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Algorithms & Flowcharts

Algorithms
Algorithm is a method of representing the step-by-step logical procedure for solving a problem. A program
written in a non-computer language is called an algorithm. It is a step-by-stepmethod of performing
any task.
These are one of the most basic tools that are used to develop the program solving logic.
They can have steps that repeat or require decisions until the task is completed.
PROPERTIES
An algorithm must possess the following properties:
1) Fitness: An algorithm must terminate in a finite number of steps.
2) Definite: By definite we mean that each step of algorithm must be precisely
defined such that there is no ambiguity or contradiction.
3) Effectiveness: Each step must be effective, easily converted into program statement
and can be performed exactly in a finite amount of time.
4) Generality: The algorithm must be complete so that it will work successfully in
solving all the problems of particular type for which it is defined.
5) Input/Output: Each algorithm must take zero, one or more quantities an input
data and produce one or more output values.
While writing an algorithm we can concentrate only on the logic and not on language
syntax and once the algorithm is written we can code the algorithm in computer
language.
Example 1: Write an algorithm to find the sum and average of two numbers
Step 1. Read the numbers a, b
Step 2. Compute the sum of a & b
Step 3. Store the result in variable s
Step 4. Divide the sum s by 2
Step 5. Store the result in variable avg
Step 6. Print the value of s and avg
Step 7. End of program.

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Example 2: Find Area, Diameter and Circumference of a Circle.

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Initialize PI to 0
Step 3: Read radius of the circle
Step 4: Calculate the product of radius with itself and PI value
Step 5: Store the result in variable area
Step 6: Calculate the product of radius with 2
Step 7: Store the result in variable diameter
Step 8: Calculate the product of PI and diameter value
Step 9: Store the result in variable circumference
Step 10: Print the value of area, diameter and circumference
Step 11: Stop

Example3: Find Area and Circumference of a Rectangle.

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read the values of length and breadth
Step 3: Calculate the product of length and breadth
Step 4: Store the result in variable area
Step 5: Calculate the sum of length and breadth
Step 6: Store the result in variable temp
Step 7: Calculate the product of 2 and temp
Step 8: Store the result in variable circumference
Step 9: Print the value of area and circumference
Step 10: Stop

Flowcharts
INTRODUCTION
The flowchart is a mean of visually presenting the flow of data through an information
processing systems, the operations performed within system and the sequence in which
they are performed.
A flowchart is a pictorial representation of an algorithm in which the steps are drawn, in
the form of different shapes of boxes and the logical flow indicated by inter connecting
arrows.
Meaning of a Flowchart
A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation that illustrates the sequence of operations
to be performed to get the solution of a problem. Once the flowchart is drawn, it
becomes easy to write the program in any high level language. Hence, it is correct to say
that a flowchart is a must for the better documentation of a complex program.
ADVANTAGES:
Reasons for using flowcharts as a problem-solving tool are:
 Makes logic clear
 Communication: flowcharts are a good way of communicating the logic of a
system to all concerned.
 Using in coding, flowcharts act as a guide during the system’s analysis and
program development phase.

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 Effective analysis: problem can be analyzed in more effective way.

 Efficient program maintenance: The maintenance of a program becomes easy with
the help of flowchart.
 Proper documentation: flowcharts serve as a good program documentation.
DISADVANTAGES:
a) Complex logic: Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In this case,
flowchart becomes complex and clumsy.
b) Alterations and modifications: If alterations are required the flowchart may require
re-drawing completely.
c) The essentials of what is done can easily be lost in the technical details of how it is
done.
SYMBOLS:
On flowcharts different geometric shapes are used called flowchart symbols. Some
standard symbols for drawing flowcharts are:

Basic Flowchart Shapes

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The basic 5 flowchart symbols are

1) Terminal block
2) Input / Output
3) Process block
4) Decision block
5) Flow lines.
GUIDELINES:
The following are some guidelines in flowcharting:
a) The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow. There should not be any
room for ambiguity in understanding the flowchart.
b) The usual direction of the flow of a procedure or a system is from left to right or
top to bottom.

c) Only one flow line should come out or from a process symbol.

d) Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol, but two or three flow lines, one
for each possible answer, should leave the decision symbol.

Three-way branch decision Two -way branch decision

e) Only one flow line is used in conjunction with terminal symbol.

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f) Write within standard symbols briefly. As necessary, you can use the annotation
symbol to describe data or computational steps more clearly.

g) If the flowchart becomes complex, it is better to use connector symbols to reduce

the number of flow lines. Avoid the intersection of flow lines if you want to make
it more effective and better way of communication.

Connector

h) Ensure that the flowchart has a logical start and finish.

i) It is useful to test the validity of the flowchart by passing through it with a simple
test data.
Example 1. Draw a flowchart to find the sum and average of two numbers.

Example 2. Draw a flowchart to find the largest of three numbers.

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Example 3: Draw a flowchart to compute the final price of an item after figuring in sales
tax.

Example 4: Write a pseudo code to check whether a student is passed or not.

Differences between Algorithm and Flowchart

Algorithm Flowchart
Step by step procedure for solving a Pictorial representation of an algorithm
problem
Written in English-like language with Steps of algorithm are drawn in the
words form of shapes of boxes and logical
flow with arrows.
Explains how a certain process is May not have detailed instructions
followed or a problem solved about how the tasks are done.

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Introduction to C Language, History, Steps in Learning

Language is the expression of thought in a specified way. It is a body of words, and set of
methods of combining them (called grammar), understood by a community and used as
a form of communication.

INTRODUCTION
C is a general-purpose programming language initially developed by Dennis Ritchie
between 1969 and 1973 at Bell Labs. C is a robust language whose rich set of built-in
functions and operators can be used to write any complex program. C is one of the most
widely used programming languages of all time.
Origin of C
Year Language Developed By Remarks
1960 ALGOL60 International too general, too abstract, not
Committee a specific language
1963 CPL(Combined Cambridge University too difficult to learn and
Programming Language) hard to implement
1967 BCPL(Basic Combined Martin Richard, could deal only special
Programming Language) Cambridge University problem
1970 B Ken Thompson, AT & could deal only special
T Bell Laboratories problem, did not support
various data types
1972 C Dennis Ritchie, AT & T programming efficiency &
Bell Laboratories relatively good machine
efficiency & support various
data types.

C was the offshoot of the earlier languages ‘BCPL’ and ‘B’. It supports high level features
with commands like if, else, goto etc making it convenient to use. It also supports low-
level features like manipulation of bits and addressing memory location directly by using
pointers. C may be called as middle level programming language.

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C compiler combines the capabilities of an assembly language with features of high-level

language and therefore it is well suited for writing both system software and business
packages.

Application Areas of C
 Initially C was used to design the system software like 90% of UNIX operating
system is written in C language.
 for designing application software
 In writing Device Drivers.
 In INTERNET protocols.
 In developing translators.
 In print spoolers and other utilities.

Getting Started With C

Communicating with a computer involves speaking the language the computer
understands, which immediately rules out English as the language of communication with
computer. However, there is close analogy between learning English language and
learning C language.
The classical method of learning English is to first learn the alphabets used in the
language, then learn to combine these alphabets to form words, which in turn are
combined to form sentences and sentences are combined to form paragraphs.
Learning C is similar and easier. Instead of straight-away learning how to write programs,
we must first know what alphabets, numbers and special symbols are used in C, then
how using them constants, variables, keywords, and reserved words are constructed, and
finally how are these combined to form an instruction. A group of instructions would be
combined later on to form functions or program.

Steps in learning English Language:

Sentences
Vocabulary Essays or
Alphabets [Words] [grammer Paragraphs Story Books
rules]

Steps in learning C language:

Vocabulary
Keywords, Instructions
Character
Set Reserved Functions Programs Applications
Words, [syntax rules]
Identifiers

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Character Set
Any symbol is referred as character in C language. A character denotes any alphabets
(A,B, … Z or a,b, … z), digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) or special symbols (!@#~`% ^ &*(){} -
=+_{}[]| \”/’<>:;) used to represent information. This character set is used to form
vocabulary of C (constants, variables and keywords).
ASCII Table

ASCII Symbol Description ASCII Symbol Description ASCII Symbol Description

32 Space 64 @ at symbol 96 ` grave accent

33 ! exclamation 65 A 97 a

34 " double quotes 66 B 98 b

35 # number sign 67 C 99 c

36 $ dollar sign 68 D 100 d

37 % percent sign 69 E 101 e

38 & ampersand 70 F 102 f

39 ' single quote 71 G 103 g

opening
40 ( 72 H 104 h
parenthesis
closing
41 ) parenthesis 73 I 105 i

42 * asterisk 74 J 106 j

43 + plus sign 75 K 107 k

44 , comma 76 L 108 l

45 - Minus/hyphen 77 M UPPER CASE 109 m LOWER CASE

ALPHABETS ALPHABETS
46 . period 78 N 110 n

47 / slash 79 O 111 o

48 0 zero 80 P 112 p

49 1 one 81 Q 113 q

50 2 two 82 R 114 r

51 3 three 83 S 115 s

52 4 four 84 T 116 t

53 5 five 85 U 117 u

54 6 six 86 V 118 v

55 7 seven 87 W 119 w

56 8 eight 88 X 120 x

57 9 nine 89 Y 121 y

58 : colon 90 Z 122 z

59 ; semicolon 91 [ opening bracket 123 { opening brace

60 < less than sign 92 \ backslash 124 | vertical bar

61 = equal sign 93 ] closing bracket 125 } closing brace

62 > greater than 94 ^ caret 126 ~ equivalency-tilde

63 ? Question mark 95 _ underscore

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C TOKENS
In a C Program, the smallest individual units are known as C -Tokens. Programs are
written using these tokens and syntax of language. There are totally six tokens. They are:
1. Keywords
2. Identifiers
3. Constants
4. Strings
5. Special Symbols

C-Tokens

Special
Keywords Identifiers Constants Strings Operators
Symbols

Keywords:
Keywords are those words, whose meaning is already known to the C compiler i.e. they
are predefined words. The keywords cannot be used as variable names. There are only
32 keywords available in C. A keyword can’t be used as a variable name because if we
do so, we are trying to assign a new meaning to the keyword.
int struct for static
float union switch register
char typedef case extern
double enum default void
signed if break volatile
unsigned else continue sizeof
long while goto const
short do auto return

Identifiers:
Identifiers refer to the names of variable, functions and arrays. These are user-defined
names and consist of a sequence of letters and digits, with a letter as a first character.
Both uppercase and lowercase letters are permitted, although lowercase letters are
commonly used. The underscore character is also permitted in identifiers.

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Constants:
Constants in ‘C’ refer to fixed values that do no change during the execution of a
program. Constant is a memory location in which a value can be stored and this cannot
be altered during the execution of program. ‘C’ supports several types of constants. They
are illustrated below.

Constants

Numeric Character Logical

Single
Integer Real String
Character

Integer Constants:
An integer constant refers to a sequence of digits. There are three types of integers,
namely binary, decimal, octal and hexadecimal.
Binary Numbers: A Binary Number is made up of only 0s and 1s.
Example: 110100
Representation of a Binary Number
MSB Binary Digit LSB
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Decimal integers consist of a set of digits, 0 through 9, preceded by an optional - or +

sign. Spaces, commas and non-digit characters are not permitted between digits.
Valid Examples Invalid Examples
123 15 750
-321 20,000
0 2.5
654321 $1000
+78
Conversion of Binary to Decimal
1011
You would this interpret in decimal as:

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Eights Fours Twos Ones

(8) (4) (2) (1)
1 x 23 plus 0 x 22 plus 1 x 21 plus 1 x 20
= 1x8 plus 0 x 4 plus 1 x 2 plus 1 x 1
= 8 plus 0 plus 2 plus 1
The total is: 11 (in decimal) which equal 8 + 0 + 2 + 1
In other words,
10112 = 1110
Conversion of Decimal to Binary

Octal Integers constant consists of any combination of digits from 0 through 7 with a 0
at the beginning. Octal is fancy for Base Eight meaning eight symbols are used to
represent all the quantities. They are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Some examples of octal
integers are 026, 0, 0347, and 0676

Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12… 17 20… 30… 77 100

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10… 15 16… 24… 63 64

Octal to Decimal Conversion

Just like how we used powers of ten in decimal and powers of two in binary, to
determine the value of a number we will use powers of 8 since this is Base Eight.
Consider the number 3623 in base eight.
83 82 81 80

3 6 2 3
1536+384+16+3
1939

Hexadecimal integer constant is preceded by OX or Ox, they may contain alphabets

from A to F or a to f. The alphabets A to F refer to 10 to 15 in decimal digits. The
hexadecimal system is Base Sixteen.
Examples of valid hexadecimal integers are 0X2, 0x8C, 0Xbcd, and 0x

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Hexadecimal 9 A B C D E F 10 11… 19 1A 1B 1C… 9F A0

Decimal 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 25 26 27 28 159 160

Digits are explained as powers of 16. Consider the hexadecimal number 2DB7.
163 16 2 161 160
2 D B 7

8192+3328+176+7
11703

Real Constants :
Real Constants consists of a fractional part in their representation. Integer constants are
inadequate to represent quantities that vary continuously. These quantities are
represented by numbers containing fractional parts like 26.082.
Examples of real constants are 0.0026, -0.97, 435.29, +487.0

These numbers are shown in decimal notation, having a whole number followed by a
decimal point and the fractional part. It is possible to omit digits before the decimal point
or digits after the decimal point. That is, 215.; .95; -.71; +.5 are all valid real numbers.
A real number may also be expressed in exponential (or scientific) notation. For example,
215.65 may be written as 2.1565e2 in exponential notation, e2 means multiply by 10 2.
The general form is:
𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑡i𝑠𝑠𝑎 𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
The 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑡i𝑠𝑠𝑎 is either a real number expressed in decimal notation or an integer. The
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 is an integer number with an optional plus and minus sign. The letter 𝑒
separating the mantissa and the exponent can be written in either lowercase or
uppercase. The exponent causes the decimal point to "float", this notation is said to
represent a real number in floating point form.
Examples of legal floating point constants are: 0.65e4, 12e-2, 1.5e+5, 3.18E3, -1.2E-1
White spaces are not allowed. Exponential notation is useful for representing numbers
that are either very large or very small is magnitude. E.g. 7500000000 --> 7.5e9 or
75e8.

Single Character Constants

A singe character constant contains a single character enclosed within a pair of single
quote marks.
Examples of single character constants are: '5', 'x', ' ', ';'.
The character constant '5' is not same as the number 5.

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String Constants
A string constant is a sequence of character enclosed in double quotes. The characters
may be letters, numbers, special characters and blank space.
Examples are "Hello!", "1987", "WELL DONE", "5+3", "X"

Logical Constant : A logical constant can take either a true or a false as value.
In C,
 Zero (0) represents false value.
 Any non-zero value such as 1 represents true value.

Backslash Character Constants [Escape Sequences]

Backslash character constants are special characters used in output functions. Although
they contain two characters they represent only one character. Given below is the table
of escape sequence and their meanings.
Constant Meaning
'\a' Audible Alert (Bell)
'\b' Backspace

'\f' Form feed

'\n' New Line
'\r' Carriage Return
'\t' Horizontal tab
Constant Meaning
'\v' Vertical Tab
'\'' Single Quote
'\"' Double Quote
'\?' Question Mark
'\\' Back Slash
'\0' Null

Variables:
In C, a quantity, which may vary during the program execution, is called a variable.
Variable names are the names given to the memory locations of a computer where the
variable value is stored.
A variable is a name that is used to store data value and is allowed to vary the value
during the program execution. A variable is able to hold different values during
execution of a program, where as a constant is restricted to just one value. Variable name

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can be chosen by the programmer in a meaningful way so as to reflect its nature in the
program.

Length of C variable name can be upto 8 characters and some translators permit even a
higher length (32). It may take different values at different times during program
execution.

Variable names may consist of letters, digits, and underscore subjected to following
conditions:
 They must begin with a letter or underscore (_), followed by any number of
letters, digits, or underscores.
 Uppercase is different from lowercase, so the names total, Total, and TOTAL
specify three different variables.
 The variable name shouldn’t be a keyword.
 Blank spaces are not allowed.
 The length should be normally 8 characters (since only the first 8 characters
treated as significant by many compilers).
 The variable names are case sensitive.
 The variables are defined at the beginning of the block.
For example, in the equation 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 10; since x and y can change, they are
𝑣𝑎𝑟i𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠, whereas 2,3 and 10 cannot change, hence they are 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠. The total
equation is known as 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠i𝑜𝑛.
Valid variable names: Alpha, X, fyear_9899, matrix, income

DATATYPES
A C language programmer has to tell the system before-hand, the type of numbers or
characters he is using in his program. These are data types. There are many data types in
C language. A C programmer has to use appropriate data type as per his requirement.

Data type is the instruction to the compiler telling about what type of value will be
stored in a memory location and also to specify the amount of memory required for
location.
C language data types can be broadly classified as
 Primary data types
 Derived data types
 User-defined data types

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Primary Data Types

Integer Type:
Integers are whole numbers with a machine dependent range of values. Generally,
integers occupy one word of storage and since word sizes of machines vary (typically, 16
or 32 bits), the size of an integer that can be stored depends on the computer.
C has 3 classes of integer storage namely 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 i𝑛𝑡, i𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 i𝑛𝑡. All of these data
types have signed and unsigned forms. Signed numbers are positive or negative and one
bit is used for sign and rest of the bits for the magnitude of the number. Unsigned
numbers are always positive and consume all the bits for the magnitude of the number.

A 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 i𝑛𝑡 represents small integer values and requires half the space than normal
integer values. The 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑠i𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 i𝑛𝑡 are used to declare a longer range of
values.

Size Size
Type Range
(in Bytes) (in Bits)
i𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑠i𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 i𝑛𝑡 2 16 −32768 𝑡𝑜 32767
𝑢𝑛𝑠i𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 i𝑛𝑡 2 16 0 𝑡𝑜 65535
𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 i𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟
𝑠i𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 i𝑛𝑡 1 8 −128 𝑡𝑜 127

𝑢𝑛𝑠i𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 i𝑛𝑡 1 8 0 𝑡𝑜 255

𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 i𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑟
𝑠i𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 i𝑛𝑡 4 32 −2147483648 𝑡𝑜 2147483647

𝑢𝑛𝑠i𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 i𝑛𝑡 4 32 0 𝑡𝑜 4294967295

To find the range of these signed data type we use the formula, −2𝑛−1 𝑡𝑜 + 2𝑛−1 − 1
To find the range of these unsigned data type we use the formula, 0 𝑡𝑜 2𝑛 − 1

Character Data Type

A single character can be defined as a character (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟) type data. Characters are usually
stored in 8 bits (1 byte) of internal storage. The qualifier signed or unsigned may be
explicitly applied to char. Unsigned characters have values between 0 to 255, Signed
characters have values from -128 to +127.
Size Size
Type Range
(in Bytes) (in Bits)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑠i𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 1 8 −128 𝑡𝑜 127
𝑢𝑛𝑠i𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 1 8 0 𝑡𝑜 255

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Floating Point Types

Floating point numbers are stored in 32 bits (on all 16bit and 32bit machines), with 6
digits of precision. Floating point numbers are defined in C by the keyword ƒ𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡.

When the accuracy provided by a float number is not sufficient, the type 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 can be
used to define the number. This is also called long float. A 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 data type number uses
64 bits giving a precision of 14 digits. These are known as double precision numbers. The
double represents the same data type that float represents, but with greater precision. To
extend the precision further, we may use long double which uses 80 bits.
Size Size
Type Range
(in Bytes) (in Bits)
ƒ𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 4 32 3.4𝐸 − 38 𝑡𝑜 3.4𝐸 + 38
𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 8 64 1.7𝐸 − 308 𝑡𝑜 1.7𝐸 + 308
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 10 80 3.4𝐸 − 4932 𝑡𝑜 1.1𝐸 + 4932

Note: The size and range of Data Types vary from one machine to another. The above
specified size and range of Data Types are on a 16-bit Machine.

Void Data Type

C also has a special data type called 𝑣𝑜i𝑑, which indicates that any data type i.e., no data
type does not describe the data items. The size of 𝑣𝑜i𝑑 data type is 0 bytes.
Derived Data Types
These are also called secondary data types that include 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠, 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠, 𝑢𝑛i𝑜𝑛𝑠 and
𝑝𝑜i𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠.

Type Declaration Instruction:

A variable can be used to store a value of any data type. This instruction is used to
declare the type of variables being used in the program.
The syntax for declaring a variable is
𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎_𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟i𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒1, 𝑣𝑎𝑟i𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 … 𝑣𝑎𝑟i𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑛;
variable1, variable2,...variablen are the names of variables. Variables are separated by
commas(,). Declaration statement must end with a semicolon(;).
E.g.: int count; int num,total;
char gender;
double ratio;
float rs;
Several subtle variations of the type declaration instruction are
1) While declaring the type of variable we can also initialize value
i𝑛𝑡 i = 10, j = 35;

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ƒ𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 1.5, 𝑏 = 1.99 + 2.4 ∗ 1.44;

2) The order in which we define the variables is sometimes important sometimes not.
i𝑛𝑡 i = 10, j = 35; is same as i𝑛𝑡 j = 35, i = 10;
However, ƒ𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 1.5, 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 3.1; is not same as ƒ𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 3.1, 𝑎 = 1.5;
(as we are trying to use a before defining it).
3) The following statements would work
i𝑛𝑡 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑;
𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 10;
& the following statements would not work
i𝑛𝑡 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 𝑑 = 10;
as we are trying to use b (to assign to a) before defining it.
Declaring variable as constant
The value of certain variables might remain constant during the execution of a program
which can be achieved with the qualifier const at the time of initialization.
E.g. 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 i𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠_𝑠iz𝑒 = 60;
The keyword const tells the compiler that the value of the int variable class_size must not
be modified by the program.
Declaring variable as volatile
Another qualifier volatile can be used to tell explicitly the compiler that a variable's value
may be changed at any time by external sources (from outside the program).
E.g. 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡i𝑙𝑒 i𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒;
The value of date may be altered by some external factors. When we declare a variable
as volatile, the compiler will examine the value of the variable each time whether any
external alteration has changed the value and can be modified by its own program.
If the value must not be modified by the program while it may be altered by some other
process, then we may declare the value as both const and volatile as
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡i𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 i𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛 = 100;

Format Codes:
Format codes are coding characters used to represent the data types. They are needed
must to print the output in a formatted manner. It is also called control string, or format
specifiers or format strings.
Code Description
%c Single Character
%d Decimal Integer
%i Decimal, Hexadecimal or Octal Integer
%h Short Integer

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 Programming with C

% e, % f, % g Floating point value

% ld Long integer % lu Unsigned long int
%o Octal Integer
%s String or sequence of Characters
%u Unsigned decimal integer
%x Unsigned Hexadecimal integer

Basic Structure of C Program

The basic structure of the ‘C’ program consists of
Documentation Section
Link Section
Definition Section
Global Declaration Section
main () function section
{
Declaration part;
Executable part;
}
Sub program section
Function 1
Function 2
:
Function n

Documentation section
This section consists of a set of comment lines giving the name of the programmer,
name of the program and other details, which the programmer would like to use
later. It starts with ‘\*’ and ends with ‘*/’.
Link section
This section provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from system
library. It is as “#include<stdio.h>”.
Definition section
This section defines all the symbolic constants.
Global Declaration Section:
There are some variables that are used in more than one function, such variables
are called global variables & are declared in the global declaration section.
main() function Section:
Every C program must have one ‘main’ function section. This section contains two
parts i.e. declaration part and executable part. The declaration part declares all the

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 Programming with C

variables used in the executable part. These two parts must appear between
opening and closing braces {}.
Declaration & Execution Parts:
The program execution begins at opening brace and ends at the closing brace. All
statements in the declaration and executable part ends with semicolon (;).
Sub Program functions:
The sub program functions contain all the user-defined functions that are called in
the main function.
User defined functions are generally placed immediately after the main function.
The following are the rules to write C Programs:
1. All C statements must end with semicolon(;).
2. C is case-sensitive, i.e., upper and lower case characters are different. Generally, the
statements are typed in lower case.
3. A C statement can be written in one line or it can split into multiple lines.
4. Every C program is a collection of one or more functions. There must be only
function with the name as main as program execution starts and ends with main()
function.
5. The function's body must be enclosed within braces. Braces must always match
upon pairs i.e., every opening brace { must have a matching closing brace } to avoid
confusions and eliminate errors.
6. To make programs easily understandable, comments can be added. Comments
cannot be nested. For Example, /*Welcome to ‘C’, /*Programming*/*/ (this cannot
be used). A comment can split into more than one line.
Execution of C Program in TurboC:
The following are the steps to be followed in writing and running a C program:
a) Creation of Source Program:
Create a C program file in various C compilers that are available under MS-DOS,
Turbo C Editor etc.
b) Compilation of the Program:
Turbo C compiler is user friendly and provides integrated program development
environment. Thus, selecting key combination can do compilation. That means
press Alt+F9 for compilation.
c) Program Execution:
In Turbo C environment, the RUN option will do the compilation and execution
of a program. Press Ctrl+F9 for execution.
d) Result Display:
In Turbo C environment, the output of the executed program can be viewed.
Press Alt+F5 to view the output.

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Different types of files in TurboC

 In C language, every source file is saved with an extension of “.c” .
 The compiler automatically converts this source file into machine code at
compile time and creates an executable file.
 The machine code is saved with an extension “.obj”.
 The executable file is saved with an extension of “.exe” .
Execution of C program in UNIX/LINUX systems
We use an editor in the UNIX system to create a C source program.
The following command is used to compile C program "helloworld.c"
 Compilation Command: gcc helloworld.c -o helloworld
This command compiles the c program and generates an executable file
"helloworld" for running the program. In the command if we don't specify "-o
helloworld" it creates an executable file "a.out"
The following command is used to execute C program "helloworld.c"
 ./a.out - to execute the program if executable file name is not specified.
 ./helloworld - to execute the program if executable file name is specified.

I/O Functions
All most all the programming languages are designed to provide I/O activity. Input refers
to the process through which data is supplied to the system. On the other hand, output
refers to the provision which is made available by the computer to the user.

In C the input/output functions takes two forms they are: (1) Formatted (2) Unformatted

Formatted I/O Functions

The Formatted input/output functions are standard functions capable to read and write
all types of data values. They require conversion symbol to identify the data type. So
they can be used for both reading and writing of all types. The formatted functions also
return values after the execution. The formatted I/O functions supported by C are
printf() and scanf().
printf()
This is an output statement. To output data on to a screen, we use the standard output
library function, represented by the word "printf" followed by the open and closing
parentheses (). It is used to display the value of a variable or a message on the screen.

Syntax:
printf("<message>");
printf("<control string>", argument list separated with commas);

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Example:
printf("This is C statement");
printf("The number is % d", a);
printf("The number % d is equal to % d", 10,10);
printf("The number % d is not equal to % d", x,y);
scanf()
This is an input statement. Data can be stored in the variables after accepting the values
from the user through the keyword, by using a standard library function for input
operation. This allows a program to get user input from the keyboard. This means that
the program gets input values for variables from users.

Syntax:
scanf("<format code>",list of address of variables separated by commas);

Example:
scanf("% d", &a);
scanf("% d % c % f", &a, &b, &c);

1. To print a message "Hello World" on the screen

/*Program to print a message "Hello World" */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
clrscr();
printf("Hello World");
}
Output:
Hello World

2. To Display Multiple Statements

/*Program to print Name and Address*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
clrscr();
printf("Name: Sachin Tendulkar");
printf("\nQualification: Degree");
printf("\nAddress: Mumbai")
printf("\nWork: Cricket Player");
}

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Output:
Name: Sachin Tendulkar
Qualification: Degree
Address: Mumbai
Work: Cricket Player

3. To Initialize int, char, float data types

/*Program to initialize int, char, float data types*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n=78;
float j=3.0;
char x='y';
clrscr();
printf("Integer=%d\tFloat Value=%f\tCharacter=%c",n,j,x);
}
Output:
Integer=78 Float Value=3.0 Character=y

4. To accept the values of int, float, char data types and display them.
/*Program to accept values of int, char, float data types
Display them in the order of reading*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
char x;
int num;
float j;
clrscr();
/*Accept the values for data types from user*/
printf("Enter Character: ");
scanf("%c",&x);
printf("Enter Integer Value: ");
scanf("%d",&num);
printf("Enter Float Value: ");
scanf("%f",&j);
/*Display the accepted values*/
printf("Integer=%d\tFloat Value=%f\tCharacter=%c",num,j,x);
}
Output:
Enter Character: a (Enter)
Enter Integer Value: 20 (Enter)

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 Programming with C
Enter Float Value: 100 (Enter)
Integer=20 Float Value=100.0 Character=a

Unformatted I/O Functions

A simple reading of data from keyboard and writing to I/O device, without any format is
called unformatted I/O functions. The unformatted input/output functions only work
with the character data type. They do not require conversion symbol for identification of
data types. There is no need to convert the data. The unformatted functions also return
values, and return value is always the same.
The unformatted I/O functions are classified into (1) Character I/O and (2) String I/O
Character I/O
These read and print single character.
(1) getchar()
It returns a single character accepted through the keyboard, after the confirmation
key is pressed and can be assigned to the variable. The function does not require any
parameter though a pair of empty parentheses must follow the word getchar.
Syntax: character_variable = getchar();

Example:
char c; c = getchar(); /*reads a single character*/
(2) getch() & getche()
These functions read any alphanumeric characters from the standard input device.
getch() is a standard library function used for single character input, but it does
not wait for enter key and neither does it display the character on the screen.
Syntax: character_variable = getch();

getche() is a standard library functions used for single character input same as
getch() function. It also does not wait for enter key but echoes on the screen. It
can be used for getting the result directly on the screen.
Syntax: character_variable = getche();

Example:
char c; c = getche(); /*Displays the character entered on screen*/
c = getch(); /*does not display the character*/
(3) putchar()
It transmits a single character to a standard output device. The character being
transmitted will normally be represented as a character type variable. It must be
expressed as a parameter to the function, enclosed in parentheses, followed by the
word putchar.

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 Programming with C

Syntax: putchar(character_variable/expr);
Example:
char c; c = getchar(); putchar(c); /*prints the accepted character*/
(4) putch()
This function prints any alphanumeric character taken by the standard input device.
Syntax: putch(character_variable/expr);

Example: Program to accept characters and display them.

/*Program to accept characters and display*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
char x,y,z;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 1st character: ");
x = getchar();
printf("Enter 2nd character: ");
y = getche();
printf("\nEnter 3rd character: ");
z = getch();
printf("\nFirst character is ");
putchar(x);
printf("\nSecond character is ");
putch(y);
printf("\nThird character is ");
putchar(z);
}
Output:
Enter 1st character: k
Enter 2nd character: l
Enter 3rd character:
First character is k
Second character is l
Third character is ;

String I/O
In order to read and write string of characters the functions gets() and puts() are used.
gets() function reads the string and puts() function takes the string as argument and writes
on the screen.

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Operators in C
An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform certain mathematical or
logical manipulations (calculations). C is extremely rich in built-in operators. Operators
are used in program to manipulate data and variables. Some operators require two
operands, while others act upon only one operand. C operators are classified as follows:
1) Arithmetic Operators
2) Relational Operators
3) Logical Operators
4) Assignment Operator
5) Increment & Decrement Operator
6) Conditional Operator
7) Bit wise Operators
8) Special Operators

Arithmetic Operators: C provides all basic arithmetic operators as listed below:

Operator Meaning
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulo Division (remainder after division)

Integer division truncates any fractional part. Modulo division produces the remainder of
integer division.
E.g. sum = a+b; product = a*b; difference = a-b; quotient = a/b; remainder = a% b;
In the example, a & b are variables ad are known as operands.

Note: The modulo division operator (% ) can't be used on float and double datatypes.

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Relational Operators: Relational Operators are symbols that are used to test the
relationship between 2 variables or between variable and a constant. We often compare
two quantities & depending upon this relation take certain decisions.
Operator Meaning
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
== Equal to
!= Not equal to

A simple relational expression contains only one relational operator and takes the
following form:
𝑎𝑒1 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑒2
Here ae1 and ae2 are arithmetic expressions, which may be simple constants, variables or
combination of them. The value of a relational expression is either one or zero. It is one
if the specified relation is true and zero if the relation is false.
E.g. 10 < 20 is true, 20 < 10 is false.
These expressions are used in decision statements such as if and while to decide the
course of action of a running program.

Logical Operators: C has the following three logical operators:

Operator Meaning
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT

The logical operator && and || are used when we want to test more than one condition
& make decisions.
E.g. a>b && x == 10
An expression of this kind will combine two or more relational expressions is
termed as logical expression or compound relational expression. The logical expression
given below is true if a>b is true and x == 10 is true. If either or both of them are false ,
the expression is false.
TRUTH TABLE
op-1 op-2 op-1 && op-2 op-1 || op-2
1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0

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Logical NOT is used to reverse the truth value of its operand. (i.e. NOT F -> T)
An expression containing a logical operator is termed as a logical expression. A logical
expression also yields a value of one or zero.
Assignment Operator: (=)
These are used to assign the result of an expression to a variable. C has a set of shorthand
assignment operators of the form:
𝑣 𝑜𝑝 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝;
where v is a variable, exp is an expression and op is a C arithmetic operator. The
operator op= is known as shorthand assignment operator.
The above expression can be equivalent to 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑜𝑝 (𝑒𝑥𝑝);
E.g. x += y+1; -> x = x + (y+1);
Statement with simple Statement with shorthand operator
assignment operator
a = a+1 a += 1
a = a-1 a -= 1
a = a*(n+1) a *= (n+1)
a = a/(n+1) a /= (n+1)
a = a%b a %= b
The use of shorthand assignment operators has 3 advantages:
1. What appears on the left-hand side need not be repeated and therefore it
becomes easier to write.
2. The statement is more concise and easier to read.
3. The statement is more efficient.
Increment & Decrement Operators:
C has two very useful operators not generally found in other languages. These are
increment and decrement operators: ++ and --.
The operator ++ adds 1 to the operand, while -- subtracts 1.
Pre/Post Increment/Decrement Operators
PRE means do the operation first followed by any assignment operation. POST means do
the operation after any assignment operation.
++m; or m++; | --m; or m--;
++m; is equivalent to m=m+1; (or m+=1;) / --m; is equivalent to m=m-1; (or m-=1;)
While m++ and ++m mean the same when they form statements inde pendently, they
behave differently when they are used in expressions on the right-hand side of an
assignment statement.
E.g. (i) m = 5;
y = ++m; This statement results y and m = 6

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Since the prefix operator first adds 1 to the operand and then the result is assigned
to the variable on left.
(ii) m = 5;
y = m++; This statement results y = 5 and m = 6
Since the postfix operator first assigns the value to the variable on left then
increments the operand.
We use increment and decrement statements in for and while loops extensively.
Conditional Operator:
A ternary operator pair "? :" is available in C to construct conditional expressions of the
form:
𝑒𝑥𝑝1 ? 𝑒𝑥𝑝2 ∶ 𝑒𝑥𝑝3;
where exp1, exp2 and exp3 are expressions.
There operator ?: works as follows: exp1 is evaluated first. If it is true, then exp2 is
evaluated and becomes the value of the expression. If exp1 is false, exp3 is evaluated and
its value becomes the value of the expression.
E.g. a=10;
b=15;
x=(a>b) ? a : b; In this, the x will be assigned with the value of b.
Bitwise Operators:
In C, operations on bits at individual levels can be carried out using Bitwise operators.
These are used for manipulation of data at bit level. These operators are used for testing
the bits, or shifting them right or left. These may not be applied to float or double.
Operator Meaning
& bitwise AND
| bitwise OR
^ bitwise exclusive OR
<< shift left
>> shift right
~ One's complement

The bitwise AND does the logical AND of the bits in each position of a number in its
binary form.
00111100&
00001101

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 : Result

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 Programming with C

The bitwise OR does the logical OR of the bits in each position of a number in its binary
form.
001 11100|
00001101

0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 : Result

The bitwise exclusive OR performs a logical EX-OR function or in simple term adds the
two bits discarding the carry. Thus result is zero only when we have 2 zeroes or 2 ones
to perform on.
00111100^
00001101

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 : Result
The one's complement (~) or the bitwise complement gets us the complement of a given
number. Thus we get the bits inverted, for every bit 1 the result is bit 0 and conversely
for every bit 0 we have a bit 1.
Bit One's Complement
0 1
1 0
~ 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 --> 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
Two shift operators shift the bits in an integer variable by a specified number of positions.
The << operator shifts bits to the left, and the >> operator shifts bits to the right.
The syntax for these binary operators is x << n and x >> n.
Each operator shifts the bits in x by n positions in the specified direction.
 For a right shift, zeros are placed in the n high-order bits of the variable;
 For a left shift, zeros are placed in the n low-order bits of the variable.

Here are a few examples:

Binary 00001100 (decimal 12) right-shifted by 2 evaluates to binary 00000011 (decimal 3).
Binary 00001100 (decimal 12) left-shifted by 3 evaluates to binary 01100000 (decimal 96).
Binary 00001100 (decimal 12) right-shifted by 3 evaluates to binary 00000001 (decimal 1).
Binary 00110000 (decimal 48) left-shifted by 3 evaluates to binary 10000000 (decimal 128).

Special Operators:
C supports some operators of interest such as comma operator, sizeof operator, pointer
operators (& and *) and member selection operators (. and ->).

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The comma operator can be used to link the related expressions together. A comma-
linked: list of expressions are evaluated left to right and the value of right-most exp is the
value of combined expression.
E.g. value = (x=10,y=5,x+y);
First 10 is assigned to x then 5 is assigned to y & finally x + y i .e. which 15 is
assigned to value .
Since comma operator has lowest precedence of all operators, the parentheses are
necessary.
In for loops: for(n=1,m=10;n<=m;n++,m++)
In while loops: while(c=getchar(), c!='10')
Exchanging values: t=x, x=y, y=t;
The sizeof is a compile time operator and when used with an operand, it returns the
number of bytes the operand occupies. The operand may be a variable, a constant or a
data type qualifier.
E.g. m = sizeof(sum);
n = sizeof(long int);
k = sizeof(235L);
This operator is normally used to determine the lengths of arrays and structures when
their sizes are not known to the programmer. It is also used to allocate memory space
dynamically to variables during execution of a program.
Precedence of Arithmetic operators
An arithmetic expression without parentheses will be evaluated from left to right using
the rules of precedence of operators. There are two distinct priority levels of arithmetic
operators in C:
High Priority *, /, %
Low Priority +, -
The basic evaluation procedure includes two left-to-right passes through the expression.
During the first pass, the high priority operators (if any) are applied as they are
encountered. During the second pass, the low priority operators (if any) are applied as
they are encountered.
E.g. Consider a=9, b=12 and c=3
x = a - b/3+c*2-1;
1> x = 9 - 12/3 + 3*2-1
2> x = 9 - 4 + 3*2-1
3> x = 9 - 4 + 6-1
4> x = 5 + 6 - 1
5> x = 11 - 1 6> x = 10

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y = a - b/(3+c)*(2-1);
1> y = 9 - 12/6 * (2-1)
2> y = 9 - 12/6 * 1
3> y = 9 - 2 * 1
4> y = 9 - 2 5> y = 7
z = a - (b/(3+c)*2)-1;
1> z = 9 - (12/(3+3) * 2) - 1
2> z = 9 - (12/6 * 2) - 1
3> z = 9 - (2 * 2) - 1
4> z = 9 - 4 - 1
5> z = 5-1 6> z = 4

Operator Precedence and Associativity

Each operator in C has a precedence associated with it. This precedence is used to
determine how an expression involving more than one operator is evaluated. There are
distinct levels of precedence and an operator may belong to one of the levels. The
operators at the highest level of precedence are evaluated first. The operators of the
same precedence are evaluated either from left to right or from right to left, depending
on the level. This is known as associativity property of an operator.
a++ a-- left to right
!a ~a (type)a ++a --a right to left!
a*b a/b a%b left to right
a+b a-b left to right
a>>b a<<b left to right
a>b a>=b a<b a<=b left to right
a==b a!=b left to right
a&b left to right
a^b left to right
a|b left to right
&& left to right
|| left to right
a?b:c right to left
=, +=, -=, *=, /= right to left
%=, <<=, >>=, &=
|=, ^=
, left to right

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ARITHMETIC EXPRESSIONS
An arithmetic expression is a combination of variables, constants and operators arranged
as per the syntax of the language. C can handle any complex mathematical expressions.
Arithmetic Instruction
A C arithmetic instruction consists of a variable name on the left hand side of = and
variable names and constants on the right hand side of =. The variables and constants
appearing on the right hand side of = are connected by arithmetic operators like +, -, *,
/, and % .
𝑣𝑎𝑟i𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 − 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒 = 𝑒𝗑𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠i𝑜𝑛 [𝑜𝑟] 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒;
E.g. int a;
a=3200;
float kot, deta, alpha=9.2, beta=3.1256, gamma=100.0;
kot = 0.0056;
deta = alpha*beta/gamma + 3.2 * 2/5;
Here 2,5 and 3200 are integer constants and 3.2 and 0.0056 are real constants
kot, deta, alpha, beta and gamma are real variables.
The variables and constants together are called operands that are operated upon by the
arithmetic operators and the result is assigned using the assignment operator, to the
variable on the left-hand side.
C arithmetic instructions are of 3 types:
(1) Integer mode: This is an arithmetic instruction in which all operands are either
integer variables or integer constants.
E.g. int i, king, issac, noteit;
i = i+1;
king = issac*234 + noteit-7689;
(2) Real mode: This is an arithmetic instruction in which all operands are either real
constants or real variables.
E.g. float q, a, si, princ, anoy, roi;
q = a + 23.123/4.5*0.344;
si = princ*anoy*roi/100.0;
(3) Mixed mode: This is an arithmetic instruction in which some of the operands are
integers and some of the operands are real.
E.g. float si, princ, anoy, roi, avg;
int a, b, c, num;
q = a + 23.123/4.5*0.344;
si = princ*anoy*roi/100.0;
avg = (a+b+c+num)/4;

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The execution of an arithmetic instruction: Firstly, the right hand side is evaluated using
constants and the numerical values stored in the variable names. This value is then
assigned to the variable on the left-hand side.
Guidelines for Arithmetic Inst ructions
a) C allows only one variable on left hand side of =.
i.e., x = k + l; is legal whereas k + l = x; is illegal.
b) An arithmetic instruction is often used for storing character constants in character
variables.
E.g. char a,b,d;
a = 'F';
b = 'G';
d = '+';
When we do this the ASCII values of the characters are stored in the variables.
ASCII values are used to represent any character in memory.
c) Arithmetic operations can be performed on ints, floats and chars.
char x,y;
int z; x='a';
y='b';
z=x+y;
d) No operator is assumed to be present. It must be written explicitly.
E.g. a = c.d.b(xy) usual arithmetic statement
b = c*d*b*(x*y); c statement
e) Unlike other high level languages, there is no operator for performing
exponentiation operation.
E.g. a = 3**2;
b = 3^ 2; statements are valid.
Evaluation of Expressions
Expressions are evaluated using an assignment statement of the form
𝑣𝑎𝑟i𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠i𝑜𝑛;
Algebraic Expression C expression
axb-c a*b-c
(m+n)(x+y) (m+n)*(x+y)
𝑎𝑏
a*b/c
𝑐
3x2 + 2x + 1 3*x*x + 2*x + 1
𝑥
𝑦
+ 𝑐 x/y + c

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 Programming with C - Lab

Variable is any valid C variable name. When the statement is encountered, the expression
is evaluated first and the result then replaces the previous value of the variable on the
left-hand side. All variables used in the expression must be assigned values before
evaluation is attempted.
E.g. x = a*b-c;
y = b/c*a;
z = a-b/c + d;
The blank space around an operator is optional and adds only to improve readability.
When these statements are used in a program, the variables a, b, c and d must be defined
before they are used in the expressions.
Rules for evaluation of expression
1. Parenthesized sub expression from left to right is evaluated.
2. If parentheses are nested, the evaluation begins with the innermost sub-expression.
3. The precedence rule is applied in determining the order of application of
operators in evaluating sub-expressions.
4. The associativity rule is applied when 2 or more operators of the same precedence
level appear in a sub-expression.
5. Arithmetic expressions are evaluated from left to right using the rules of
precedence.
6. When parentheses are used, the expressions within parentheses assume highest
priority.

Type Casting
Typecasting concept in C language is used to modify a variable from one date type to
another data type. New data type should be mentioned before the variable name or
value in brackets which to be typecast.
C type casting example program:
 In the below C program, 7/5 alone will produce integer value as 1.
 So, type cast is done before division to retain float value (1.4).
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
float x;
x = (float) 7/5;
printf("%f",x);
}
Output: 1.400000

Note:
 It is best practice to convert lower data type to higher data type to avoid data
loss.

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 Programming with C - Lab

 Data will be truncated when higher data type is converted to lower. For example,
if float is converted to int, data which is present after decimal point will be lost.

Usual Arithmetic Conversion

The usual arithmetic conversions are implicitly performed to cast their values in a
common type, C uses the rule that, in all expressions except assignments, any implicit
type conversions made from a lower size type to a higher size type as shown below:

“math.h” functions
Mathematics is relatively straightforward library to use again. You must
#include<math.h> and must remember to link in the math library at compilation:
cc mathprog.c -o mathprog -lm
Math Functions
S.no Function Description Example
floor of 5.100000 is 5.000000
This function returns the nearest integer
floor of 5.900000 is 5.000000
1 floor() which is less than or equal to the
floor of -5.400000 is -6.000000
argument passed to this function.
floor of -6.900000 is -7.000000
This function returns the nearest integer
value of the float/double/long
double argument passed to this
function. If decimal value is from “.1 to round of 5.400000 is 5.000000
2 round()
.5″, it returns integer value less than the round of 5.600000 is 6.000000
argument. If decimal value is from “.6 to
.9″, it returns the integer value greater
than the argument.
This function returns nearest integer ceil of 5.400000 is 6.000000
3 ceil() value which is greater than or equal ceil of 5.600000 is 6.000000
to the argument passed to this function. Ceil of 8.33=9

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 Programming with C - Lab

This function is used to calculate sine

4 sin() The value of sin(0.314000) :
value.
5 cos() This function is used to calculate cosine.0.308866
The value of cos(0.314000) :
This function is used to calculate 0.951106
6 cosh()
hyperbolic cosine. The value of tan(0.314000) :
This function is used to calculate the 0.324744
7 exp()
exponential “e” to the xth power. The value of sinh(0.250000) :
This function is used to calculate 0.252612
8 tan() The value of cosh(0.250000) :
tangent.
This function is used to calculate 1.031413
9 tanh() The value of tanh(0.250000) :
hyperbolic tangent.
0.244919
This function is used to calculate
10 sinh() The value of log(6.250000) :
hyperbolic sine.
1.832582
This function is used to calculates The value of log10(6.250000) :
11 log()
natural logarithm. 0.795880
This function is used to calculates base The value of exp(6.250000) :
12 log10()
10 logarithm. 518.012817
This function is used to find square root sqrt of 16 = 4.000000
13 sqrt()
of the argument passed to this function. sqrt of 2 = 1.414214
This is used to find the power of the 2 power 4 = 16.000000
14 pow()
given number. 5 power 3 = 125.000000
truncated value of 16.99 =
This function truncates the decimal value
16.000000
15 trunc() from floating point value and returns
truncated value of 20.1 =
integer value.
20.000000

Math Constants
The math.h library defines many (often neglected) constants. It is always advisable to use
these definitions:
⚫ HUGE - The maximum value of a single -precision floating-point number.
⚫ M_E - The base of natural logarithms (e).
⚫ M_LOG2E - The base-2 logarithm of e.
⚫ M_LOG10E - The base-10 logarithm of e.
⚫ M_LN2 - The natural logarithm of 2.
⚫ M_LN10 - The natural logarithm of 10.
⚫ M_PI - π.
⚫ M_PI_2 - π/2.
⚫ M_PI_4 - π/4.
⚫ M_1_PI - 1/π.
⚫ M_2_PI - 2/π.
⚫ M_2_SQRTPI - 2/√𝜋.
⚫ M_SQRT2 - The positive square root of 2.
⚫ M_SQRT1_2 - The positive square root of 1/2.
⚫ MAXFLOAT - The maximum value of a non -infinite single- precision floating point
number.
⚫ HUGE_VAL - positive infinity.

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Sample C Programs
Input two numbers and compute all arithmetic operations
/*Program to accept 2 numbers and compute all arithmetic operations*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int num1,num2;
clrscr();
/*Accept two numbers from user*/
printf("Enter first number: ");
scanf("%d",&num1);
printf("Enter second number: ");
scanf("%d",&num2);
/*Display values for arithmetic operators*/
printf("Sum of 2 numbers: %d",num1+num2);
printf("\nDifference of 2 numbers: %d", num1-num2);
printf("\nProduct of 2 numbers: %d", num1*num2);
printf("\nQuotient for %d/%d: %d", num1,num2,num1/num2);
printf("\nRemainder for %d/%d: %d", num1,num2,num1%num2);
}
Output:
Enter first number: 52 (Enter)
Enter second number: 12 (Enter)
Sum of 2 numbers: 64
Difference of 2 numbers: 40
Product of 2 numbers: 624
Quotient for 52/12: 4
Remainder for 52/12: 4

Input radius, compute area, diameter, & circumference of the circle and display them.
/*Program to accept radius & calculate area, diameter and
circumference of circle*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
/*Declare the variables*/
int radius,diameter;
float area,circumference;
const float PI = 3.14; /*set variable PI to constant*/
clrscr();
/*Accept the value of radius*/
printf("Enter circle radius: ");

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 Programming with C
scanf("%d",&radius);
/*Compute the area, diameter and circumference*/
diameter = 2*radius;
area = PI*radius*radius;
circumference = 2*PI*radius;
/*Display the results*/
printf("Area of circle = %.2f",area);
printf("\nDiameter of circle = %d",diameter);
printf("\nCircumference of circle = %.2f",circumference);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter circle radius: 5 (Enter)
Area of circle = 78.50
Diameter of circle = 10
Circumference of circle = 31.40

Swapping the values of two variables using third variable

/*Program to accept two numbers & swap the values*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
/*Declare the variables*/
int num1,num2,temp;
clrscr();
printf("Enter first number: ");
scanf("%d",&num1);
printf("Enter second number: ");
scanf("%d",&num2);
printf("Numbers before swapping: %d %d",num1,num2);
/*swapping the values of variables*/
temp = num1;
num1 = num2;
num2 = temp;
printf("Numbers after swapping: %d %d",num1,num2);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter first number: 6
Enter second number: 5
Numbers before swapping: 6 5
Numbers after swapping: 5 6

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 Programming with C

Program for swapping the values of two variables without using third variable
/*Program to accept two numbers & swap the values*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
/*Declare the variables*/
int num1,num2;
clrscr();
printf("Enter first number: ");
scanf("%d",&num1);
printf("Enter second number: ");
scanf("%d",&num2);
printf("Numbers before swapping: %d %d",num1,num2);
/*swapping the values of variables*/
num1 = num1 + num2;
num2 = num1 – num2;
num1 = num1 – num2;
printf("Numbers after swapping: %d %d",num1,num2);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter first number: 6
Enter second number: 5
Numbers before swapping: 6 5
Numbers after swapping: 5 6

Program to calculate total marks and percentage of a student for 5 subjects where marks
of each subject should be greater than minimum pass marks (Ex: 35).
/*Program to accept marks and obtain total and percentage of marks*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int sub1,sub2,sub3,sub4,sub5,sum;
long int studno;
float total=500,percentage;
clrscr();
printf("Enter Student Number: ");
scanf("%ld",&studno);
printf("Enter SUBJECT1 marks: ");
scanf("%d",&sub1);
printf("Enter SUBJECT2 marks: ");
scanf("%d",&sub2);

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 Programming with C
printf("Enter SUBJECT3 marks: ");
scanf("%d",&sub3);
printf("Enter SUBJECT4 marks: ");
scanf("%d",&sub4);
printf("Enter SUBJECT5 marks: ");
scanf("%d",&sub5);
sum=sub1+sub2+sub3+sub4+sub5;
percentage=(sum/total)*100;
printf("=============RESULT=============\n");
printf("STUDENT NUMBER: %ld",studno);
printf("\nTOTAL MARKS OBTAINED FOR 500: %d",sum);
printf("\nPERCENTAGE: %.2f",percentage);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter Student Number: 1220610113
Enter SUBJECT1 marks: 90
Enter SUBJECT2 marks: 91
Enter SUBJECT3 marks: 95
Enter SUBJECT4 marks: 93
Enter SUBJECT5 marks: 89
=============RESULT=============
STUDENT NUMBER: 1220610113
TOTAL MARKS OBTAINED FOR 500: 458
PERCENTAGE: 91.60

To implement the concept of evaluating the expressions

/*Program to evaluate the expressions*/
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int a=9,b=13,c=3;
float x,y,z;
x = a-b/3.0+c*2-1;
y = a-(float)b/(3+c)*(2-1);
z = a-((float)b/(3+c)*2)-1;
printf("x = %f\t\ty = %f\t\tz = %f",x,y,z);
getch();
}
Output:
x = 9.666667 y = 6.833333 z = 3.666667

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 Programming with C

Control Statements (Conditional – Decision Making)

We have a number of situations where we may have to change the order of execution of
statements based on certain conditions, or repeat a group of statements until certain
specified conditions are met. This involves a kind of decision making to see whether a
particular condition has occurred or not and then direct the computer to execute certain
statements accordingly.
C language possesses such decision making capabilities and supports the following
statements known as control or decision making statements.
1. if statement
2. switch statement
3. conditional operator statement
4. goto statement
Decision making with ‘if’ statement
The if statement is a powerful decision making statement and is used to control the flow
of execution of statements. It is basically a two-way decision statement and is used in
conjunction with an expression. It takes the following form:
iƒ(𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠i𝑜𝑛)
It allows the computer to evaluate the expression first and then depending on whether
the value of expression (or condition) is true (1) or false (0), it transfers the control to a
particular statement. This point of program has two paths to follow, one for the true
condition and the other for the false condition.
Entry

test
expression? False

True

Two-way Branching

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 Programming with C

Examples of decision making, using if statement are

1. if (bank balance is zero) borrow money
2. if(age is more than 60) person retires

The if statement may be implemented in different forms depending on the complexity of

conditions to be tested.
1. Simple if statement
2. if…else statement
3. Nested if…else statement
4. else if ladder
Simple ‘if’ statement
The general form of a ‘simple if’ statement is
Syntax:
if(test_expression)
{
statement_block;
}
statement_x;

‘statement_block’ may be a single statement or a group of statements. If the test

expression is true the ‘statement_block’ will be executed, otherwise the ‘statement_block’
will be skipped and the execution will jump to ‘statement_x’.
Flowchart for Simple If

Example: To check whether student is passed or failed.

/*Program to check whether student is passed or failed*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int marks;
clrscr();

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 Programming with C

printf("Enter student marks: ");

scanf("% d",&marks);
if(marks>50)
printf("Student Passed");
if(marks<50)
printf("Student Failed");
getch();
}

Output:
(1) Enter student marks: 55
Student Passed

(2) Enter student marks: 40

Student Failed

If-Else Statement
The if-else statement is an extension of the ‘simple if’ statement. The general form is
Syntax:
if(test_expression)
{
true-block-statements;
}
else
{
false-block-statements;
}
statement_x;

If the test_expression is true, then the true-block-statement(s), immediately following the

if statement are executed; otherwise the false-block-statement(s) are executed. In either
case, either true-block-statements or false-block-statements will be executed, not both.
Flowchart for If Else

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 Programming with C

Example: Program to check whether given number is even or odd

/*Program to check whether given number is even or odd*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int num;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number: ");
scanf("% d",&num);
if(num% 2 == 0)
printf("% d is even number",num);
else
printf("% d is odd number",num);
getch();
}

Output:
(1) Enter number: 53
53 is odd number
(2) Enter student marks: 42
42 is even number

Nested If… Else Statement

When a series of decisions are involved, we may have to use more than one if…else
statement in nested form as follows:
Syntax:
if(test_condition1)
{
if(test_condition2)
{
statement-1;
}
else
{
statement-2;
}
}
else
{
statement-3;
}
statement-x;

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 Programming with C - Lab

If the test_condition1 is false, the statement-3 will be executed; otherwise it continues to

perform the second test. If the test_condition2 is true, the statement-1 will be executed
otherwise statement-2 will be evaluated and then the control is transferred to the
statement-x;
Flowchart for Nested If…Else

Example: Program to find the largest of three numbers

/*Program to find the largest of three numbers*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the three values: ");
scanf("% d % d % d",&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b && a>c)
printf("% d is largest",a);
else
if(b>a && b>c)
printf("% d is largest",b);
else
printf("% d is largest",c);

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 Programming with C

getch();
}

Output:
Enter number: 5 6 7
7 is largest

Else If Ladder
There is another way of putting if’s together when multipath decisions are involved. A
multipath decision is a chain of if’s in which the statement associated with each else is an
if. It takes the following general form:
Syntax:
if(condition1)
statement-1;
else if(condition-2)
statement-2;
else if(condition-3)
statement-3;
...
...
...
else if(condition-n)
statement-n;
else
default-statement;
statement-x;

This construct is known as else if

ladder. The conditions are evaluated
from the top downwards. As soon
as a true condition is found, the
statement associated with it is
executed and the control is
transferred to statement-x. When all
the n conditions become false, then
the final else containing the default-
statement will be executed.

The logic of execution for ‘else if

ladder statements’ is shown in the
flowchart below.

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 Programming with C

Example: Program to illustrate concept of else-if ladder to select color

/*Program to select color*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any number between 1 & 4 to select color: \n");
scanf("% d",&n);
if(n==1)
{
printf("You selected Red color");
}
else if(n==2)
{
printf("You selected Green color");
}
else if(n==3)
{
printf("You selected yellow color");
}
else if(n==4)
{
printf("You selected Blue color");
}
else
{
printf("No color selected");
}
getch();
}
Output:
(1) Enter any value between 1 & 4 to select color: 4
You selected Blue Color
(2) Enter any value between 1 & 4 to select color: 1
You selected Red Color
(3) Enter any value between 1 & 4 to select color: 5
No color selected

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 Programming with C

SWITCH -CASE STATEMENT

When one of many alternatives is to be selected we can design a program using 'if'
statement, to control the selection. However, the complexity of such programs in C
number of alternatives increases. The program becomes difficult to read and follow.

The switch test or checks the values of given variable (or expression) against a list of case
values and when a match is found a block of statements associated with that case is
executed. The switch makes one selection when there are several choices to be made.

The general form of switch statement is

Syntax:
switch(expression)
{
case value-1: block-1;
break;
case value-2: block-2;
break;
:
:
default: default-block;
break;
}
statement-x;

The expression is an integer expression or characters. Value-1, value-2, ... are constants or
constant expressions and are known as case labels. Each of these values should be unique
within a switch statement.

Block-1, block-2, ... are statements lists and may contain 0 or more statements. There is
no need to put braces ({ }) around these blocks. Case labels end with a colon(:).

When a switch is executed the value of the expression is compared against the value
(value-1, value-2, ...). If a case is found whose value of expression then block of
statements that follows the case are executed.

The break statement at the end of each block signals the end of a particular case and
causes an exit from the switch statement, transferring the control to the statement-x
following the switch statement.

The default is an optional case, when present, it will be executed if the value of the
expression does not match with any of the case values.

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 Programming with C

If not present, no action takes place and if all matches fail; the control goes to the
statement-x.

The selection process of switch statement is illustrated in flow chart:

Example 1: Program to print words corresponding numbers below 9

/*Print words corresponding numbers below 9*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number(0-9): ");
scanf("%d",&n);
switch(n)
{
case 0: printf("Zero");
break;
case 1: printf("One");
break;
case 2: printf("Two");
break;
case 3: printf("Three");
break;
case 4: printf("Four");
break;
case 5: printf("Five");
break;

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 Programming with C
case 6: printf("Six");
break;
case 7: printf("Seven");
break;
case 8: printf("Eight");
break;
case 9: printf("Nine");
break;
default: printf("More than 9");
}
getch();
}
Output:
Enter a number (0-9): 3
Three
Enter a number (0-9): 10
More than 9

Algorithms for Conditional and Case Control

Example: Write an algorithm to find the largest of three numbers.

Step 1. Read the numbers a, b, c
Step 2. If a>b AND a>c then
Step 3. Print ''a is the largest number"
Step 4. Else If b>a AND b>c then
Step 5. Print ''b is the largest number"
Step 6. Else Print ''c is the largest number"
Step 7. End of program.
Example: Write an algorithm to calculate pay salary with overtime.
[Salary depends on the pay rate and the number of hours worked per week. However, if you work more
than 40 hours, you get paid time-and-a-half for all hours worked over 40.]
Step 1. Read hours and rate
Step 2. If hours ≤ 40 then
Step 3. Set salary as hours * rate
Step 4. Else
Step 5. Set salary as [40 * rate + (hours – 40) * rate * 1.5]
[salary = pay rate times 40 plus 1.5 times pay rate times (hours worked - 40)]
Step 6. Print salary
Step 7. End of program.

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 Programming with C

Pseudo code is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develop
algorithms. Pseudo code is a "text-based" detail (algorithmic) design tool. It is an
algorithm written in English like language.
Pseudo-code Language Constructions :
Computation/Assignment
set the value of "variable" to :"arithmetic expression" or
"variable" equals "expression"
Input/Output
get/read "variable", "variable", ...
display "variable", "variable", ...
Conditional (dot notation used for numbering subordinate statements)
6. if "condition"
6.1 (subordinate) statement 1
6.2 etc ...
7. else
7.1 (subordinate) statement 2
7.2 etc ...

Example : Write a pseudo-code to compute the final price of an item after figuring
in sales tax.
Step 1. Begin
Step 2. get price_of_item
Step 3. get sales_tax_rate
Step 4. Set sales_tax to price_of_item times sales_tax_rate
Step 5. Set final_price to price_of_item plus sales_tax
Step 6. display final_price
Step 7. End.

Example : Write a pseudo code to check whether a student is passed or not.

Step 1. Begin
Step 2. Read marks
Step 3. If marks is greater than or equal to 60 then
Step 3.1. Print "Student Passed"
Step 4. Else
Step 4.1. Print "Student Failed"
Step 5. EndIf;
Step 6. End.
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 Programming with C

Algorithm to Find Volume of Sphere,Cone and Cylinder(using switch...case..default)

step 1: Start
step 2: Define pi<-3.14
step 3: Intilize 1<-1
step 4: check whether i=1 then go to step5 else go to step 24
step 5: Read x
step 6: check whether x=1,then go to step 7 else go to step 10
step 7: Read r
step 8: print 4/3*pi*r*r*r
step 9: break
step 10: check whether x=2,then go to step 11 else go to step 14
step 11: read r and h
step 12: print 1/3*pi*r*r*h
step 13: break
step 14: check whether x=3,then go to step 15 else go to step 18
step 15: read r and h
step 16: print 4/3*pi*r*r*r
step 17: break
step 18: check whether x=4,then go to step 19 else go to step 21
step 19: i=0
step 20: break
step 21: print invalid
step 22: break
step 23: go to step 4
step 24: Stop

Sample C Programs
1. To check whether number is +ve, -ve or zero
/*Program to check number is positive, negative or zero*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
if(n>0)
printf("Number is Positive");
if(n<0)

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 Programming with C
printf("Number is Negative");
if(n==0)
printf("Number is Zero");
}
Output:
Enter a number: -2
Number is Negative
Enter a number: 0
Number is Zero
Enter a number: 6
Number is Positive

2. To check two numbers are equal

/*Program to check whether the given numbers are equal*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int num1,num2;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 2 numbers: ");
scanf("%d %d",&num1,&num2);
if(num1==num2)
printf("Both the numbers are equal");
getch();
}
Output:
Enter 2 numbers: 6 6
Both the numbers are equal
Enter 2 numbers: 3 2

3. Check whether given character is vowel or consonant.

/*Program to check whether the given character is vowel or consonant */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
char x;
clrscr();
printf("Enter letter: ");
x=getchar();
if(x=='a'||x=='A'||x=='e'||x=='E'||x=='i'||x=='I'||x=='o'||x=='O'
||x=='u'||x=='U')
printf("The character %c is a vowel",x);

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 Programming with C
else
printf("The character %c is a consonant",x);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter letter: p
The character p is a consonant
Enter letter: a
The character a is a vowel

4. Program to calculate square of numbers whose least significant digit is 5.

/*Program to calculate square of numbers whose LSD is 5 */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int s,d;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a Number: ");
scanf("%d",&s);
d=s%10;
if(d==5)
{
s=s/10;
printf("Square = %d %d",s*s++,d*d);
}
else
printf("\nInvalid Number");
}
Output:
Enter a Number: 25
Square = 625

Enter a Number: 32
Invalid Number

5. To obtain the electric bill as per the charges below

No of Units Consumed Rates (In Rs.)
500 and above 5.50
200-500 3.50
100-200 2.50
Less than 100 1.50
/*Program to obtain electric bill as per meter reading*/
#include<stdio.h>

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 Programming with C
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int initial,final,consumed;
float total;
clrscr();
printf("Initial & Final Readings: ");
scanf("%d %d",&initial,&final);
consumed = final-initial;
if(consumed>500)
total=consumed*5.50;
else if(consumed>=200 && consumed<=500)
total=consumed*3.50;
else if(consumed>=100 && consumed<=199)
total=consumed*2.50;
else if(consumed<100)
total=consumed*1.50;
printf("Total bill for %d units is %f",consumed,total);
getch();
}
Output:
Initial & Final Readings: 1200 1500
Total bill for 300 units is 1050.000000

Initial & Final Readings: 800 900

Total bill for 100 units is 250.000000

6. To check whether letter is small, capital, digit or special symbol.

/*Program to check small,capital,digit or special*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
char x;
clrscr();
printf("Enter character: ");
scanf("%c",&x);
if(x>='a' && x<='z')
printf("Small letter");
else if(x>='A' && x<='Z')
printf("Capital letter");
else if(x>='0' && x<='9')
printf("Digit");
else
printf("Special Symbol");

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 Programming with C
getch();
}
Output:
Enter character: *
Special Symbol

Enter character: T
Capital letter
Enter character: a
Small letter
Enter character: 6
Digit

7: Program to check whether a letter is vowel or consonant

/*Program to check whether given letter is vowel or consonant*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("Enter Character: ");
ch = getch();
switch(ch)
{
case 'a':
case 'A':
case 'e':
case 'E':
case 'i':
case 'I':
case 'o':
case 'O':
case 'u':
case 'U': printf("Character %c is Vowel",ch);
break;
default: printf("Character %c is Consonant",ch);
}
getch();
}

Output:
Enter Character: a
Character a is Vowel

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 Programming with C
Enter Character: B
Character B is Consonant

8: Program to calculate Arithmetic Operations depending on operator.

/*Print words corresponding numbers below 9*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a,b;
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any arithmetic operator: ");
scanf("%c",&ch);
printf("Enter two numbers: ");
scanf("%d %d",&a,&b);
switch(ch)
{
case '+': printf("\nThe sum is %d",a+b);
break;
case '-': printf("\nThe difference is %d",a-b);
break;
case '*': printf("\nThe product is %d",a*b);
break;
case '/': printf("\nThe quotient is %d",a/b);
break;
case '%': printf("\nThe remainder is %d",a%b);
break;
default: printf("Not Valid Operator");
}
getch();
}
Output:
Enter any arithmetic operator: *
Enter two numbers: 8 4
The product is 32

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GOTO Statement
C supports the goto statement to branch unconditionally from one point to another in
the program. Although it may not be essential to use the goto statement in a highly
structured language like C, there may be occasions when the use of goto might be
desirable.
The goto requires a label in order to identify the place where the branch is to be made. A
label is any valid variable name, and must be followed by colon. The label is placed
immediately before the statement where the control is to be transferred.
The general forms of goto and label statements are shown below:
goto label; label;
…. statement;
…. ….
…. ….
label; ….
statement; goto label;
Forward Jump Backward Jump

The label can be anywhere in the program either before or after the goto label;
statement. During running of a program when a statement like goto begin; is met, the
flow of control will jump to the statement immediately following the label begin. This
happens unconditionally.
Example: To print Multiplication Table
/*Program to print Multiplication Table*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int a,i=1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the value of a: ");

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 Programming with C - Lab
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("\nMultiplication Table for %d\n",a);
printf(" \n");
start:
printf("%d x %d = %d\n",a,i,a*i);
i=i+1;
if(i<=10)
goto start;
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the value of a: 5

Multiplication Table for 5

5 x 1 = 5
5 x 2 = 10
5 x 3 = 15
5 x 4 = 20
5 x 5 = 25
5 x 6 = 30
5 x 7 = 35
5 x 8 = 40
5 x 9 = 45
5 x 10 = 50

Advantage:
Using goto statement you can alter the normal sequence of the program execution so it
gives the power to jump to any part of program.
Disadvantages:
It is always recommended not to use goto statement as this reduces the readability of the
program. It becomes difficult to trace the control flow of a program, making the
program logic complex to understand .Using goto statement is considered as poor
programming practice. Any program written in C language can be written without the
use of goto statement. So try to avoid goto statement as possible as you can.

Looping
Loop is a mechanism through which you repeatedly execute a set of statements. In
looping, a sequence of statements is executed until some condition for termination of the
loop is satisfied.

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A program loop therefore consists of two segments, one the body of the loop & other
the control statement. The control statement tests certain conditions and then directs the
repeated execution of statements contained in body of the loop.
Depending on the position of the control statement in the loop, a control structure may
be classified either as entry-controlled loop or exit-controlled loop.
□ In entry-controlled loop , the control conditions are tested before start of the execution. If
conditions are not satisfied, then body of the loop will not be executed.
□ In exit-controlled loop , the test is performed at the end of the body of the loop and
therefore the body is executed unconditionally for the first time.

Loop Control Structures

The test conditions should be carefully stated in order to perform the desired number of
loop executions. It is assumed that the test condition will eventually transfer the control
out of the loop. In case, due to some reason it does not do so, the control sets up an
infinite loop and the body is executed over and over again.
A looping process, in general, would include the following four steps:
1. Setting & Initialization of a counter
2. Execution of the statements in the loop
3. Test for a specified condition for execution of the loop
4. Updating the counter
The test may be either to determine whether the loop has been repeated the specified
number of times or to determine whether a particular condition has been met.
The C language provides the following loop constructs:
(a) while statement
(b) do..while statement
(c) for statement

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The WHILE Statement

□ The simplest of all looping structures is the while (an entry-controlled loop) statement.
□ The basic format of while statement is
Syntax:
while(test_condition)
{
statement;
}
test_condition Is any valid C condition. Statement is repeatedly executed as long
as condition is true. Once the condition is false, loop is
terminated and control is transferred to the statement that is
immediately after the loop.
statement (Body of the loop) May be either a single statement or a
compound statement.
□ On exit, the program continues with the statement immediately after the body of
the loop.
Example 1: To print the message 5 times
/*Print message 10 times*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
while(i<=5) Output:
{ CPNM
printf("\nCPNM"); CPNM
i++; CPNM
} CPNM
getch(); CPNM
}

Example 2: To print 1 to 10 numbers.

/*Print 1 to 10 numbers*/ Output:
#include<stdio.h> 1
#include<conio.h> 2
main() 3
{ 4
int i=1; 5
clrscr(); 6
while(i<=10) 7
{ 8

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 Programming with C - Lab
printf("\n%d",i); 9
i++; 10
}
getch();
}

Example 3: To print 1 to 10 odd numbers.

/*Print 1 to 10 numbers*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int i=1;
clrscr();
while(i<=10) { Output:
printf("\n%d",i); 1
i+ = 2; 3
} 5
getch(); 7
} 9

Example 4: To print largest of the given numbers.

/*Program to display the largest of given numbers*/
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int num;
int largenum=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a number (0 to stop): ");
scanf("%d",&num);
while(num!=0)
{
if(num>largenum)
largenum = num;
printf("Enter a number (0 to stop): ");
scanf("%d",&num);
}
printf("Largest number is %d",largenum);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter a number (0 to stop): 6
Enter a number (0 to stop): 9
Enter a number (0 to stop): 16

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 Programming with C - Lab
Enter a number (0 to stop): 98
Enter a number (0 to stop): 0
Largest number is 98

The DO…WHILE Statement

□ When you need to execute statements at least for once irrespective of the result of
the condition then you have to use do...while loop.
□ Unlike while loop, in which condition is checked at the top of the loop; in
do...while, condition is checked at the bottom.
□ Do…while executes statements first and then checks condition. As the result
statements are executed at least once as condition is not at all checked before the
first iteration.
□ The basic form of do…while is
Syntax:
do
{
statements;
}
while(test_condition);

Braces { } are must for do…while. And we can have any number of statements between
braces (body of the loop).
□ Since the test_condition is evaluated at bottom of the loop, the do…while construct
provides an exit-controlled loop and therefore the body of loop is always executed
at least once.
Example 1: To calculate sum of 10 natural numbers.
/*Calculate sum of 10 natural numbers*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int i=1,sum=0;
clrscr();
do
{
sum + = i;
i++;
}
while(i<=10);
printf("\nThe sum of 10 natural numbers is: %d",sum);
getch();
}

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Output:
The sum of 10 natural numbers is: 55

Example 2: To print Multiplication table.

/*Program to print Multiplication Table*/
#include<stdio.h>
#define COLMAX 10
#define ROWMAX 10
main()
{
int row,column,y;
clrscr();
row=1;
printf(" MULTIPLICATION TABLE\n");
printf(" \n");
do
{
column=1;
do
{
y=row*column;
printf("%4d",y);
column = column+1;
}
while(column<=COLMAX);
printf("\n");
row = row+1;
}
while(row<=ROWMAX);
printf(" \n");
getch();
}
Output:
MULTIPLICATION TABLE

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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Example 3: To print Fibonacci Series.

/*Program to print Fibonacci Series 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,...*/
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int n,n1=0,n2=1,n3,i=3;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number for series: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nFibonacci Series: ");
printf("\n%3d%3d",n1,n2);
do
{
n3 = n1+n2;
printf("%3d",n3);
n1 = n2;
n2 = n3;
i++;
} while(i<=n);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter number for series: 10

Fibonacci Series:
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

FOR Loop:
□ This is another entry control loop.
□ This integrates 3 basic ingredients of a loop (initialization, condition and
incrementing).
□ For loop is typically used to repeat statements for a fixed number of times.
□ The basic form of for statement:
Syntax:
for(initialization;condition;updation)
{
statement;
}

initialization Executed only for once just before loop starts. Normally counter
(variable used in loop) is initialized here.
condition Is any valid C condition. As long as this is true statement is
repeatedly executed.

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updation Executed after the statement is executed. Typically contains

incrementing counter or decrementing counter as the case may
be.
statement (Body of the loop) This is repeatedly executed as long as
condition is true. It may be a compound statement also.
Note: All the above are optional. So any portion of the loop can be omitted. Though a
portion is omitted, semicolon (;) after that must be given.

The following is an example to display numbers from 1 to 10 using for loop.

for(n=1;n<=10;n++)
printf("%d\n",n);

This is in effect same as while loop used previously. But, as it combines initialization,
condition and updation, it is more easier compared with while loop.

The following is another example for for loop where initialization and updation parts are
omitted.
/*this is to be terminated when 0 or negative number is given*/
for(;n>0;)
scanf("%d",&n);

Note: In C language, for loop can be used in place of while loop and vice -versa. Both of them
execute statements as long as the condition is true and terminate the loop once condition is
false.
The for statement
for(; ;)
{
statement;
}
is an infinite loop. This can be terminated using a break statement or an exit() function.
Comma Operator
It is possible to have more than one expression in initialization and updation portions
using (comma) operator. Comma operator is used to separate expressions.
The following is an example of for loop using comma operator:
printf("\nn\tj");
for(n=0,j=10;n<j;n++,j--)
printf("\n%d\t%d",n,j);
The output of the above example is
n j
0 10
1 9
2 8
3 7

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4 6

Example 1: To calculate factorial of any number

/*Program to calculate factorial of given number*/
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,n;
long int fact=1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter n value: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
fact=fact*i;
printf("Factorial of %d is %ld",n,fact);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter n value: 8
Factorial of 8 is 40320

Example 2: Program to find number of even and odd numbers in the list
/*Program to find number of even and odd numbers in the list*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int i,n,num,ecount=0,ocount=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of values: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("Enter a value: ");
scanf("%d",&num);
if(num%2==0) ecount++;
else ocount++;
}
printf("Even count in the list of %d numbers is %d\n",n,ecount);
printf("Odd count in the list of %d numbers is %d\n",n,ocount);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter number of values: 10

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 Programming with C
Enter a value: 8
Enter a value: 6
Enter a value: 4
Enter a value: 12
Enter a value: 9
Enter a value: 2
Enter a value: 3
Enter a value: 1
Enter a value: 15
Enter a value: 98
Even count in the list of 10 numbers is 6
Odd count in the list of 10 numbers is 4

Example 3: Find out the sum of series 12 + 22 + …. + n2

/*Program to find the sum of series 12 + 22 + … + n2*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
main()
{
int n, sum=0, i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter n value: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
sum = sum + pow(i,2);
}
for(i=1;i<=n;i++) {
if(i!=n) printf("%d^2 + ",i);
else printf("%d^2 = %d",i,sum);
}
getch();
}
Output:
Enter n value: 10
1^2 + 2^2 + 3^2 + 4^2 + 5^2 + 6^2 + 7^2 + 8^2 + 9^2 + 10^2 = 385

Example 4: Find out the sum of series 1 + x2/2! - x3/3!+....

/*Program to print sum of series 1 + x2/2! - x3/3!+ ... */
#include<math.h>
main()
{
int n,i,k,j,x,sign=1;
int f;
char ch;

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 Programming with C
float sum=1;
clrscr();
printf("Enter number of terms: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter x value: ");
scanf("%d",&x);
k=1;
for(i=1;i<n;i++)
{
j=k;
f=1;
while(j>0) {
f = f*j;
j--;
}
sum=sum+sign*((float)(pow(x,i))/f);
k++;
sign=sign*(-1);
}
printf("\n1");
for(i=1;i<n;i++) {
if(i%2==0) ch='-';
else ch='+';
printf(" %c %d^%d/%d!",ch,x,i,i);
}
printf(" = %f",sum);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter number of terms: 5
Enter x value: 2

1 + 2^1/1! - 2^2/2! + 2^3/3! - 2^4/4! = 1.666667

break statement
This is used to terminate a loop. A loop can be terminated either when condition is false
or when you execute break statement. When you have to terminate loop based on some
other condition other than condition of the loop then you can use break statement.
Example 1: Program to implement break statement
/*Program to Implement break Statement*/
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i;

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 Programming with C
clrscr();
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
printf("\n%d", i);
if (i == 7)
break;
}
getch();
}
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Example 2: Program to display sum of 10 numbers or till 0 is given which comes first.
/*Program to display sum of given numbers*/
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int sum=0,n,c;
clrscr();
for(c=1;c<=10;c++)
{
printf("Enter a number (0 to stop): ");
scanf("%d",&n);
if(n==0)
break;
sum += n;
}
printf("Sum = %d",sum);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter a number (0 to stop): 5
Enter a number (0 to stop): 6
Enter a number (0 to stop): 4
Enter a number (0 to stop): 2
Enter a number (0 to stop): 8
Enter a number (0 to stop): 0
Sum = 25

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continue statement
This is used to transfer control to the beginning of the loop from within the loop. It is
used to skip the statements after continue statement and enter into next iteration of the
loop.
Example: Program to Implement continue Statement
/*Program finds square of positive numbers only*/
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int i, n, a, sq;
clrscr();
printf("\nHow many numbers you want to enter: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
for (i=1;i<=n; i++)
{
printf("\nEnter number: ");
scanf("%d", &a);
if(a<0)
continue;
sq = a * a;
printf("\nSquare = %d\n", sq);
}
getch();
}
Output:
How many numbers you want to enter: 3

Enter number: 2

Square = 4

Enter number: -1

Enter number: 6

Square = 36

Nested Loops
When a loop is placed inside another loop, it is called as nested loop. C allows nested
loops. The inner loop or nested loop is executed for each repetition of the outer loop.
Example 1: Display numbers in the following format.
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5

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 Programming with C - Lab
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for ( i = 1; i <= 5 ; i++)
{
printf("\n");
for ( j = 1 ; j <= 5 ; j ++)
printf("%5d", j);
}
getch();
}

Example 2: Display numbers in the following format.

1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for ( i = 1; i <= 5 ; i++)
{
for ( j = 1 ; j <= i ; j ++) {
printf("%5d", j);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Example 3: Display numbers in the following format.

1
2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5 5
#include<stdio.h>
main()

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 Programming with C - Lab
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for ( i = 1; i <= 5 ; i++)
{
for ( j = 1 ; j <= i ; j ++) {
printf("%5d", i);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Example 4: Display numbers in the following format.

1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4
5
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for ( i = 1; i <= 5 ; i++)
{
for ( j = 5 ; j >= i ; j--) {
printf("%5d", i);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Example 5: Display numbers in the following format.

5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2
5 4 3
5 4
5
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();

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 Programming with C - Lab
for ( i = 1; i <= 5 ; i++)
{
for ( j = 5 ; j >= i ; j--) {
printf("%5d", j);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Example 6: Display numbers in the following format.

5
4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for ( i = 5; i >= 1 ; i--)
{
for ( j = 5 ; j >= i ; j--) {
printf("%5d", i);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Example 7: Display numbers in the following format.

*
**
***
****
*****
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j,n;
clrscr();
n=5;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<=i;j++)
printf(" *");
printf("\n");

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 Programming with C - Lab
}
getch();
}

Example 8: Display Pascal’s Triangle.

Enter the number of rows: 6
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int i,j,k,r,x;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&r);
i=1;
for(k=0;k<r;k++)
{
for(j=30-3*k;j>0;j--)
printf(" ");
for(x=0;x<=k;x++)
{
if(x==0||k==0)
i=i;
else
i=(i*(k-x+1)/x);
printf("%6d",i);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Algorithms for Looping Statements

Algorithm to find reverse of a given number using While Loop.
Step 1: Begin
Step 2: Display "Enter a number: "
Step 3: Read n
Step 4: Initialize rev to 0
Step 5: While "n!=0", do

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 Programming with C - Lab
Step 5.1: rem = n%10
Step 5.2: rev = (rev*10) + rem
Step 5.3: n = n/10
Step 6: EndWhile;
Step 7: Print "Reverse Number: ", rev
Step 8: End

Algorithm to print the Fibonacci Series using Do..While Loop.

Step 1: Begin
Step 2: Display "Enter a number: "
Step 3: Read n
Step 4: Initialize n1 to 0 and n2 to 1
Step 5: Print n1,n2
Step 6: Do
Step 6.1: n3 = n1+n2
Step 6.2: Print n3
Step 6.3: Set n2 to n1
Step 6.4: Set n3 to n2
Step 6.5: Increment i
Step 7: While "i<=n" goto Step 6
Step 8: EndDo;
Step 9: End

Algorithm to check whether given number is prime number or not.

Step 1: Begin
Step 2: Display "Enter a number: "
Step 3: Read n
Step 4: Initialize c to 0
Step 5: For i = 1 to n, do
Step 5.1: If "n%i==0"
Step 5.1.1: Increment c by 1
Step 5.2: EndIf;
Step 5.3: Increment i by 1
Step 6: EndFor;
Step 7: If "c<=2"
Step 7.1: Display n " is prime number"
Step 8: Else
Step 8.1: Display n " is not prime number"
Step 9: EndIf;
Step 10: End.

S.E.REDDY Page 78