Principles of Soil Mechanics

THEME STATEMENT
Nearly every Civil Engineering structure like building,
bridge, highway, railway, tunnel, wall, retaining
structures, tower, canal, dam or embankment must
rest and be founded in or on the surface of the
earth.. As such, Civil Engineers must be concerned
earth
with the interaction of structure and soil underneath.
underneath.
That is, the strength, deformation (compressibility &
swelling) and permeability characteristics of
foundation soil
soil..
Needs Study of Soil Mechanics
5
 Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical
Engineering
Soil Mechanics is a subset of the broad subject
Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil

engineering that deals with the properties, behaviour
and use of earth materials and underground water in
engineering works

The earth materials referred to here include both soil

and rock . The term geotechnical is a derived from
Swedish word ‘Geotekniska’ meaning ‘we know it
today’. 6
Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical
Engineering Requires Geology
Integrated Knowledge
of Many Disciplines Material Science &
Testing
Geotechnical Mechanics
Engineering

Hydraulics

Environment Science
& Engineering
7
 Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical Engineering
1. Soil Mechanics
Aspects or Branches 2. Rock Mechanics
of Geotechnical
Engineering 3. Engineering Geology
Geotechnical 4. Soil Engineering
Engineering
5. Rock Engineering

Synonymous to 6. Foundation Engineering

Soil Mechanics
7. Geo-
Geo-environmental
Engineering
8
 Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical Engineering

1. Soil Mechanics
Mechanics:: that concerns with the Engineering
Mechanics and properties of soil. It applies the basic
principles of Mechanics of materials, Fluid mechanics
and Hydraulics to soils
soils..

2. Rock Mechanics:
Mechanics: that concerns with the engineering
mechanics and properties of rock. It also uses the
Definitions basic principles of Mechanics of Materials, Fluid
mechanics and Hydraulics to rocks
rocks, but not necessarily
bed rocks.
3. Engineering Geology:
Geology: that deals with the formations
and features of earth crust including earthquake that
concerns the design and performance of civil
engineering structures.
9
 4. Soil Engineering:
Engineering: that applies the knowledge of
Geology, Soil mechanics and Structural engineering
to the design and construction of foundations of any
Soil Mechanics engineering structures.
structures.
& Geotechnical
Engineering 5. Rock Engineering:
Engineering: that applies the knowledge of
Geology, Rock mechanics and Structural engineering
to the design and construction of foundations of any
engineering structures constructed on or with rocks.
rocks.
Definitions
6. Foundation engineering
engineering:: that covers a broader
area to include both Soil Engineering and Rock
Engineering..
Engineering

7. Geo
Geo--environmental Engineering
Engineering:: considers the
environmental effects like earthquake, rainfall, ground
water, gravitational movements, waste disposal,
chemical etc.
etc. on the properties of soil and rock
rock..

10
 Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical Engineering

Foundation of structures

Underground and earth

retaining structures
Scopes of
Geotechnical Embankment, dam, excavation,
and Hydraulic structures
Engineering
Pavement

Soil subsidence, Soil heave,

Frost action, Soil erosion,
Shrinkage and Swelling
11
 Pyramids of Egypt
(2630-2611 BC)
Historical Developments
evelopments Hanging gardens of Babylon
of Geotechnical (605-562 BC)
Engineering The great wall of China
(220 – 206 BC)
Prominent Ancient Civil The leaning tower of Pisa in Italy
Engineering Structures (1175 AD)
of Geotechnical
Importance Large public buildings, harbours,
aqueducts, bridges, roads and
sanitary works of Romans

Soil subsidence, Soil heave, Frost

action, Soil erosion, Shrinkage
and Swelling
12
 Soil Mechanics & Geotechnical Engineering

Historical Developments 1. Pre-

Pre-classical Soil
of Geotechnical Mechanics (1700 to 1776
AD)
Engineering
2. Classical Soil Mechanics-
Mechanics-
Phase I (1776 to 1856 AD)
History of Soil 3. Classical Soil Mechanics-
Mechanics (5 Major Phase II (1856 to 1910 AD)
Periods)
4. Modern Soil Mechanics
(1910 to 1927 AD)

5. Recent Soil Mechanics

(After 1927 AD)

13
 Henri Gautier (1660-1737), a
Frenchman studied the natural
Historical Developments slopes of soil when tipped to a
of Geotechnical heap
Engineering
Bernard Forest de Belidor (1671
(1671--
1761), a Frenchman, published a
textbook in 1729 for military and
1. Pre
Pre--classical Period civil engineers. He proposed a
of Soil Mechanics theory for lateral earth pressure
(1700--1776 AD)
(1700 on retaining wall

Francois Gadroy (1705

(1705--1759),
another Frenchman, observed the
existence of slip plane in the soil
at failure
14
 Wedge theory of earth pressure
published by a Frenchman, Coulomb
Historical Developments (1736--1806) in 1776, and his works
(1736
on shear strength parameters of soil
of Geotechnical and bearing capacity of foundation
Engineering soil

2. Classical Period of Soil

Mechanics: Phase I (1776 Extension of Coulomb’s theory by a
to 1856 AD) Frenchman Poncelet (1788
(1788--1867) in
1840, a German Culmann in 1866
and an Austrian Rebhann in 1871

Stoke’s (an Englishman) law of

Stoke’s
falling velocity of particles in a fluid
media, 1845

15
 Darcy’s (Frenchman) law of
Darcy’s
fluid flow through soil mass
Historical Developments in 1856
Rankine’s
Rankine ’s (1820-
(1820-1872), a
of Geotechnical Scottish, theory of earth
Engineering pressure in 1857

Pauker ’s (a Russian) bearing

Pauker’s
3. Classical Period of Soil capacity theory, 1859
Mechanics: Phase II (1856
to 1910 AD) Boussinesq’s (a Frenchman)
Boussinesq’s
theory of stress distribution,
1885

Mohr ’s (a German) work on

Mohr’s
graphical analysis of
stresses in 1887 and failure
hypothesis of real materials
in 1900
16
 Consistencies of soil and
their limits by Atterberg 1911
Development of
Double shear test in clay by
Geotechnical Frontard in 1914
Engineering
Bell’s bearing capacity theory,
Bell’s
1915
4. Modern Period of Soil Slip circle analysis of
Mechanics: (1910 to saturated slope by Fellinius in
1927 AD) 1918

Prandtl’s theory of bearing

Prandtl’s
capacity, 1920

Terzaghi’s theory of one-

Terzaghi’s one-
dimensional consolidation,
1925
17
 Terzaghi’s bearing capacity
Terzaghi’s
theory, 1943
Historical Developments Cassgrande’s works on
Cassgrande’s
of Geotechnical Atterberg limits, consolidation
Engineering of soil, seepage, soil
classification etc. 1932-
1932-1975
Compaction of soil by
Proctor Methods, 1933
5(a). Recent Soil
Stability analysis of slope
Mechanics by Fellenius, 1936; bearing
(After 927 AD) capacity theory, 1939
Taylor ’s theory on stability
Taylor’s
of earth slope, 1937;
consolidation curve
Newmark’s chart for
Newmark’s
computation of stresses in
elastic foundations, 1942
18
 Bearing capacity theory by
Historical Developments Meyerhof,, 1951
Meyerhof
of Geotechnical Skempton’s bearing capacity
Skempton’s
Engineering theory, 1951; Pore pressure
parameters, 1954
5(b). Recent Soil
Mechanics Dynamics of bases and
foundations by Barkan
Barkan,, 1962
(After 927 AD)
Stress path concept of Lambe
and Whitman,
Whitman, 1969

Vibrations of soils and

Terzaghi’s Significant foundations by Richart
Richart,, 1970
Contributions; Known as
Father of Soil Mechanics
19
Soil has been used by different professionals and
their definitions are different
Geotechnical
Geologist Agriculturist
Engineer

To a Geologist, Soil is considered to

all the materials To a agriculturist
soil is a thin layer of include all naturally
mantling the occurring loose or
earth crust are loose surface soft deposit overlying
unconsolidated materials of the solid bedrock.
bedrock. It is
sediments earth crust,
crust, which is formed by
overlying solid a portion of regolith disintegration of rocks
bed rocks called or engineering soil, and decomposition of
regolith. where plants grow. organic matter.

20
 Definitions of Soil

Soil Top soil

Regolith or Mantle
or soil Soil
Saprolite
Rock

Bed rock Bed rock

(a) Geologist (b) Agriculturist (c) Geotechnical

Geotechnical
Engineer

Definitions of Soil by Various Professionals

21
 Formation of Soil

Weathering of rocks and minerals at or near the

surface of earth by either physical disintegration or
chemical decomposition leads to the formation of soils
soils..
Soil is also formed due to decomposition of organic
matters..
matters

The earth’s crust consists of both rock and weathered rock

(as soil) up to an approximate depth of 20 km.km. A rock is
formed of mixture of several minerals
minerals.. Minerals have fixed
properties and are formed of several chemical elements

22
 Rock and Soil

Rock is considered as a natural aggregate of

mineral grains connected by strong and
permanent internal cohesive and molecular
forces..
forces

Soil is regarded as a natural aggregate of mineral

grains, with or without organic matter, that can be
separated by gentle mechanical means such as
agitation in water.
water.

23
 Minerals

Minerals, the building blocks of rocks,

are inorganic crystalline solids with a
specific internal structure and a definite
chemical composition (varies only within
a narrow range).

24
 Minerals
Minerals can be formed under a variety of conditions,
such as:
 During the cooling of molten materials (steel,
from lavas, igneous rocks).
 During the evaporation of liquids (salt, sugar,
reference to evaporites)
 The cooling of liquids (saturated solution)
 At high temperatures and pressures new
crystals may grow in solid materials (diamonds
from coal, metamorphism)

25
 Earth Mass: Consists of 3 Major Layers
Crust Mantle Core

Rock: 3 types of rock formed of several minerals

Igneous: Sedimentary: Metamorphic
95% of earth crust 80% of surface
in volume area

Minerals
More than 4000 Minerals Rock forming minerals = 8

Elements
Basic elements = 118 98% of earth crust is made of
8 elements

26
 Common Rock Forming Minerals (after Beavis, 1985)
Mineral Species Structural Composition
Group Class
Quartz Quartz Tektosilicate SiO2
Orthoclase (K, Na)AlSi3O8
Feldspar Tektosilicate
Plagioclase NaAlSi3O8 - CaAlSi2O8
Muscovite KAl2(AlSi3O10) - (OH)2
Mica Phyllosilicate
Biotite K2(MgFe)6(SiAl)8O20(OH)4
Amphibole Hornblende Inosilicate (NaCa)2(MgFeAl)5(SiAl)8O22
(OH)2
Pyroxene Augite Inosilicate Ca(MgFeAl)(AlSi)2O6
Olivine Olivine Neosilicate (MgFe)2SiO4
Kaolinite Al4Si4O10(OH)8
Clays Illite Phyllosilicate KAl2(AlSi3)O10(OH)2
Montmorillonite Al2Si4O10(OH)2nH2O
Calcite CaCo3
Carbonates --
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
27
Minerals and Rocks

28
Minerals and Rocks

29
Minerals and Rocks

30
Rock Cycle

1
Rock Cycle

2
 Types of Weathering

Weathering

Physical/Mechanical Biological
Chemical

Periodical Solution Plant Animal

Carbonation
temperature changes

Hydration Dehydration
Wedging action of ice

Oxidation Reduction
Spreading or splitting
action of plant roots
Leaching
Hydrolysis action
Abrasion action of
wind and water

3
 Factors Affecting Weathering
The types and intensity of weathering
processes, particularly physical and chemical,
depend on the climatic conditions of the area.

Climatic Conditions

Temperature Precipitation

4
 Accomplished by physical
Physical or forces that break rock
Mechanical into smaller and smaller
Weathering pieces without changing
the rock’s mineral
composition
Coarse Grained Soil
Involves breaking down
Weathering Chemical rock components and
Weathering internal structure and
forming new components

Fine Grained Soil Accomplished by the

action of plants and
Biological animals due to their
Weathering secretion of enzymes
(weak acids) for their
nutrients
Fine Grained Soil

5
 Coarse Grained Soil : Gravel and Sand
Fine Grained Soil: Silt and Clay
 Gravel : Pieces of rocks with occasional particles of
quartz, feldspar and other minerals.
 Sand : Mostly quartz and feldspar
 Silt (inorganic) : The coarser portion of the
microscopic soil fraction which possesses little or no
plasticity or cohesion, i.e., non-plastic (NP). The least
plastic variety consisting primarily of very fine
rounded quartz particles is called rock flour.
The most plastic variety containing an appreciable
amount flake-shaped particles is termed as plastic
silt.

6
 Silt (organic) : Contains organic matter which are shells
and partly decayed vegetable matter.
 Clay (inorganic) : Inorganic clay is predominantly an
aggregate of microscopic and sub-microscopic flake-
shaped crystalline minerals (Kaolinite, Illite and
montmorillonite). Clay is characterized by the typical
colloidal properties of plasticity, cohesion, and ability to
adsorb cations. These properties are exhibited over a
wide range of water content.
Clay minerals are a product of chemical weathering of
feldspar, ferromagnesians and micas which gives
plasticity property to soils.
 Clay (Organic) : Dark brown to dark black in colour and
contains significant amount of fibrous particles of
decayed vegetable matter. Water content of organic clay
is very high.
7
Physical Weathering:
Stress Relief

8
Physical Weathering : Temperature
Changes- Exfoliation

9
Physical Weathering:
Wedging Action of Ice

10
Physical Weathering:
Splitting of Roots

11
Physical Weathering:
Splitting of Roots

12
 Physical Weathering:
Abrasion of Wind and Water

13
 Physical Weathering:
Abrasion of Wind and Water

14
Chemical Weathering: Oxidation

16
Chemical Weathering: Hydration

17
Biological Weathering

18
Biological Weathering

19
 Soil Strata, Soil Horizon Soil Profile
 Soil formed due to the process of weathering
may either stay on the parent rock or deposit
to somewhere else by some transporting
agents like water, wind, glacier and
gravitational forces etc. In the former case it
is known as residual soil; whereas, the later
is transported soil.
 When vertical changes are caused in
transported soils, the resulting layers are
called strata; while in case of residual soil,
they are called horizons. The set of horizon,
from soil surface to the original or physically
unaltered parent rock, is known as the profile.
20
Soil Profile and Soil Horizon

21
Soil Profile and Soil Horizon

22
Soil Profile and Soil Horizon

23
 Soils of Bangladesh

Madhupur Tract
or Red Soil Tract

Barind Tract

Tista Silt
Seven Soil Brahmaputra
Tracts Alluvium
Gangetic Alluvium
Coastal Saline
Tract
Hill Tracts

24
 Soils of Bangladesh

1. Modhupur Tract
Dhaka, Mymensingh and some isolated
10,000 sq km areas in Chittagong, Comilla and Sylhet

2. Barind Tract
Rajshahi, Dinajpur and Bogra. This
13,000 sq km tract belongs to an old alluvial
formation

3. Tista Silt

16,000 sq km Rangpur, Dinajpur, Bogra and Pabna

25
 Soils of Bangladesh

4. Brahmaputra Alluvium
Comilla, Noakhali and Sylhet except the
40,000 sq km hilly areas of greater Mymensingh, Dhaka
and Chittagong.

5. Gangetic Alluvium
Jessore and Kushtia and some parts of
27,000 sq km Rajshahi, Pabna, Faridpur, Khulna,
Barisal and Dhaka.

6. Coastal Saline Tract

Barisal, Patuakhali, Khulna, Noakhali
20,000 sq km and Chittagong

26
 Soils of Bangladesh

7. Hill Tract

Chittagong Hill Tracts and the Garo

15,000 sq km Hills of the former greater Mymensingh
district

27
 Soils of Bangladesh

Hill Soils

Raised Alluvial
Terrace Deposit
Alluvial Flood
Plain Deposit
Six Types
of Deposits Himalayan
Piedmont Deposit
Estuarine and
Tidal Flood Plain
Deposit
Depression
Deposit

28
 Soils of Bangladesh

Distribution of soils in Bangladesh

is complex and are usually
heterogeneous both in vertical and
horizontal direction. Soils consist of
wide varieties of material ranging
from gravel, poorly graded sand,
silt and clay. In general there is a
predominance of silt size materials.
29
 Classification based on
Origin/Deposition

Main Soil Type/ Classification based on

Classification Grain Size
Schemes
Classification based on
Cohesive Properties

Classification based on
Use

1
 Soil Deposit
OC:  5%; Inorganic soil

OC: 6 – 20%
Organic Organic silt or Organic clay
Soil
Deposit OC: 21 – 74%
Silty or Clayey Organic soil
Soil OC:  74%; Peat Soil
Deposit -- Composed primarily of vegetable
tissue in various stages of
decomposition
Inorganic -- Has a fibrous to amorphous texture
or Mineral
Soil Deposit -- High natural moisture content (up
to 1500%)
-- High compressibility
-- Low strength in natural conditions
2
Organic Soil
Deposit

3
 Inorganic or Mineral Soil Deposits

Laterite

Residual Soil Lateritic

Black Cotton
Inorganic
Soil
Deposit Water Transported

Transported Glacier Transported

sported
Soil
Wind Transported

Gravity Transported

4
 Inorganic or Mineral Soil Deposits

Lateritic: Yellowish or Reddish; Fine

grained. Produced due to laterization of
weathered igneous rocks.

Laterite: More than 90% Coarse grained.

Residual
Soil Black Cotton:: Black, Swelling
Properties; Rich in montmorillonite
clay mineral; Low bearing capacity, i.e.,
poor foundation material. Available
mainly in the states of Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh, Gujarat
and Karnataka of India.

5
Residual Soil Deposits

6
Transported Soil Deposits

7
Water Transported Soil Deposits
Alluvial Soil
• Deposited in running water; River Bed Soil
• Sorted material
Lacustrine Soil
• Deposited in quiet water; Lake deposit

• Thin alternate layers of coarse (silt) and fine

soils (clay)
Marine Soil
• Deposited in saline water (sea water)
• Fine grained (basically clays)
Marl
• Calcium carbonate or lime rich soil
• Also known as Mudstone or Marlstone
8
Alluvial Soil Deposits

9
Lacustrine Soil Deposits

10
Marine Soil Deposits

11
Marl Soil Deposits

12
 Glacier Transported Soil Deposits

Glacial Drift: General term for all glacier

deposits. Sorted or Unsorted
ted
Glacial Till
• Heterogeneous combination of unstratified
sediments ranging in size from large
boulders to particles of clay
Boulder Clay
• Glacial till is sometimes called boulder clay
because it is composed of clay, boulders of
intermediate size, or both

Moraine or Till Plain

• Land form or topographic surface after the
recession of the glacier.
13
 Glacier Transported Soil Deposits

Glacial Drift: General term for all glacier

deposit. Sorted or Unsorted
Eskers
Soil deposit due to surface or subsurface
glacial rivers. Usually remain in the form of
long winding ridges

Erratics
Deposits of large size particles (boulders)
picked up by glaciers to new locations.

Drumlin
Asymmetrical, canoe shaped hills with
aerodynamic profiles made mainly of till.
Height : 15-50 m, Length of up to 1 km.
14
 Glacial Drift: Unsorted Materials
(Glacial Till)
Glacial Drift is
the general
term for all
glacier
deposits, both
sorted and
unsorted.

Unsorted
materials
known as
Glacial Till

15
 Glacial Drift: Sorted Materials
(Stratified)

Sorted
materials
are
Stratified

16
 Glacial Deposit: Boulder Clay

Glacial till
composed of
clay, boulders
of intermediate
size, or both is
called boulder
clay

17
 Glacial Deposit: Lateral Moraine

Formation of
irregular hills
or mounds is
called Moraine

18
 Glacial Deposit: Eskers

Glacial
deposit in
the form of
long winding
ridges is
called Eskers

19
 Glacial Deposit: Erratics

Erratics are
deposits of
large size
particles
picked up by
glacier to a
new location

20
 Glacial Deposit: Drumlins

Drumlins are
asymmetrical,
canoe shaped
hills with
aerodynamic
profiles made
mainly of till

21
 Wind Transported Soil Deposits

Common Name: Aeolian Soil.

Characterized by smaller size soil
particles.
Dunes
Formed due to accumulation of sand
particles carried and deposited by wind
d
Loess
Wind blown finer particles (silt)
deposited with some clay and cementing
materials. Also known as Collapsible Soil
oil
Tuff
Wind blown volcanic ashes
22
 Wind Transported Soil: Dunes

Formed
due to
accumulation
of sand
particles
carried and
deposited by
wind. Dunes
are a common
occurrence in
the desert
areas.

23
 Wind Transported Soil: Loess
Wind blown
finer particles
(silt) deposited
with some clay
and cementing
materials. Loess
deposits have
low density,
high
compressibility
and poor
bearing capacity

24
 Wind Transported Soil: Tuff

Tuff is wind
blown
volcanic
ashes.
Sometimes
called Tufa.

25
 Gravity Transported Soil Deposits

Common Name: Colluvial Soil or Talus. It includes

materials at the base of cliff and landslide deposits.

Usually silt
size particles.
Colluvial
deposits are
generally
loose and
porous.

26
 Types of Soils Based on Particle Size

Various
Gravel size Classification
Agencies
 ASTM
Sand size
 AASHTO
Soil
 USCS
Silt size
 MIT/ BSI
Clay size  USDA

1
 Various Classification Agencies

 ASTM : American Society for Testing and Materials

 AASHTO : American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
 USCS : Unified Soil Classification System
 MIT: Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 BSI : British Standards Institution
 USDA : United States Department of Agriculture

2
Types of Soil Based on Particle Size

3
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Classification

 Gravel : > 2.0 mm

 Sand : 0.05 mm to 2.0 mm
 Silt : 0.002 mm to 0.05 mm
 Clay: < 0.002 mm

4
Set of Sieves

5
 Sieve Designation : Smaller Sieves
 Smaller sieves are numbered according to the
number of openings per inch.
 No. 4 sieve has 4 openings per linear inch; So,
there are 16 openings per square inch area of
the sieve.
 No. 10 Sieve has 10 openings per linear inch;
So, there are 100 openings per square inch area
of the sieve.
 Clear opening of No. 4 sieve is 4.75 mm
 Clear opening of No. 10 sieve is 2.0 mm
 Clear opening of No. 200 sieve is 0.075 mm
6
 Sieve Designation : Larger Sieves

Sieves larger
than the No. 4
are designated
by the size of the
actual openings
in the sieve.

Clear opening of
¾ inch sieve is
19 mm.

7
 U.S. Standard Sieve Sizes
______________________
Sieve No. Opening (mm)
__________________________
4 4.75
8 2.36
10 2.00
16 1.18
20 0.850
30 0.600
40 0.425
50 0.300
100 0.150
200 0.075 8
_________________________
 Types of Soil Based on Particle Size
Name Size Limits Familiar Example
(in)/ sieve (mm)
Boulder > 12 > 300 Larger than a Basketball
Cobbles 12 – 3 300 – 75 Grapefruit
Coarse gravel 3–¾ 75 – 19 or Lemon

Fine gravel ¾ –# 4 19 – 4.75 Grape or Pea

Coarse sand #4–#10 4.75 – 2.00 Rocksalt
Medium sand #10 – #40 2.00 – 0.425 Sugar or Table Salt
Fine sand* #40 – #200 0.425 – 0.075 Powdered Sugar
Fines < #200 < 0.075 –
* Particles finer than fine sand cannot be recoznized with the naked eye at a distance
of 8 inch (20 cm).

9
 Field Identification of Soil
ASTM D2488 : Description and Identification of
Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure)

Field Identification Tests

Colour
Highly organic soils have dark brown to black colour.
Inorganic soil is usually grey colour.

Odour of Smell
Bad smell or odour of organic soil.

Appearance
Coarse grained soil particles are large enough to be
visible to the naked eye.

Feel
May be tested for feel by placing it in between the
teeth. Gritty feeling for sandy soil..
10
 Field Identification of Soil

Field Identification Tests

Dry Strength
The reaction of this test may be described as
none, very low, low, medium, high and very high.
Plasticity or Toughness
The conditions may be described as weak and
friable, medium and tough.
Dilatancy or Shaking
The reaction is rapid, slow or none.

Dispersion
Sands settle in 30-60 sec., materials of silt size
settle in 15-60 min, clay settle in  60 min.
11
 Dry Strength Test
In dry strength test, a small briquette of the soil is
moulded and allowed to dry in the air. It is then
broken and a fragment of approximately 3 mm in size
is pressed between thumb and fore finger.

The effort required to break the fragment estimates

the strength of the soil. The reaction of this test may
be described as none, very low, low, medium, high
and very high.

A clay fragment can be broken only with great effort;

silt on the other hand requires very small or low
effort. The other reactions are used to describe the
proportion of silt and clay present in the soil mass.
12
 Plasticity or Toughness Test
Plasticity is the characteristics of clay soilssoils.. This property is
activated in soil in presence of a certain quantity of water, due to
which soil can be deformed and remoulded without
disintegration..
disintegration
If a sample of moist soil can be manipulated between the palms of
the hands and fingers and rolled out into a long thread,
undoubtedly it contains a significant amount of clay. clay. As moisture
is lost during continued manipulation, the soil approaches a non- non-
plastic (NP) condition and becomes crumbly
crumbly..
Just before the crumbly state is reached, highly plastic clay can be
rolled into a long thread, with a diameter of approximately 3 mm,
which has sufficient strength to support its own weight weight.. A silt, on
the other hand, can seldom be rolled into a thread with a diameter
as small as 3 mm without severe cracking, and is completely
lacking in tensile strength unless small amount of clay are present
present..
This test measures the toughness or the consistency of the soil
near the crumbling stage (plastic limit).limit). The conditions may be
described as weak and friable, medium and tough
tough.. 13
 Dilatancy or Shaking Test
Dilatancy or shaking test may also be used to
differentiate between silt and clay
clay..
In dilatancy test, a small amount of soil is mixed with
water to a very soft consistency in the palm of the
hand.. The back of the hand is then slightly tapped.
hand tapped. If
the soil is silty water rises quickly to its surface and
gives it a shiny or glistering appearance
appearance.. Then if the
soil pat is deformed, either by squeezing or by
stretching, the water flows back into it and leaves the
surface with a dull appearance
appearance..
Usually, the greater is the proportion of clay in the
sample the slower the reaction to the test.
test. The reaction is
described as rapid, slow or none
none..
14
 Dispersion Test

Dispersion test is useful for distinguishing between

silt and clay, and for making a rough estimate of the
relative amounts of sand, silt and clay in a material
material..
In dispersion test, a small quantity of soil is dispersed
with water in a glass cylinder or test tube and then
allowed to settle.
settle.
The coarser particle fall out first and the finest
particles remain in suspension the longest.
longest. Generally,
sands settle in 30 to 60 sec.
sec., materials of silt size settle
in 15 to 60 min min.. Whereas clay size remain in
suspension for at least several hours and usually for
several days unless the particles of clay combine in groups
or flocs
flocs..
15
Identification of Fine Grained Soil Fractions from Manual Tests

Soil Type Dry Strength Dilatancy Plasticity Dispersion

Sandy None to very Weak to
Rapid 30 sec to 60 min
Silt low friable
Weak to
Silt Very low to low Rapid 15 min to 60 min
friable
Clayey Rapid to 15 min to several
Low to medium Medium
silt slow hours
Sandy Slow to 30 sec to several
Low to high Medium
clay none hours
Slow to 15 min to several
Silty clay Medium to high Medium
none hours
High to very Several hours to
Clay None Tough
high days
Organic Weak to 15 min to several
Low to medium Slow
silt friable hours
Organic Medium to very Several hours to
None Tough
clay high days

16
Classification Based on Cohesive Properties

Soil
Cohesionless soil: Gravel, Sand,
Non-plastic silt.
Cohesionless means the soil has no shear
strength if no frictional properties.

Cohesive soil: Clay, Plastic silt.

Cohesive soil contains clay minerals and
possesses plasticity.

17
 Soil Structure and Fabric

Soil structure may be defined as the geometric and

skeletal arrangement of the particles and inter-particle
forces that may act on them. Soil structure includes
gradation, arrangement of particles, void ratio,
bonding agents, and associated electrical forces.

Soil fabric is a term used to describe the structure of

clays and denotes the geometric arrangement of the
mineral particles in a clay mass as observed by optical
and electron microscope. The geometric arrangement
includes particle spacing and pore size distribution.
18
 Fabric of Soil

The term fabric is used to define the

arrangement of the particles

Micro-fabric
The term micro fabric refers to those
particle arrangements that require
an optical microscope for their study.
Macro-fabric
Macro fabric refers to features such
as stratification, fissures and voids
that can be observed by naked eye.
19
 Primary Structure and Secondary Structure

Primary structure of Various discontinuities may

soil refers to the develop subsequent to
arrangement of grains deposition or formation of
and this arrangement is soil. These discontinuities
generally developed constitute the secondary
during the process of structure of soil deposit.
sedimentation or They correspond to systems
weathering of rock. of joints in sedimentary
rocks.

20
 Primary Structure of Soil

• Single grain structure

• Honeycomb structure
• Flocculated structure
• Dispersed structure
• Domains; Clusters; Packets or Peds

21
 Primary Soil Structure: Cohesionless Soil

Single Grain (Loose) Single Grain (Dense)

(a)

Honeycomb
(b)
22
 Single Grained Structure
Single grained structure is primary structure of a
coarse grained soil. In single grained structure, each
particle touches several of its surrounding ones in
such a way that the soil particles are in stable
positions even if there are no forces of adhesion at
the point of contact between the grains.
The arrangement may be very loose (void ratio, e =
0.91) or very dense (e = 0.35). The properties of the
aggregate of particles are markedly influenced by
the state of compactness (i.e., looseness or
denseness).
The dense configuration occurs in deposits built in
active water environment. Loose deposits are typically
formed in quiet water.

23
 Honeycomb Structure
Very fine sand and silt may develop honeycomb
configuration of very open structure.
If the gravitational forces during deposition of these
materials are not sufficient to overcome inter particle
attractive forces honeycomb structure results. The term
metastable is sometimes used to describe this condition
because of its inherent sensitivity to even the most minor
disturbance. Soil deposits of this nature often appear to be
firm and strong but become wet and unworkable as the
excavation process breaks down the primary structure.
Soils exhibiting honeycomb structure have large void ratios,
and they can resist ordinary static load. However, under a
heavy load or when
hen subjected to shock loading (earthquake),
the structure breaks down which results in a large amount of
settlement..
settlement
24
Soil Structure: Cohesive Soil

(a) Dispersed

(b) Flocculated

(c) Packet or Ped

25
 Dispersed Structure and Flocculated Structure
In dispersed structure, the In flocculated structure, the
edges, corners and faces of the edge or corner of one clay
clay platelets have like platelet tends to be attracted to
electrostatic surface charges. So, the flat face of another. The
the particles repel one another particles develop a loose (high
and occupy nearly parallel void ratio) but fairly stable
positions. Clay soil particles structure that can be
deposited as sediment in fresh maintained as long as the
water constitute dispersed electrical charges on the edges
structure. Even though the of the platelets remain
dispersed structure may be opposite in sign as those on the
quite loose at the time of faces. The degree of looseness
sedimentation, pressure can depends on the nature and
force adjacent platelets into a amount of electrolytes present
dense state more readily than if during sedimentation. Clay
they possessed flocculated deposits formed in the sea
structure. have flocculated structure.

26
 Domains, Clusters, Packets or Peds
 Domains:
Domains: Aggregated or flocculated
submicroscopic units of clay particles
particles..
 Clusters
Clusters:: Domains group to form clusters.
clusters.
Domains can be seen under light
microscope..
microscope
 Peds
Peds:: Clusters group to form peds
peds.. Peds
can be seen without microscope.
microscope. Peds may
exist in randomly arranged configuration.
configuration.
Packets or peds are made up of highly
oriented individual particles.
particles.
27
 Secondary Structures : Cracks, Joints,
Slickenslides and Concretions
Cracks and joints are formed as a result of
desiccation sometime after the deposition of the
material..
material
Slickenslides are polished surfaces in stiff clays that
have experienced differential movement or
expansion..
expansion
Concretions are accumulations of carbonates or iron
compounds..
compounds
 All these features disrupt the continuity of the soil
mass and may impart to it properties significantly
different from those of intact samples taken from the
deposit..
deposit
28
 Particle Shape of Soil

The particle shape can generally be divided

into three major categories:
Bulky
Bulky particles are mostly formed by mechanical
weathering. The shapes of the particles are
angular, subangular, subrounded and rounded..

Flaky
Flaky particles have very low sphericity, usually
0.01 or less. These particles are predominantly
clay minerals.
Needle Shape
Needle shaped particles are much less common.
Coral deposits and attapulgate clays are the
examples of needle shaped particles.
29
 Particle Shape of Soil

The coarse grained soil is usually bulky

and in shape its behaviour is greatly
influenced by the shape of the particles.

30
 Angularity of Bulky Particles

Angular: Particles have sharp edges and

Angular:
relatively plane sides with unpolished
surfaces..
surfaces
Subangular:: Paricles are similar to angular
Subangular
description but have rounded edges
edges..
Subrounded:: Particles have nearly plane
Subrounded
sides but have well
well--rounded corners and
edges..
edges
Rounded:: Particles have smoothly curved
Rounded
sides and no edges.
edges.
31
Shape of Gravels, Cobbles and Boulders

L = Length; W = Width; T = Thickness

Flat Particles : W/T > 3
Elongated Particles : L/W > 3
Flat and Elongated Particles : W/T > 3 and L/W > 3
32
 Particle Shape of Soil

The angularity of a bulky particle, A is defined as:

Average radius of corners and edges
A
Radius of the max imum inscribed sphere

33
 Particle Shape

The roundness or sphericity of a particle is defined

as the ratio of minimum radius of the particle edges
to the inscribed radius of the entire particle:

6V
Equivalent diameter of the particle, De  3

V = Volume of the particle

34
 Engineering Classification of Soil

Two most common classification systems are:

• Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) : ASTM D2487; Used
for general engineering purposes.
• AASHTO Soil Classification System: Developed by AASHTO and
often used for classifying soils used in highway, and airport
pavement (runway and taxiway design.
Uses the results of some basic tests of soil materials. These
tests are known as the classification tests. The numerical results
of these tests are often termed as index properties of soil.

Two most common classification tests are:

• Grain Size Analysis for Coarse Grained Soil
• Consistency Tests for Fine Grained Soil
1
Classification Tests : Coarse Grained Soil

Grain Size Analysis

Sieve Analysis: A set Sedimentation Analysis

of sieves is used

Hydrometer Analysis:
Pipette Analysis :
A hydrometer is used
A pipette is used

2
Sieve Analysis: Set of Sieves

3
Sieve Analysis: Set of Sieves

4
 Example : Sieve Analysis
Total Weight of Oven-
Oven-dry Sand = 100 gm

Weight of
Sieve No. Sieve soil Percent Cumulative Percent
opening retained soil percent finer
(mm) (gm) retained retained

4 4.750 0.6 0.6 0.6 99.4

8 2.360 1.5 1.5 2.1 97.9
16 1.180 4.3 4.3 6.4 93.6
30 0.600 8.4 8.4 14.8 85.2
40 0.425 13.0 13.0 27.8 72.2
50 0.300 30.4 30.4 58.2 41.8
100 0.150 26.8 26.8 85.0 15.0
200 0.075 7.7 7.7 92.7 7.3
Pan - 7.3 7.3
5
Semi--Log Graph Paper for Plotting Grain Size Distribution Curve
Semi

6
 Grain Size Distribution C
Curve
urve
The results of mechanical analysis (sieve and hydrometer analysis) are
generally presented by semi logarithmic plot (Percent Finer by weight
versus Particle Size in mm) known as GRAIN or PARTICLE SIZE
DISTRIBUTION CURVE OR GRADATION CURVECURVE..

7
 Grain Size Distribution Curve
100
% Finer No. 200 Sieve (0.075 mm) = 7.3
D50 = 0.33 mm; D10 = 0.096 mm
D30 = 0.22 mm; D60 = 0.37 mm
Percent Finer by Weight (%)

80 Fineness Modulus (F.M.) = 1.67

60

40

20

0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Particle Size (mm)
8
 Grain Size Distribution Curve
100

90

80
Percent finer by Weight

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.01 0.10 1.00
Particle Size, mm

D60 = 0.37 mm D50 = 0.33 mm D30 = 0.22 mm D10 = 0.096

9
 Example: Sieve Analysis
Analysis
Total Weight of Oven-
Oven-dry Sand = 500 gm

Sieve No Sieve Wt. of soil Percent Cumulative Percent

opening retained soil percent finer
(mm) (gm) retained retained
¼” 6.35 0 0 0 100.0
No. 4 4.750 12 2.4 2.4 97.6

No. 8 2.360 60 12.0 14.4 85.6

No. 10 2.000 12 2.4 16.8 83.2

No. 16 1.180 70.5 14.1 30.9 69.1
No. 20 0.850 40 8.0 38.9 61.1
No. 30 0.600 59.5 11.9 50.8 49.2

No. 40 0.425 55 11.0 61.8 38.2

No. 50 0.300
63 12.6 74.4 25.6
No. 100 0.150
65 13.0 87.4 12.6

No. 200 0.075 39 7.8 95.2 4.8

Pan - 24
10
 Grain Size Distribution Curve
Curve
100
% Finer No. 200 Sieve (0.075 mm) = 4.8
D50 = 0.61 mm; D10 = 0.12 mm
D30 = 0.34 mm; D60 = 0.82 mm
Percent Finer by Weight (%)

80 Fineness Modulus (F.M.) = 2.60

60

40

20

0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Particle Size (mm) 11
Grain Size Distribution Parameters for Coarse Grained Soils
Effective Size:
Size: Grain size corresponding to 10 percent finer by
weight that is 10 percent of the materials are smaller than
effective size.
size. Effective size is denoted by D10
10..
Median Grain Size:
Size: Grain size corresponding to 50 percent
finer by weight that is 50 percent of the materials are smaller
than median grain size
size.. Median grain size is denoted by D50
50..
Uniformity Coefficient, Cu : The spread of the grain size
distribution curve is expressed by this parameter as :
D
Cu  60
D10
Where, D60 and D10 are the diameters corresponding to 60
percent finer and 10 percent finer, respectively.
Coefficient of curvature, Cz : The spread of the grain size
distribution curve is expressed by this parameter as :

CZ 
D30 2
D60  D10
12
 Criteria for Well Graded and
Poorly Graded Sands and Gravels

Cu 
D60
CZ 
D30  2

D10 D60  D10

For Well Graded Sand For Well Graded Gravel

Cu ≥ 6; 1≤ Cz ≤ 3 Cu ≥ 4; 1≤ Cz ≤ 3

For Poorly Graded Sand For Poorly Graded Gravel

Cu < 6 and/or 1> Cz > 3 Cu < 4 and/or 1> Cz > 3

13
 Problems on Sieve Analysis
Sieve Weight of
No. Sieve Soil
Opening Retained
(mm) (gm)
4 4.750 0.00
8 2.360 6.8
16 1.180 28.9
30 0.600 30.0
50 0.300 21.4
100 0.150 10.3
200 0.075 1.2
Pan - 1.4

1. From the above grain size analysis data of a sandy soil, draw the grain size
distribution curve. Also comment on the gradation of the soil.
2. From the data of a grain size analysis of a sandy soil, grain size distribution curve
was drawn and the following results were obtained:
D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.20 mm and D60 = 0.40 mm.
Comment on the gradation of the soil.
Answer: Cu = 6.67; Cz = 1.67; Well graded sandy soil. 14
 Problem on Sieve Analysis
Analysis

Sieve No. Sieve Weight of Soil

Opening Retained
(mm) (gm)

¼” 6.35 0
4 4.750 12
8 2.360 75
16 1.180 82
30 0.600 88
50 0.300 118
100 0.150 65
200 0.075 32
Pan - 28

From the above grain size analysis data of a sandy soil, draw the grain
size distribution curve. Also comment on the gradation of the soil.
15
 Shapes of the Grain Size Distribution Curves
A soil composed of mainly of one size particles
is called uniformly graded soil. The curve lies
within a narrow range
When a grain size distribution curve is spread
over a wide range, it means to contain all sizes
of the grains in the sample. Usually the curve of
this type of soil is ‘S’ shaped and the soil is
termed as well graded.
The third type of soil is a mixture of only large
and small size particles with some of the
intermediate sizes missing and the soil is
termed as gap graded.
 Uniformly graded and gap graded soils are
termed as poorly graded soils.
16
 Uniformly Graded
( )

(PoorlyGraded)

Typical Grain Size Distribution Curves:

(I) Uniformly Graded (II) Well Graded;
Graded; (III) Gap Graded 17
 Uniformly Graded

(PoorlyGraded)

Typical Grain Size Distribution Curves:

Curves:
(I) Uniformly Graded (II) Well Graded (III) Gap Graded
18
 (a)

(b)

(c)

Illustration of Particle Size in Different Grading of Soils (a) Uniformly Graded

(b) Well Graded (c) Gap Graded (after Schroeder and Dickenson, 1996)
19
Hydrometer (Wet Analysis) Analysis [Based on Stoke’s law]
Centre of gravity (c.g.) of the
bulb of the hydrometer is
assume to be located at the
mid-height of the bulb.

Stem

Bulb

Ballast

20
 Stoke’s Law
Stoke’s Law states that the velocities of free fall of spherical and fine particles
settling in an infinite liquid medium are different for different sizes. If a
spherical particle is allowed to fall freely in an infinite liquid (water)
medium, its velocity first increases rapidly under the action of gravity, but
within a short time attains a constant velocity known as terminal velocity.

Assumptions in Stoke’s Law

Spherical particles (settling particles are spherical in shape)
Sedimentation takes place in an infinite medium and there is no
interference of particles by other particles or by the walls of the
container..
container
Particles have same specific gravity.
gravity.
 Fine grained soils has a tendency to form flocs
flocs.. If this is unchecked, the
size measured is that of the flocs rather than individual soil particles.
particles.
However, this is overcome by adding a required amount of suitable
deflocculating agent.
agent. A deflocculating agent can either act as a
protective colloid on the soil particle or alter the electrical charge on
the particle to prevent the formation of soil flocs.
flocs.
21
 Hydrometer Analysis
Analysis
Hydrometer test : used for smaller particles (< 0.075 mm)

Schematic Diagram of Hydrometer Test

Time Increasing

22
 Hydrometer Analysis - Pro
Procedure
cedure

Weight of oven-dry soil = 50 gm (finer than 0.075 mm)

Volume of suspension (soil-water mix) = 1000 cc 23
Hydrometer Analysis - Procedure

24
Hydrometer Analysis

Time Increasing 25
 Hydrometer Analysis
Analysis

With the increase of elapsed

time, density of soil-water
suspension decreases and as
such hydrometer will
immerse more into the
suspension. So, hydrometer
reading will decrease with the
increase of elapsed time.

Hydrometer 151H directly

measures the specific gravity
of soil-water suspension

Hydrometer 152H reads the

amount of suspension (soil)
[0-60 gm] in 1000 ml of soil-
water mixture with Gs = 2.65
and Gw = 1.00.

Time from start of test

Time Increasing
26
 Corrections Applied to Hydrometer Readings
Miniscus Correction (Cm) : The hydrometer reading is to be taken corresponding
to lower miniscus. Since the suspensionis opaque, readings are taken
corresponding to the upper miniscus. Since, hydrometer is graduated in
ascending order, the observed reading is less than correct reading. So, the error
is negative and the correction is positive. Cm = 0.5 to 1.0
Zero or Deflocculating Agent Correction Hydrometer (CD) : Deflocculating agent
(sodium hexametaphosphate or sodium silicate or water glass) is added to the
suspension to prevent the formation of soil flocs. But, deflocculating agent
increases the density of the suspension and the hydrometer immerses less than
actual. Hence, the observed reading is more than actual correct reading. So, the
error is positive and the correction is negative. CD = 2.5 to 4.0 (depending on
temperature)
Temperature Correction (CT) : Hydrometers are usually calibrated at a
temperature of 20oC of the suspension. At temperatures greater than 20o C,
density of suspension deceases and the hydrometer immerses more than actual.
Hence, the observed reading is less than actual correct reading. So, the error is
negative and the correction is positive. At temperatures less than 20oC, density of
suspension increases and the hydrometer immerses less than actual. Hence, the
observed reading is more than actual correct reading. So, the error is positive
and the correction is negative.
27
 Corrected Hydrometer Reading (Rc) will be as follows:
Rc = Robserved (not corrected for miniscus) − CD ± CT
Immersion Correction
On immersion of hydrometer in the suspension, the top level of the
suspension is raised by VH/Aj (VH = Volume of hydrometer, Aj = cross-
sectional area of the jar) because the entire volume of the hydrometer is
below this level and the volume of suspension displaced is VH. But the
centre of volume of the bulb of the hydrometer is raised by VH/(2Aj) as
only half of the volume of the hydrometer is below the c.g. of the bulb of
the hydrometer (Volume of hydrometer below the c.g. of the bulb is half of
its total volume).
Immersion Correction = VH/(2Aj)
Effective depth, L or Zr = L1 + ½ L2 [without immersion correction]
Effective depth, L or Zr = L1 + ½ L2 − VH/(2Aj) [with immersion correction]
For 152H hydrometer, , L or Zr = 16.29 – 0.1641R (considering
immersion correction and without miniscus correction)
R = Hydrometer reading corrected for miniscus only
= Observed hydrometer reading + miniscus correction
28
Calibration Curve for 151H
151H Hydrometer

29
 Temperature Correction
Correction
Temp. (oC) CT
16 -0.90
17 -0.70
18 -0.50
19 -0.30
20 0.00
21 +0.20
22 +0.40
23 +0.70
25 +1.00
26 +1.65
27 +2.00
28 +2.50
29 +3.05
30 +3.80
30
Hydrometer Analysis

31
32
Percent Finer for 151H Hydrometer

33
Percent Finer for 152H Hydrometer

34
Problem
151H Hydrometer

35
Problem
152H Hydrometer

36
 Grain Size Distribution Curve
Curve
100

80
Percent Finer by Weight (%)

60

40
Gs = 2.74

% Finer No. 200 Sieve (0.075 mm) = 99.1

Size Fractions:
20
Sand (0.075 mm to 4.75 mm) = 0.9 %
Silt (0.005 mm to 0.075 mm) = 64.0 %
Clay (smaller than 0.005 mm) = 35.1 %
Colloids (smaller than 0.001 mm) = 17.4 %
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 1E-3 1E-4
Particle Size (mm) 37
 Grain Size Distribution Curve
Curve
100

80
Percent Finer by Weight (%)

60

40
Gs = 2.74

% Finer No. 200 Sieve (0.075 mm) = 93.9

Size Fractions:
20
Sand (0.075 mm to 4.75 mm) = 6.1 %
Silt (0.005 mm to 0.075 mm) = 76.8 %
Clay (smaller than 0.005 mm) = 17.1 %
Colloids (smaller than 0.001 mm) = 9.7 %
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 1E-3 1E-4
Particle Size (mm)
38