student-centred activities.(38)
Student engagement is generally higher when ICT is available for student use throughout the
classroom.(4)E-readers: E-readers are electronic devices that can hold hundreds of books in digital
form, and they are increasingly utilized in the delivery of reading material.(19) Students—both skilled
readers and reluctant readers—have had positive responses to the use of e-readers for independent
reading.(22) Features of e-readers that can contribute to positive use include their portability and
long battery life, response to text, and the ability to define unknown words.(22) AWith the use of
technologies like Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality, students are presented with a visually
stimulating environment that makes learning a more immersive experience for the students. VR/AR
has widespread application in early learning stages as well as advanced learning. Using this
technology, students can get immersive and experiential learning from the confines of the
classroom.dditionally, ma
Technology can have a reciprocal relationship with teaching. The emergence of new technologies
pushes educators to understanding and leveraging these technologies for classroom use; at the same
time, the on-the-ground
implementation of these technologies in the classroom can (and does) directly impact how these
technologies
continue to take shape.
While many new technologies have emerged throughout history, so has the cry for educators to find
meaningful
ways to incorporate these technologies into the classroom – be it the typewriter, the television, the
calculator, or
the computer. And while some professional educators may have become numb to this unwavering
‘call’ – and for
good reason – it is crucial to consider that the excitement over games and social networking isn’t just
business
and industry “crying wolf.” Indeed, those previous technologies have a powerful place in instruction
and the classroom; but without them, strong lessons and learning objectives can still be achieved.
With these more recent
technologies, we think educators should take the call, even if only on a trial basis.
Undoubtedly, without these recent technologies (i.e. digital games, Web 2.0, etc.) in the classroom,
strong lessons
can still be achieved, but there’s a sharp disconnect between the way students are taught in school
and the way
the outside world approaches socialization, meaning-making, and accomplishment. It is critical that
education
not only seek to mitigate this disconnect in order to make these two “worlds” more seamless, but of
course also to
leverage the power of these eTruly, creating authentic learning experiences is perhaps the most
critical aspect and benefit to digital games and
simulations—bridging the all-too-well-known gap between the classroom and the real world. The
learning has
meaning and relates to the real world because it is modeled on the systems of the real world—not
broken down,
compartmentalized, and stripped from context as many lessons must be in order to be compacted
into a 45-
minute period. The majesty of well-designed learning games and simulations is that through
technology they
present a scaffolded, simulated world in a manner that makes it more digestible and engaging for
students. Shaffer explains, “computers...let us work with simulations of the world around us... and
these simulations let us play
with reality by creating imaginary worlds where we can do things that we otherwise couldn’t do at
all” (2006, p. 9)merging technologies for instructional gain.
Many resources exist
via the Web; for example, StarLogo TNG has a listserv where members are educators just like Hal who
have questions, and insights, about using this tool in the classroom. Oftentimes you can get support
from the tool designers
themselves – feel free to ask!
18 usi ng th e t ech nol og y o f t oday , i n t h e clas sroo m t oday
The Now, and [ n ot so di stan t] Future
Many agree that games, simulations, and social networking technologies have much to offer
education. Yet while
the benefits of these offerings are still making themselves apparent, a growing number of educators
are making
sure they are on the front-end of the wave. By appreciating that the students filling their classroom
chairs have a
different perspective on the world, these teachers are able to experiment with new ways to connect
with kids
through these technologies. Moreover, the research is supporting this work, showing that
“multimedia education
improves both comprehension of the lesson material and students’ interest in the lesson topic”
(Brady, 2004).
6.1.
Social aspects
To be effective, assessment for learning needs to take place within a positive learning environment.
Students should be encouraged to take risks and make errors, and understand that wrong answers
can assist learning just as effectively as right answers.
Encouraging a culture of listening critically to one another, responding positively and constructively,
and appreciating the different strengths, experiences, and skill sets among peers will help create such
an environment. If this can be accomplished, students can learn to conduct effective peer
assessments of each other.
Effective assessment practice needs to recognise different values, assumptions, and understandings
and the impact they have on how students may respond to different assessment approaches.
Effective assessment practice should plan for collaborative and collective assessment, in both formal
and informal contexts, in order to reflect the educational values of different cultures, backgrounds,
and experiences.
ssessment for learning should use a range of approaches. These may include:
day-to-day activities, such as learning conversations
a simple mental note taken by the teacher during observation
student self and peer assessments
a detailed analysis of a student’s work
assessment tools, which may be written items, structured interview questions, or items teachers
make up themselves.
