Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. In Chapter 5, we
saw that if y = f(x) = ax n , then dy = f 0(x) = anx n−1, dx and that for any constant c, if y = f(x) = ax n + c, then dy = f 0(x) = anx n−1. dx Since integration is the reverse process of differentiation, we seek to dy dy find y = f(x), given dx = f 0(x). That is; if dx = f 0(x) = kx n , then
kx n+1 y = f(x) = + c, n 6= −1 n+1 and c is called a constant of integration.
Example 9.1.1. Find y for each of the following:
dy 1. dx = 3x 4 dy 2. dx = 2x −5 dy = 6x + 2x −3 − 3x 2 1 3. dx
Solutions 1. dy = 3x 4 dx 3x 4+1 y= +c 4+1 3 = x 5 + c. 5
2. dy = 2x −5 dx 2x −5+1 y= +c −5 + 1 = − x −4 + c. 1 2
3. dy = 6x + 2x −3 − 3x 2 1
dx y = 3x 2 − x −2 − 2x 2 + c 3
9.2 Using the integral symbol
n x n dx and the formula we have been R The integral of x is denoted by using is: kx n+1 Z n kx dx = + c, n 6= −1. n+1 Example 9.2.1. Find: R 1 1. (x 2 + 2x 3 ) dx R −3 2. (x 2 + 2) dx
Solution
1. Z 1 2 3 1 (x 2 + 2x 3 ) dx = x 2 + x 4 + c. 3 2 2. Z −1 (x − 2 + 2) dx = −2x 3 2 + 2x + c.
9.2.2 Simplifying expression before integrating:
Here we will first simplify the expression into terms of the form x n , n ∈ R before integrating. Example 9.2.3. Find: R √ 1. ( x23 − 3 x) dx R 2. x(x 2 + x2 ) dx √ R 5+ x 3. ((2x ) + x 2 ) dx 2
Solution 1. √ Z Z (2x −3 − 3x 2 ) dx 2 1 ( 3 − 3 x) dx = x = −x −2 − 2x 2 + c 3
2. Z Z 2 x(x 2 + ) dx = (x 3 + 2) dx x 1 = x 4 + 2x + c. 4
3. HW The following are some standard integrals 1. Z sin x dx = − cos x + c
2. Z cos x dx = sin x + c 3. Z 1 dx = ln x + c x 4. Z ex dx = ex + c
5. ax Z x a dx = +c ln a
9.3 Finding the constant of integration
dy We know that if dx = f 0(x) = kx n , then
kx n+1 y = f(x) = + c, 6= −1. n+1 kx n+1 Given any point (x, y) where the curve y = n+1 + c passes through, we can find the actual value of c.
Example 9.3.1. The curve with equation y = f(x) passes through the point (4, 5). Given that x2 − 2 0 f (x) = √ , x find the equation of the curve.
9.3.2 Definite Integrals
We need to be able to integrate functions within defined limits. This is
called definite integration. We recall that Z 3 3x 4 dx = x 3 + c, 5 where c is an arbitrary constant. Let f(x) be continuous function between x = a and x = b and let F(x) be the integral of f(x). Then the definite integral between the limits x = a and x = b is Z b (f(x)) dx = [F(x)]ba = F(b) − F(a), a where b is the upper limit and a is the lower limit of integration.
Example 9.3.3. Evaluate the following:
1. Z 4 1 (2x − 3x 2 + 1) dx 1
2. Z 1 1 (x 2 − 1)2 dx 0
9.4 Area under a curve
You need to be able to find the area under a curve.
9.4.1 Area bounded by the x-axis and the curve above the x- axis
If you wish to find the area between a curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b, then Z b A= y dx. a
Example 9.4.2. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve with equation y = (4 − x)(x + 2) and the positive x- and y-axes.
9.4.3 Area bounded by the x-axis and the curve under the x- axis
If you wish to find the area between a curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b, then Z b A=− y dx. a
Example 9.4.4. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve with equation y = x(x − 3) and the x-axis. The following example shows that great care must be taken if you are trying to find an area which straddles the x-axis such as the shaded region below.
Example 9.4.5. Sketch the curve with equation y = x(x − 1)(x + 3) and find the area of the region bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
9.4.6 Area between a curve and a straight line
The figure below shows the graph of y1 = f(x) and y2 = g(x). The area between y1 and y2 is given by Z b A= (y1 − y2 ) dx. a
Example 9.4.7. Sketch the graph of the curve y = x(4 − x) and the line y = x. Hence find the area of the region bounded by the two functions.
9.5 Methods of integration
We now consider some methods of integrating functions which are
not given in standard form, such as the ones we have looked at so far. The idea is to standardize the integrand so that we are able to integrate using known/standard results. Some of the known/standard integrals can easily be found on a standard integral table; on the internet or in most of the advanced Mathematics books.
9.5.1 Substitution method
Suppose we wish to find
Z 2x(x 2 + 3)8 dx
or Z cos x dx. sin x First, we observe that the two functions being multiplied or divided are d d dx (sin x) = cos x, 2 related in some way. That is ; dx (x + 3) = 2x and and so we use substitution method. With this method, the substitution usually made is to let u be equal to f(x) such that f(u) du is a standard integral. It is known that integrals of the forms, Z k [f(x)]n f 0(x) dx
and f 0(x) Z k dx [f(x)]n where k and n are constants, can both be integrated by using substi- tuting u for f(x). The following example will help us appreciate this method.
Example 9.5.2. Integrate each of the following:
1. Z 2x(x 2 + 3)2 dx
2. Z 2x + 1 dx. 3x 2 + 3x + 1 3. Z 3x 2 ex dx. 3
4. Z cos x dx. sin x 5. Z ln x dx. x
9.5.3 Integration by parts
From the product rule of differentiation
d du dv (uv) = v +u , dx dx dx where both u and v are functions of x, we get dv d du u= (uv) − v . dx dx dx Integrating both sides with respect to x gives: Z Z u dv = uv − v du.
This is called integration by parts formula and provides a method of
integrating such products of simple functions as xex dx, t 3 sin t dt R R R x R e cos x dx and x 2 ln x dx. Given a product of two terms to integrate, the initial choice is: which part to make equal to u and which part to make equal to dv. The choice must be such that the ’u part’ becomes a constant after succes- sive differentiation, and the ’dv part ’ can be integrated from standard integrals. The following rule holds: If a product to be integrated contains an algebraic term (such as x, t 2 or 3θ), then this term is chosen as the ’u part’, except when ln x term is involved; in this case ln x is chosen as the ’u part’. We consider the example below.
Example 9.5.4. Determine
R 1. x cos x dx. R 2. 3te2t dt. R 3. x 2 sin x dx. R 4. x ln x dx.
9.5.5 Integration using partial fractions
The process of expressing a fraction in terms of simpler fractions
called partial fractions was introduced in chapter 5. The following list summarizes the forms of partial fractions used
Denominator containing Expression Form of partial fraction
f(x) A B C Linear factors + + (x + a)(x − b)(x + c) x + a x − b x + c f(x) A B C Repeated linear factors + + (x + a)3 x + a (x + a)2 (x + a)3 f(x) Ax + B C Quadratic factors + (ax 2 + bx + c)(x + d) (ax 2 + bx + c) x + d The general idea here is to split the given rational function into its partial fractions, which can now be integrated using the methods dealt with earlier. In particular, we will employ the method of substitution. To that effect, we have the following.
Example 9.5.6. Find
R 11−3x 1. x 2 +2x−3 dx. R 2x 2 −9x−35 2. (x+1)(x−2)(x+3) dx.
3. x −2x R 3 2 −4x−4 x 2 +x−2 dx. R 2x+3 4. (x−2)3 dx. R 2 −2x 3 5. 3+6x+4x x (x +3) 2 2 dx. NOTE: THESE LECTURE NOTES ON INTEGRAL CALCULUS ARE MEANT FOR MAT1110 (2020/2021) ACADEMIC YEAR ONLY.
